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iQ2 In a study about children?s pocket money, two samples of schoolchildren were asked how much money they received each week. In one sample, of size 80, the mean is ?6.65. In the other sample, of size 41, the mean is pound 8.21. Calculate the mean based on the combined sample. Give your answer correct to two decimal places. (Do NOT include the pound sign in your answer.) Solution n1=80 x1=6.65 n2=41 x2=8.21 combined mean = (n1*x1+n2*x2)/( n1+n2) =( 80*6.65+41*8.21) /( 80+41) =868.61/121 =7.1785 Combined mean =7.18 ( two decimals).

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It has been observed that F_st increases with the distance between populations in many species.
Explain why Let us imagine that we observe that F_st increases more rapidly with distance for
mitochondrial DNA than for autosomal DNA for some species. Explain how this can happen.
How might you differentiate your answers to part b
Solution
A. Fixation index (Fst) is a measure of population differentiation due to genetic structure. It is
frequently estimated from genetic polymorphism data, such as single nucleotide polymorphism
or microsatellites. Genetic distance is a measure of genetic divergence between species or
between populations within a species.
A commonly used measure of genetic distance is the fixation index which varies between 0 and
1. A value of 0 indicates that two populations are genetically identical (minimal or no genetic
diversity between the two populations) whereas a value of 1 indicates that two populations are
genetically different (maximum genetic diversity between the two populations). No mutation is
assumed.
Large populations between which there is much migration, for example, tend to be little
differentiated whereas small populations between which there is little migration tend to be
greatly differentiated. Fst is a convenient measure of this differentiation, and as a result Fst is the
most widely used descriptive statistics in population and evolutionary genetics.
Fst is directly related to the Variance in allele frequency among populations and conversely to
the degree of resemblance among individuals within populations. If Fst is small, it means that
allele frequencies within each population are very similar, if it is large, it means that allele
frequencies are very different.

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3902 | wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mec Molecular Ecology. 2019;28:3902–3914.© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1 | I N T R O D U C T I O N Maynard‐Smith and Haig (1974) recognized the influence of selection on linked neutral sites, proposing that strong positive selection could reduce genetic diversity at nearby sites. This process is now referred to as a ‘selective sweep’. Much later, Charlesworth, Morgan, and Charlesworth (1993) proposed that deleterious mutations could also affect genetic diversity at nearby sites, because some haplotypes would be removed from the population as selection acts against linked deleterious alleles. They named this process background se‐ lection (BGS). Both selective sweeps and background selection af‐ fect genetic diversity; they both reduce the effective population size and distort the site frequency spectrum (SFS) of linked loci. Empirical evidence of a positive correlation between genetic diversity and recombination rate has been reported in several species (Cutter & Payseur, 2013), including Drosophila melanogaster (Begun & Aquadro, 1992; Elyashiv et al., 2016), humans (Spencer et al., 2006), collared flycatchers, hooded crows and Darwin's finches (Dutoit et al., 2017; see also Vijay et al., 2017). BGS is also expected to affect FST (Charlesworth, Nordborg, & Charlesworth, 1997; Cruickshank & Hahn, 2014; Cutter & Payseur, 2013; Hoban et al., 2016). The negative relationship between effec‐ tive population size Ne and FST is captured in Wright's classical in‐ finite island result; FST = 1 1+4Ne(m+�) (Wright, 1943), where m is the migration rate and µ is the mutation rate. One might therefore ex‐ pect that loci under stronger BGS would show higher FST. Many authors have also argued that, because BGS reduces the within‐population diversity, it should lead to high FST (Cruickshank Received: 20 May 2018 | Revised: 19 June 2019 | Accepted: 3 July 2019 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15197 O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E Background selection and FST: Consequences for detecting local adaptation Remi Matthey‐Doret | Michael C. Whitlock Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Correspondence Remi Matthey‐Doret, Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada. Email: [email protected] Funding information The work was funded by NSERC Discovery Grant RGPIN‐2016‐03779 to MCW and by the Swiss National Science Foundation via the fellowship Doc.Mobility P1SKP3_168393 to RMD. Abstract Background selection is a process whereby recurrent deleterious mutations cause a decrease in the effective population size and genetic diversity at linked loci. Several authors have suggested that variation in the intensity of background selection could cause variation in FST across the genome, which could confound signals of local ad‐ aptation in genome scans. ...

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Example One Discuss how new discoveries in genetics are contributing to our understanding of the HIV virus and how some folks exposed to HIV have been able to escape developing AIDS. The HIV virus daily infects 14,000 people, however some individuals’ odds of contracting the virus are very low. Dr. Donald Mosier of the Script Institute was puzzled by this and launched a genetic study to determine why certain individuals are resistant to the HIV virus. What Dr. Mosier discovered was the resistant people inherited a deletion mutation that gave them protection. Within the deletion mutation, the receptor CCR5, is excluded. This deleted section of the CCR5 receptor functions as a lock, therefore people born with the mutation will not get the HIV virus. Those individuals that are homozygous – have two copies of the same deletion gene, are immune to the virus and are protected. Individuals that are heterozygous – have two different genes – have some protection from HIV because their body have half the “locks.” Dr. Mosier further studied populations and discovered the deleted mutation was higher in certain parts of the world and among Caucasians. Explain the genetic connection between phenotype and genotype discovered by Mendel in the 19th century. Genetics helps to understand human diversity, not only in today’s world but in the past as well. When studying genetics it is important to understand the relationship between phenotype and genotype. A phenotype is defined as an observable physical characteristic whereas a genotype is the set of specific genes an organism carries (Allen, Anton, Stanford 60). In the video lesson, Anne Stone commented the phenotype can be impacted by the environment. For example, if there is not sufficient food or there is disease, this can impact an individual’s height which is a phenotype. Anthropologist Geneticist Joanna Mountain explained a phenotype can be “measurements and anything we can describe about a person from appearance to metabolism.” Utilizing the garden pea plant to conduct his experiment, Gregor Mendel was able to recognize traits were passed on from parents to offspring. He knew traits were inherited but did not know how this inheritance worked. Mendel’s Principles of Segregation which states in an organism, alleles occurs in pairs and when gametes sex cells get produced, alleles separate so each gamete contains one member of each pair. Further experiments by Mendel lead him to conclude in a unit of inheritance, meaning offspring received receive genes from each parent. Theses principles laid the foundation for future scientists to study inheritance. Vocabulary Phenotype – observable characteristics; expression of genetic instructions; something you can measure Genotype – genetic make-up of an individual; every person has a unique genotype made of genes inherited from parents Recessive – a masked trait or covered up Dominant – mask recessive characteristics P ...

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