Executive Function
The Search for an Integrated Account
Marie T. Banich
Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, and Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado at Boulder;
Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Denver
ABSTRACT—In general, executive function can be thought
of as the set of abilities required to effortfully guide be-
havior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations.
Psychologists are interested in expanding the under-
standing of executive function because it is thought to be a
key process in intelligent behavior, it is compromised in a
variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders, it varies
across the life span, and it affects performance in compli-
cated environments, such as the cockpits of advanced
aircraft. This article provides a brief introduction to the
concept of executive function and discusses how it is
assessed and the conditions under which it is compromised.
A short overview of the diverse theoretical viewpoints re-
garding its psychological and biological underpinnings is
also provided. The article concludes with a consideration
of how a multilevel approach may provide a more inte-
grated account of executive function than has been previ-
ously available.
KEYWORDS—executive function; frontal lobe; prefrontal
cortex; inhibition; task switching; working memory; atten-
tion; top-down control
Like other psychological constructs, such as memory, executive
function is multidimensional. As such, there exists a variety of
models that provide varying viewpoints as to its basic component
processes. Nonetheless, common across most of them is the idea
that executive function is a process used to effortfully guide
behavior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations.
Various functions or abilities are thought to fall under the rubric
of executive function. These include prioritizing and sequencing
behavior, inhibiting familiar or stereotyped behaviors, creating
and maintaining an idea of what task or information is most
relevant for current purposes (often referred to as an attentional
or mental set), providing resistance to information that is dis-
tracting or task irrelevant, switching between task goals, uti-
lizing relevant information in support of decision making,
categorizing or otherwise abstracting common elements across
items, and handling novel information or situations. As can be
seen from this list, the functions that fall under the category of
executive function are indeed wide ranging.
ASSESSING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
The very nature of executive function makes it difficult to
measure in the clinic or the laboratory; it involves an individual
guiding his or her behavior, especially in novel, unstructured,
and nonroutine situations that require some degree of judgment.
In contrast, standard testing situations are structured—partic-
ipants are explicitly told what the task is, given rules for per-
forming the task, and provide ...
Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits
Wendy Wood
Duke University
Leona Tam
Texas A&M University
Melissa Guerrero Witt
Duke University
The present research investigated the mechanisms guiding habitual behavior, specifically, the stimulus
cues that trigger habit performance. When usual contexts for performance change, habits cannot be cued
by recurring stimuli, and performance should be disrupted. Thus, the exercising, newspaper reading, and
TV watching habits of students transferring to a new university were found to survive the transfer only
when aspects of the performance context did not change (e.g., participants continued to read the paper
with others). In some cases, the disruption in habits also placed behavior under intentional control so that
participants acted on their current intentions. Changes in circumstances also affected the favorability of
intentions, but changes in intentions alone could not explain the disruption of habits. Furthermore,
regardless of whether contexts changed, nonhabitual behavior was guided by intentions.
Keywords: habit, behavior change, behavior prediction, stimulus cues, intention
Daily life is characterized by repetition. People repeat actions as
they fulfill everyday responsibilities at work and at home, interact
with others, and entertain themselves. Many everyday activities
not only are performed frequently but also are performed in stable
circumstances—meaning in particular locations, at specific times,
in particular moods, and with or without certain interaction part-
ners. Attesting to the regularity of everyday action, Quinn and
Wood’s (2004) diary investigation with a community sample re-
vealed that a full 47% of participants’ daily activities were enacted
almost daily and usually in the same location (see also Wood,
Quinn, & Kashy, 2002). The consistency of everyday life estab-
lishes habits, or behavioral dispositions to repeat well-practiced
actions given recurring circumstances.
Habits reflect the cognitive, neurological, and motivational
changes that occur when behavior is repeated (Wood, Quinn, &
Neal, 2005). With repetition, associations form in memory be-
tween the practiced action and typical performance times, loca-
tions, or other stable features of context. These associations guide
habitual action so that it is triggered automatically by stable cues.
As we explain, habit associations are represented in learning and
memory systems separately from intentions, or decisions to
achieve particular outcomes. Thus, walking into a dark room can
trigger reaching for the light switch without any decision to do so.
The separation of habitual and intentional guides to action is
consistent with the historically popular view that instrumental
behaviors initially are acquired as goal-directed acts but with
continued performance become less dependent on explicit goals
(e.g., Allport, 1937; James, 1890). In short, repetition induces a
shift in the motivational control of action from outcome ...
Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits
Wendy Wood
Duke University
Leona Tam
Texas A&M University
Melissa Guerrero Witt
Duke University
The present research investigated the mechanisms guiding habitual behavior, specifically, the stimulus
cues that trigger habit performance. When usual contexts for performance change, habits cannot be cued
by recurring stimuli, and performance should be disrupted. Thus, the exercising, newspaper reading, and
TV watching habits of students transferring to a new university were found to survive the transfer only
when aspects of the performance context did not change (e.g., participants continued to read the paper
with others). In some cases, the disruption in habits also placed behavior under intentional control so that
participants acted on their current intentions. Changes in circumstances also affected the favorability of
intentions, but changes in intentions alone could not explain the disruption of habits. Furthermore,
regardless of whether contexts changed, nonhabitual behavior was guided by intentions.
Keywords: habit, behavior change, behavior prediction, stimulus cues, intention
Daily life is characterized by repetition. People repeat actions as
they fulfill everyday responsibilities at work and at home, interact
with others, and entertain themselves. Many everyday activities
not only are performed frequently but also are performed in stable
circumstances—meaning in particular locations, at specific times,
in particular moods, and with or without certain interaction part-
ners. Attesting to the regularity of everyday action, Quinn and
Wood’s (2004) diary investigation with a community sample re-
vealed that a full 47% of participants’ daily activities were enacted
almost daily and usually in the same location (see also Wood,
Quinn, & Kashy, 2002). The consistency of everyday life estab-
lishes habits, or behavioral dispositions to repeat well-practiced
actions given recurring circumstances.
Habits reflect the cognitive, neurological, and motivational
changes that occur when behavior is repeated (Wood, Quinn, &
Neal, 2005). With repetition, associations form in memory be-
tween the practiced action and typical performance times, loca-
tions, or other stable features of context. These associations guide
habitual action so that it is triggered automatically by stable cues.
As we explain, habit associations are represented in learning and
memory systems separately from intentions, or decisions to
achieve particular outcomes. Thus, walking into a dark room can
trigger reaching for the light switch without any decision to do so.
The separation of habitual and intentional guides to action is
consistent with the historically popular view that instrumental
behaviors initially are acquired as goal-directed acts but with
continued performance become less dependent on explicit goals
(e.g., Allport, 1937; James, 1890). In short, repetition induces a
shift in the motivational control of action from outcome ...
Task switchingStephen MonsellSchool of Psychology Univer.docxjosies1
Task switching
Stephen Monsell
School of Psychology University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK
Everyday life requires frequent shifts between cognitive
tasks. Research reviewed in this article probes the con-
trol processes that reconfigure mental resources for a
change of task by requiring subjects to switch fre-
quently among a small set of simple tasks. Subjects’
responses are substantially slower and, usually, more
error-prone immediately after a task switch. This
‘switch cost’ is reduced, but not eliminated, by an
opportunity for preparation. It seems to result from
both transient and long-term carry-over of ‘task-set’
activation and inhibition as well as time consumed by
task-set reconfiguration processes. Neuroimaging
studies of task switching have revealed extra activation
in numerous brain regions when subjects prepare to
change tasks and when they perform a changed task,
but we cannot yet separate ‘controlling’ from ‘con-
trolled’ regions.
A professor sits at a computer, attempting to write a paper.
The phone rings, he answers. It’s an administrator,
demanding a completed ‘module review form’. The pro-
fessor sighs, thinks for a moment, scans the desk for the
form, locates it, picks it up and walks down the hall to the
administrator’s office, exchanging greetings with a col-
league on the way. Each cognitive task in this quotidian
sequence – sentence-composing, phone-answering, con-
versation, episodic retrieval, visual search, reaching and
grasping, navigation, social exchange – requires an
appropriate configuration of mental resources, a pro-
cedural ‘schema’ [1] or ‘task-set’ [2]. The task performed
at each point is triggered partly by external stimuli (the
phone’s ring and the located form). But each stimulus
affords alternative tasks: the form could also be thrown in
the bin or made into a paper plane. We exercise intentional
‘executive’ control to select and implement the task-set,
or the combination of task-sets, that are appropriate to
our dominant goals [3], resisting temptations to satisfy
other goals.
Goals and tasks can be described at multiple grains or
levels of abstraction [4]: the same action can be described
as both ‘putting a piece of toast in one’s mouth’ and
‘maintaining an adequate supply of nutrients’. I focus here
on the relatively microscopic level, at which a ‘task’
consists of producing an appropriate action (e.g. conveying
to mouth) in response to a stimulus (e.g. toast in a
particular context). One question is: how are appropriate
task-sets selected and implemented? Another is: to what
extent can we enable a changed task-set in advance of the
relevant stimulus – as suggested by the term ‘set’?
Introspection indicates that we can, for example, set
ourselves appropriately to name a pictured object aloud
without knowing what object we are about to see. When an
object then appears, it is identified, its name is retrieved
and speech emerges without a further ‘act of intention’: the
sequence.
Chapter 8
Cognitive Rehabilitation: An Integrative Neuropsychological Approach 2nd Edition .McKay Moore Sohlberg
ارایه شده در توسط لیلا بخشعلی زاده در کلاس توانبخشی شناختی دکتر آناهیتا خرمی بنارکی - پژوهشکده علوم شناختی
Research Theory, Design, and Methods Walden UniversityThre.docxdebishakespeare
Research Theory, Design, and Methods
Walden University
Threats to Internal Validity
Threats to Internal Validity
(Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002)
1. Ambiguous temporal precedence. Based on the design, unable to determine with certainty which variable occurred first or which variable caused the other. Thus, unable to conclude with certainty cause-effect relationship. Correlation of two variables does not prove causation.
2. Selection. The procedures for selecting participants (e.g., self-selection or researcher sampling and assignment procedures) result in systematic differences across conditions (e.g., experimental-control). Thus, unable to conclude with certainty that the “intervention” caused the effect; could be due to way in which participants are selected.
3. History. Other events occur during the course of treatment that can interfere with treatment effects, and could account for outcomes. Thus, unable to conclude with certainty that the “intervention” caused the effect; could be due to some other event to which the participants were exposed.
4. Maturation. Natural changes that participants experience (e.g., grow older, get tired) during the course of the intervention could account for the outcomes. Thus, unable to conclude with certainty that the “intervention” caused the effect; could be due to the natural change/maturation of the participants.
5. Regressionartifacts. Participants who are at extreme ends of the measure (score higher or lower than average) are likely to “regress” toward the mean (scores get lower or higher, respectively) on other measures or retest on same measure. Thus, regression can be confused with treatment effect.
6. Attrition (mortality). Refers to drop out or failure to complete the treatment/study activities. If differential drop out across groups (e.g., experimental-control) occurs, could confound the results. Thus, effects may be due to drop out rather than treatment.
7. Testing. Experience with test/measure influences scores on retest. For example, familiarity with testing procedures, practice effects, or reactivity can influence subsequent performance on the same test.
8. Instrumentation. The measure changes over time (e.g., from pretest to posttest) thus making it difficult to determine if effects or outcomes are due to instrument vs. treatment. For example, observers change definitions of behaviors they are tracking, or the researcher alters administration of test items from pretest to posttest.
9. Additive and interactive effects of threats to validity. Single threats interact, such that the occurrence of multiple threats has an additive effect. For example, selection can interact with history, maturation, or instrumentation.
Reference
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin.
1 of 2
Research Theory, Design, and Methods
Walden University
Measurement of Variables
On ...
Essential Skills: Critical Thinking For College Studentsnoblex1
Much literature is available on programs to teach critical thinking, and a substantial amount of evidence indicates critical thinking can be taught and learned, especially when instruction is specifically designed to encourage transfer of skills. Nevertheless, the types of studies required to confirm with certitude the efficacy of teaching critical thinking present practical and methodological problems.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/essential-skills-critical-thinking-for-college-students/
I need to respond to 2 classmates in the discussion board. Must be.docxwilcockiris
I need to respond to 2 classmates in the discussion board. Must be at least 200 words each
This is for my Physiological Psychology class.
Classmate 1 – Tequila Booker
Question 1:
The potential problems with using some of these indirect measures is that not all may be accurate and some may even be more dangerous on the brain to utilize. For example the PET using radioactive chemicals and those chemicals are exposed to the brain. Another one is the fMRI which according to the book some say is debatable information because the information does not fully explain why a person likes something or don't like something. The fMRI example of this in the book is that a person that craved chocolate showed a greater than average brain response to the sight of chocolate but that does not explain why some people like chocolate so with this method the information can't be proven to be fully reliable.
Question 2:
I would have to examine what the course consist of first. Then examine what tools someone taking the class would need in order to be successful in the course. Once those two things have been examined I would then have to come up with a plan in order to be successful such as a study plan and record what went right and what went wrong week by week so I will know what need to improve on by the week in order to stay on track and be successful in the course.
Classmate 2 – Victoria Garza
Most of the noninvasive imaging methods estimate brain activity by changes in blood flow, oxygen consumption, glucose utilization, etc. Discuss the potential problems with using these types of indirect measure.
Most of the noninvasive imaging methods are beneficial for researchers as these methods make it possible for these men and women to view and trace brain activity. Unfortunately, these methods have some setbacks. For instance, the positron-emission tomography (PET) scanner allows for researchers to clearly view images of brain activity (Kalat, 2014). In most cases, a person is injected with glucose containing radioactive atoms before being placed into the scanner. Glucose tends to increase in the “most active brain areas” enabling the researchers to pinpoint the areas of the brain with the most activity (Kalat, 2014, p. 92). Unfortunately, due to the use of radiation in the brain, researchers tend to use less of this method and more of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In this method, researchers focus on the amount of hemoglobin with the amount of oxygen (Kalat, 2014). When areas of the brain become active, there tends to be an increase of blood flow and oxygen in that area and a decrease in the hemoglobin and oxygen mixture. Furthermore, this method requires that there be a comparison between two images of the brain in order to get a more accurate assessment of the brain activity. Therefore, researchers require participants to perform two different activities as the researchers review the brain activity in both occasions. Finally, the researchers ca.
Changing Mind, Changing World Practical Intelligence and Tacit Kn.docxcravennichole326
Changing Mind, Changing World: Practical Intelligence and Tacit Knowledge in Adult Learning
Bruce Torff
Hofstra University
Robert J. Sternberg
Yale University
Now well into their 40s, Bill and John came from similar backgrounds. They did equally well in school and on college admission tests, went to the same university where they performed comparably, and embarked on careers in business. However, whereas Bill has been very successful, consistently gaining promotions in a top company, John has been unable to climb the corporate ladder. Given that Bill and John began in so similar a manner, what accounts for their differential success in business? There could be many reasons, among them the possibility that there are skills that are important in business—and perhaps as well in adult life in general—that do not show up in academic exercises such as schoolwork and tests.
This proposition is supported by research on the extent to which intelligence test scores predict real-world performance. On average, the validity coefficient between cognitive ability tests and measures of job performance is about .2 (Wigdor & Garner, 1982). This means that only 4% of the variance in job performance is accounted for by scores on ability tests. Even after validity coefficients are corrected for unreliability in test scores and criterion measures, and restriction of range caused by the fact that only high scorers were hired, the average validity coefficient rises only to .5 (J. Hunter & R. Hunter, 1984; Schmidt & J. Hunter, 1981). Thus, even with the corrections, only 25% of the variance in job performance is accounted for by ability test scores. Put the other way, even the corrected estimates leave unexplained a full three-fourths of the variance in job performance. Sternberg, Wagner, W. Williams, and Horvath (1995) concluded that “even the most charitable view of the relations between intelligence test scores and real-world performance leads to the conclusion that the majority of the variance in real-world performance is not accounted for by intelligence test scores” (p. 913). Clearly, there is more operating in adult success than the academic skills captured on ability tests.
These findings—and the story of Bill and John—raise the issue of how our society conceptualizes, teaches, and evaluates the skills needed for a productive adult life. What sorts of skills are needed for adult success? What have psychologists found about the development of those skills? It turns out that recent theory and research have veered away from previously held views about human abilities. In this chapter we suggest that the traditional view looks somewhat narrowly at human abilities and the cultural contexts in which they operate, and thus underestimates the importance of developmental changes in both the person and the context. An alternative position holds that because certain abilities develop over the life span, and because the cultural contexts of abilities keep changing, attai ...
Projective Tests
Rorschach Inkblot Test
3
4
6
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Look at the picture. Your task is to write a complete story about the picture you see above. This should be an imaginative story with a beginning, middle, and an end. Try to portray who the people might be, what they are feeling, thinking, and wishing. Try to tell what led to the situation depicted in the picture and how everything will turn out in the end.
18
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Objectives Unacceptable Below Average Acceptable Above Average Exemplary Score
0 Points 20 Points
Student did not make any
post in the discussion board
Student posts were on time
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No reference to any course
reading
Makes reference to
assigned readings; attempts
to cite the source
Makes references to course
and/or outside reading
material but citations do not
conform to an acceptable
citation format
Refers to and properly cites
in APA format course and/or
outside reading in initial
posting only
Refers to and properly cites
in APA format either course
materials or external
readings in initial posts and
responses
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No postings for which to
evaluate language and
grammar
Poorly written initial posting
and responses including
frequent spelling, structure,
and/or grammar errors
Communicates in friendly,
courteous, and helpful
manner with some spelling,
grammatical, and/or
structural errors
Contributes valuable
information with minor
grammatical or structural
errors
No spelling, structure, or
grammar errors in any
posting; Contributes to
discussion with clear,
concise comments
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No initial posting
Response was not on topic,
the message was unrelated
to assignment, and post was
less than 150 words
The initial posting did not
adequately address the
question posed in the forum;
superficial thought and
preparation
Initial posting demonstrates
sincere reflection and
answers most aspects of the
forum; full development
Initial posting reveals a solid
understanding of all aspects
of the task; uses factually
and relevand information;
and the length of the posting
is at least 150 words
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
Student did not participate in
this forum
Student participated on but
did not respond to other
student posts
Student participated but only
responded to one
Student participated and
commented on two other
student's posts
Student actively
participated, responded to at
least two other students'
posts, and replied to other
st.
Explore the Issue PapersYou will choose a topic from the Complet.docxelbanglis
Explore the Issue Papers
You will choose a topic from the Complete Marriage and Family Home Reference Guide to study more closely. In 4–6 pages, you will compare current knowledge with facts from research and then examine the chosen topic from both a psychological and a theological perspective.
1. Briefly provide your initial thoughts on the topic. This section will not require source material. The purpose is simply for you to identify what you know about this topic. You may discuss facts, a biblical perspective, the moral dilemma involved in the topic, or just your thoughts around the topic. This section must be 1 page.
2. Look at the research that has been done on the topic. This section must be well-organized with headings and subheadings and must include at least 4 empirical sources. This section must be 2–3 pages. You may consider, but are not confined to, the following prompts and questions:
· Check some of what you know against what research has to say. How could this topic affect a marriage or family?
· What are benefits and consequences of approaching this topic and working through it within the affected family unit?
3. Compare the psychological and theological perspectives of the topic. The point here is to compare what the research says about the topic to what the Bible says about the topic. Not all of the topics from "The Quick-Reference Guide to Marriage and Family Counseling" are directly mentioned in the Bible. However, you may use biblical principles and discuss similarities and discrepancies found between these 2 perspectives. This section must be 1–2 pages.
4. The conclusion of this paper must include a good summary of the information provided in the preceding 3 sections. You must also provide an idea for future study of the topic. What further information could be provided in relation to this topic? For example, what are some variables that play a part of depression in marriage? Is depression within marriage easier to work through if the depression is a result of a mood disorder or of circumstances outside of the marriage?
5. Correct current APA formatting must be implemented throughout this paper, including avoiding first person and using properly formatted citations and headings. A title page and references page must be included; however, an abstract will NOT be necessary for this assignment. Assignment instructions and the grading rubric must be carefully reviewed to ensure that all assignment criteria are met.
Reference
Dobson, J. (2000). Complete marriage and family home reference guide. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. ISBN: 9780842352673.
OVERVIEW
Synthesize conceptual information pertinent to the research question; this is information that you extract from the articles selected for this review. Submit a draft literature review.
Note: Developing a research proposal requires specific steps that need to be executed in a sequence. The assessments in this course are presented in sequence ...
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental DesignsChapter 5.docxelbanglis
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
Chapter 5
*
Introduction
Experiments are best suited for explanation and evaluation research
Experiments involve:
Taking action
Observing the consequences of that action
Especially suited for hypothesis testing
Often occur in the field
The Classical Experiment Classical experiment: a specific way of structuring researchInvolves three major components:
Independent variable and dependent variable
Pretesting and posttesting
Experimental group and control group
Independent and Dependent Variables
The independent variable takes the form of a dichotomous stimulus that is either present or absent
It varies (i.e., is independent) in our experimental process
The dependent variable is the outcome, the effect we expect to see
Might be physical conditions, social behavior, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs
Pretesting and Posttesting
Subjects are initially measured in terms of the DV prior to association with the IV (pretested)
Then, they are exposed to the IV
Then, they are remeasured in terms of the DV (posttested)
Differences noted between the measurements on the DV are attributed to influence of IV
Experimental and Control Groups
Experimental group: exposed to whatever treatment, policy, initiative we are testing
Control group: very similar to experimental group, except that they are NOT exposed
Can involve more than one experimental or control group
If we see a difference, we want to make sure it is due to the IV, and not to a difference between the two groups
Placebo
We often don’t want people to know if they are receiving treatment or not
We expose our control group to a “dummy” independent variable just so we are treating everyone the same
Medical research: participants don’t know what they are taking
Ensures that changes in DV actually result from IV and are not psychologically based
Double-Blind Experiment
Experimenters may be more likely to “observe” improvements among those who received drug
In a double-blind experiment, neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control group
Selecting Subjects
First, must decide on target population – the group to which the results of your experiment will apply
Second, must decide how to select particular members from that group for your experiment
Cardinal rule – ensure that experimental and control groups are as similar as possible
RandomizationRandomization: produces an experimental and control group that are statistically equivalentEssential feature of experimentsEliminates systematic bias
Experiments and Causal Inference
Experimental design ensures:
Cause precedes effect via taking posttest
Empirical correlation exists via comparing pretest to posttest
No spurious 3rd variable influencing correlation via posttest comparison between experimental and control groups, and via randomization
Example of Research Using an Experimental Design
Researchers at the University of Marylan ...
Explain the role of the community health nurse in partnership with.docxelbanglis
Explain the role of the community health nurse in partnership with community stakeholders for population health promotion. Explain why it is important to appraise community resources (nonprofit, spiritual/religious, etc.) as part of a community assessment and why these resources are important in population health promotion.
...
More Related Content
Similar to Executive FunctionThe Search for an Integrated AccountMari.docx
Task switchingStephen MonsellSchool of Psychology Univer.docxjosies1
Task switching
Stephen Monsell
School of Psychology University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK
Everyday life requires frequent shifts between cognitive
tasks. Research reviewed in this article probes the con-
trol processes that reconfigure mental resources for a
change of task by requiring subjects to switch fre-
quently among a small set of simple tasks. Subjects’
responses are substantially slower and, usually, more
error-prone immediately after a task switch. This
‘switch cost’ is reduced, but not eliminated, by an
opportunity for preparation. It seems to result from
both transient and long-term carry-over of ‘task-set’
activation and inhibition as well as time consumed by
task-set reconfiguration processes. Neuroimaging
studies of task switching have revealed extra activation
in numerous brain regions when subjects prepare to
change tasks and when they perform a changed task,
but we cannot yet separate ‘controlling’ from ‘con-
trolled’ regions.
A professor sits at a computer, attempting to write a paper.
The phone rings, he answers. It’s an administrator,
demanding a completed ‘module review form’. The pro-
fessor sighs, thinks for a moment, scans the desk for the
form, locates it, picks it up and walks down the hall to the
administrator’s office, exchanging greetings with a col-
league on the way. Each cognitive task in this quotidian
sequence – sentence-composing, phone-answering, con-
versation, episodic retrieval, visual search, reaching and
grasping, navigation, social exchange – requires an
appropriate configuration of mental resources, a pro-
cedural ‘schema’ [1] or ‘task-set’ [2]. The task performed
at each point is triggered partly by external stimuli (the
phone’s ring and the located form). But each stimulus
affords alternative tasks: the form could also be thrown in
the bin or made into a paper plane. We exercise intentional
‘executive’ control to select and implement the task-set,
or the combination of task-sets, that are appropriate to
our dominant goals [3], resisting temptations to satisfy
other goals.
Goals and tasks can be described at multiple grains or
levels of abstraction [4]: the same action can be described
as both ‘putting a piece of toast in one’s mouth’ and
‘maintaining an adequate supply of nutrients’. I focus here
on the relatively microscopic level, at which a ‘task’
consists of producing an appropriate action (e.g. conveying
to mouth) in response to a stimulus (e.g. toast in a
particular context). One question is: how are appropriate
task-sets selected and implemented? Another is: to what
extent can we enable a changed task-set in advance of the
relevant stimulus – as suggested by the term ‘set’?
Introspection indicates that we can, for example, set
ourselves appropriately to name a pictured object aloud
without knowing what object we are about to see. When an
object then appears, it is identified, its name is retrieved
and speech emerges without a further ‘act of intention’: the
sequence.
Chapter 8
Cognitive Rehabilitation: An Integrative Neuropsychological Approach 2nd Edition .McKay Moore Sohlberg
ارایه شده در توسط لیلا بخشعلی زاده در کلاس توانبخشی شناختی دکتر آناهیتا خرمی بنارکی - پژوهشکده علوم شناختی
Research Theory, Design, and Methods Walden UniversityThre.docxdebishakespeare
Research Theory, Design, and Methods
Walden University
Threats to Internal Validity
Threats to Internal Validity
(Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002)
1. Ambiguous temporal precedence. Based on the design, unable to determine with certainty which variable occurred first or which variable caused the other. Thus, unable to conclude with certainty cause-effect relationship. Correlation of two variables does not prove causation.
2. Selection. The procedures for selecting participants (e.g., self-selection or researcher sampling and assignment procedures) result in systematic differences across conditions (e.g., experimental-control). Thus, unable to conclude with certainty that the “intervention” caused the effect; could be due to way in which participants are selected.
3. History. Other events occur during the course of treatment that can interfere with treatment effects, and could account for outcomes. Thus, unable to conclude with certainty that the “intervention” caused the effect; could be due to some other event to which the participants were exposed.
4. Maturation. Natural changes that participants experience (e.g., grow older, get tired) during the course of the intervention could account for the outcomes. Thus, unable to conclude with certainty that the “intervention” caused the effect; could be due to the natural change/maturation of the participants.
5. Regressionartifacts. Participants who are at extreme ends of the measure (score higher or lower than average) are likely to “regress” toward the mean (scores get lower or higher, respectively) on other measures or retest on same measure. Thus, regression can be confused with treatment effect.
6. Attrition (mortality). Refers to drop out or failure to complete the treatment/study activities. If differential drop out across groups (e.g., experimental-control) occurs, could confound the results. Thus, effects may be due to drop out rather than treatment.
7. Testing. Experience with test/measure influences scores on retest. For example, familiarity with testing procedures, practice effects, or reactivity can influence subsequent performance on the same test.
8. Instrumentation. The measure changes over time (e.g., from pretest to posttest) thus making it difficult to determine if effects or outcomes are due to instrument vs. treatment. For example, observers change definitions of behaviors they are tracking, or the researcher alters administration of test items from pretest to posttest.
9. Additive and interactive effects of threats to validity. Single threats interact, such that the occurrence of multiple threats has an additive effect. For example, selection can interact with history, maturation, or instrumentation.
Reference
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin.
1 of 2
Research Theory, Design, and Methods
Walden University
Measurement of Variables
On ...
Essential Skills: Critical Thinking For College Studentsnoblex1
Much literature is available on programs to teach critical thinking, and a substantial amount of evidence indicates critical thinking can be taught and learned, especially when instruction is specifically designed to encourage transfer of skills. Nevertheless, the types of studies required to confirm with certitude the efficacy of teaching critical thinking present practical and methodological problems.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/essential-skills-critical-thinking-for-college-students/
I need to respond to 2 classmates in the discussion board. Must be.docxwilcockiris
I need to respond to 2 classmates in the discussion board. Must be at least 200 words each
This is for my Physiological Psychology class.
Classmate 1 – Tequila Booker
Question 1:
The potential problems with using some of these indirect measures is that not all may be accurate and some may even be more dangerous on the brain to utilize. For example the PET using radioactive chemicals and those chemicals are exposed to the brain. Another one is the fMRI which according to the book some say is debatable information because the information does not fully explain why a person likes something or don't like something. The fMRI example of this in the book is that a person that craved chocolate showed a greater than average brain response to the sight of chocolate but that does not explain why some people like chocolate so with this method the information can't be proven to be fully reliable.
Question 2:
I would have to examine what the course consist of first. Then examine what tools someone taking the class would need in order to be successful in the course. Once those two things have been examined I would then have to come up with a plan in order to be successful such as a study plan and record what went right and what went wrong week by week so I will know what need to improve on by the week in order to stay on track and be successful in the course.
Classmate 2 – Victoria Garza
Most of the noninvasive imaging methods estimate brain activity by changes in blood flow, oxygen consumption, glucose utilization, etc. Discuss the potential problems with using these types of indirect measure.
Most of the noninvasive imaging methods are beneficial for researchers as these methods make it possible for these men and women to view and trace brain activity. Unfortunately, these methods have some setbacks. For instance, the positron-emission tomography (PET) scanner allows for researchers to clearly view images of brain activity (Kalat, 2014). In most cases, a person is injected with glucose containing radioactive atoms before being placed into the scanner. Glucose tends to increase in the “most active brain areas” enabling the researchers to pinpoint the areas of the brain with the most activity (Kalat, 2014, p. 92). Unfortunately, due to the use of radiation in the brain, researchers tend to use less of this method and more of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In this method, researchers focus on the amount of hemoglobin with the amount of oxygen (Kalat, 2014). When areas of the brain become active, there tends to be an increase of blood flow and oxygen in that area and a decrease in the hemoglobin and oxygen mixture. Furthermore, this method requires that there be a comparison between two images of the brain in order to get a more accurate assessment of the brain activity. Therefore, researchers require participants to perform two different activities as the researchers review the brain activity in both occasions. Finally, the researchers ca.
Changing Mind, Changing World Practical Intelligence and Tacit Kn.docxcravennichole326
Changing Mind, Changing World: Practical Intelligence and Tacit Knowledge in Adult Learning
Bruce Torff
Hofstra University
Robert J. Sternberg
Yale University
Now well into their 40s, Bill and John came from similar backgrounds. They did equally well in school and on college admission tests, went to the same university where they performed comparably, and embarked on careers in business. However, whereas Bill has been very successful, consistently gaining promotions in a top company, John has been unable to climb the corporate ladder. Given that Bill and John began in so similar a manner, what accounts for their differential success in business? There could be many reasons, among them the possibility that there are skills that are important in business—and perhaps as well in adult life in general—that do not show up in academic exercises such as schoolwork and tests.
This proposition is supported by research on the extent to which intelligence test scores predict real-world performance. On average, the validity coefficient between cognitive ability tests and measures of job performance is about .2 (Wigdor & Garner, 1982). This means that only 4% of the variance in job performance is accounted for by scores on ability tests. Even after validity coefficients are corrected for unreliability in test scores and criterion measures, and restriction of range caused by the fact that only high scorers were hired, the average validity coefficient rises only to .5 (J. Hunter & R. Hunter, 1984; Schmidt & J. Hunter, 1981). Thus, even with the corrections, only 25% of the variance in job performance is accounted for by ability test scores. Put the other way, even the corrected estimates leave unexplained a full three-fourths of the variance in job performance. Sternberg, Wagner, W. Williams, and Horvath (1995) concluded that “even the most charitable view of the relations between intelligence test scores and real-world performance leads to the conclusion that the majority of the variance in real-world performance is not accounted for by intelligence test scores” (p. 913). Clearly, there is more operating in adult success than the academic skills captured on ability tests.
These findings—and the story of Bill and John—raise the issue of how our society conceptualizes, teaches, and evaluates the skills needed for a productive adult life. What sorts of skills are needed for adult success? What have psychologists found about the development of those skills? It turns out that recent theory and research have veered away from previously held views about human abilities. In this chapter we suggest that the traditional view looks somewhat narrowly at human abilities and the cultural contexts in which they operate, and thus underestimates the importance of developmental changes in both the person and the context. An alternative position holds that because certain abilities develop over the life span, and because the cultural contexts of abilities keep changing, attai ...
Projective Tests
Rorschach Inkblot Test
3
4
6
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Look at the picture. Your task is to write a complete story about the picture you see above. This should be an imaginative story with a beginning, middle, and an end. Try to portray who the people might be, what they are feeling, thinking, and wishing. Try to tell what led to the situation depicted in the picture and how everything will turn out in the end.
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Objectives Unacceptable Below Average Acceptable Above Average Exemplary Score
0 Points 20 Points
Student did not make any
post in the discussion board
Student posts were on time
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No reference to any course
reading
Makes reference to
assigned readings; attempts
to cite the source
Makes references to course
and/or outside reading
material but citations do not
conform to an acceptable
citation format
Refers to and properly cites
in APA format course and/or
outside reading in initial
posting only
Refers to and properly cites
in APA format either course
materials or external
readings in initial posts and
responses
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No postings for which to
evaluate language and
grammar
Poorly written initial posting
and responses including
frequent spelling, structure,
and/or grammar errors
Communicates in friendly,
courteous, and helpful
manner with some spelling,
grammatical, and/or
structural errors
Contributes valuable
information with minor
grammatical or structural
errors
No spelling, structure, or
grammar errors in any
posting; Contributes to
discussion with clear,
concise comments
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
No initial posting
Response was not on topic,
the message was unrelated
to assignment, and post was
less than 150 words
The initial posting did not
adequately address the
question posed in the forum;
superficial thought and
preparation
Initial posting demonstrates
sincere reflection and
answers most aspects of the
forum; full development
Initial posting reveals a solid
understanding of all aspects
of the task; uses factually
and relevand information;
and the length of the posting
is at least 150 words
0 Points 5 Points 10 Points 15 Points 20 Points
Student did not participate in
this forum
Student participated on but
did not respond to other
student posts
Student participated but only
responded to one
Student participated and
commented on two other
student's posts
Student actively
participated, responded to at
least two other students'
posts, and replied to other
st.
Explore the Issue PapersYou will choose a topic from the Complet.docxelbanglis
Explore the Issue Papers
You will choose a topic from the Complete Marriage and Family Home Reference Guide to study more closely. In 4–6 pages, you will compare current knowledge with facts from research and then examine the chosen topic from both a psychological and a theological perspective.
1. Briefly provide your initial thoughts on the topic. This section will not require source material. The purpose is simply for you to identify what you know about this topic. You may discuss facts, a biblical perspective, the moral dilemma involved in the topic, or just your thoughts around the topic. This section must be 1 page.
2. Look at the research that has been done on the topic. This section must be well-organized with headings and subheadings and must include at least 4 empirical sources. This section must be 2–3 pages. You may consider, but are not confined to, the following prompts and questions:
· Check some of what you know against what research has to say. How could this topic affect a marriage or family?
· What are benefits and consequences of approaching this topic and working through it within the affected family unit?
3. Compare the psychological and theological perspectives of the topic. The point here is to compare what the research says about the topic to what the Bible says about the topic. Not all of the topics from "The Quick-Reference Guide to Marriage and Family Counseling" are directly mentioned in the Bible. However, you may use biblical principles and discuss similarities and discrepancies found between these 2 perspectives. This section must be 1–2 pages.
4. The conclusion of this paper must include a good summary of the information provided in the preceding 3 sections. You must also provide an idea for future study of the topic. What further information could be provided in relation to this topic? For example, what are some variables that play a part of depression in marriage? Is depression within marriage easier to work through if the depression is a result of a mood disorder or of circumstances outside of the marriage?
5. Correct current APA formatting must be implemented throughout this paper, including avoiding first person and using properly formatted citations and headings. A title page and references page must be included; however, an abstract will NOT be necessary for this assignment. Assignment instructions and the grading rubric must be carefully reviewed to ensure that all assignment criteria are met.
Reference
Dobson, J. (2000). Complete marriage and family home reference guide. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. ISBN: 9780842352673.
OVERVIEW
Synthesize conceptual information pertinent to the research question; this is information that you extract from the articles selected for this review. Submit a draft literature review.
Note: Developing a research proposal requires specific steps that need to be executed in a sequence. The assessments in this course are presented in sequence ...
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental DesignsChapter 5.docxelbanglis
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
Chapter 5
*
Introduction
Experiments are best suited for explanation and evaluation research
Experiments involve:
Taking action
Observing the consequences of that action
Especially suited for hypothesis testing
Often occur in the field
The Classical Experiment Classical experiment: a specific way of structuring researchInvolves three major components:
Independent variable and dependent variable
Pretesting and posttesting
Experimental group and control group
Independent and Dependent Variables
The independent variable takes the form of a dichotomous stimulus that is either present or absent
It varies (i.e., is independent) in our experimental process
The dependent variable is the outcome, the effect we expect to see
Might be physical conditions, social behavior, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs
Pretesting and Posttesting
Subjects are initially measured in terms of the DV prior to association with the IV (pretested)
Then, they are exposed to the IV
Then, they are remeasured in terms of the DV (posttested)
Differences noted between the measurements on the DV are attributed to influence of IV
Experimental and Control Groups
Experimental group: exposed to whatever treatment, policy, initiative we are testing
Control group: very similar to experimental group, except that they are NOT exposed
Can involve more than one experimental or control group
If we see a difference, we want to make sure it is due to the IV, and not to a difference between the two groups
Placebo
We often don’t want people to know if they are receiving treatment or not
We expose our control group to a “dummy” independent variable just so we are treating everyone the same
Medical research: participants don’t know what they are taking
Ensures that changes in DV actually result from IV and are not psychologically based
Double-Blind Experiment
Experimenters may be more likely to “observe” improvements among those who received drug
In a double-blind experiment, neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control group
Selecting Subjects
First, must decide on target population – the group to which the results of your experiment will apply
Second, must decide how to select particular members from that group for your experiment
Cardinal rule – ensure that experimental and control groups are as similar as possible
RandomizationRandomization: produces an experimental and control group that are statistically equivalentEssential feature of experimentsEliminates systematic bias
Experiments and Causal Inference
Experimental design ensures:
Cause precedes effect via taking posttest
Empirical correlation exists via comparing pretest to posttest
No spurious 3rd variable influencing correlation via posttest comparison between experimental and control groups, and via randomization
Example of Research Using an Experimental Design
Researchers at the University of Marylan ...
Explain the role of the community health nurse in partnership with.docxelbanglis
Explain the role of the community health nurse in partnership with community stakeholders for population health promotion. Explain why it is important to appraise community resources (nonprofit, spiritual/religious, etc.) as part of a community assessment and why these resources are important in population health promotion.
...
Explain how building partner capacity is the greatest challenge in.docxelbanglis
Explain how building partner capacity is the greatest challenge in Operation INHERENT RESOLVE (OIR) in Iraq with these points:
· Explain how the Department of Defense (DoD) can overcome that challenge through Security Cooperation.
· Explain how the DoD can overcome that challenge through Enhancing U.S. Military Logistics
Summation of how the DoD ought to consider how it could transition to teaching our partners to fish, rather than simply fishing for them.
· APA format.
· 1150 words.
· Six work citations
· must include:
· a Cover Page,
· Abstract,
· Body of the paper, and
· Endnotes
Last name_First_Course(ex AP5510)_Assignment_Title
Assignment Title
By
Name
Course Name
DD MMM YYYY
Instructor: (Instructor’s Name)
College
Distance Learning
JBSA
Effective, purposeful communication is essential in the military profession. Following these instructions will help you properly complete your writing assignment and will improve your chances for success.
This template exemplifies the format for essays. Each essay must include a properly formatted cover page (see above), double-spaced text, Times New Roman 12pt font, 1-inch margins, as well as full endnote-style citations for paraphrasing and quotations in accordance with the Author Guide, Section 5.5. Endnotes are not counted as part of your total word count. The, Appendix A provides examples of endnote formats. Do not include a bibliography in these short essay assignments; however, ensure your full endnotes contain all source information.
Use quotation marks when you quote directly from the work of other writers. This is a relatively short assignment, so use block quotations sparingly to allow your own original thoughts to shine through.
You may notice minor variations between your consolidated lesson readers, which require different endnote formats. Some bundle the readings into a single document with continuous pagination (see example endnote 1 at the end of this document).
Other lesson readers retain each author’s original pagination (see example note 2).
You should use the author’s original pagination wherever it is possible to do so. Remember, cite any material used from the instructional narrative portion of the consolidated lesson reading file with “as the author (see example endnote 3).
The midterm and final essay exams are academic papers; write each in a narrative style, not a bullet/point paper. Refer to the assignment rubric located in your Grade Center for grading criteria. If you have any questions, contact your course instructor.
Much like your next level of leadership, the program requires effective writing founded on critical thinking and communication skills. Each essay you write as you progress toward graduation provides an opportunity for you to hone these abilities. Additionally, these assignments comprise a large portion of your final grade in each course. Therefore, successful course completion is contingent on your writing performance. The most ...
Experience as a Computer ScientistFor this report, the pro.docxelbanglis
Experience as a Computer Scientist
For this report, the professional interviewed is a computer Engineer/ Web Developer who works for Omnivision Technologies Inc., a corporation that designs and develops advanced digital technologies to use in mobile phones, notebooks, security cameras etc. across the United States. Mr. Nagarik Sharma is the technical manager of the organization and works at its headquarter in Santa Clara, California, and has been working in this position for the last five years. He provided very useful information about the computer science profession and highlighted a number of challenges common in the career. Further, he provided some recommendations on how the challenges can be dealt with. From the information provided by the him, it is clear that the computer science profession is full of challenges particularly regarding the fast changing technology. The interview revealed several important topics which require further research.
Methodology
The interview was conducted on a skype video call and lasted for slightly above 30 minutes. Before the interview, the interviewee was made clear to understand that the questions which were to be asked during the interview regards the profession, its concerns and challenges. The phone call was recorded during the entire conversation and the information later transcribed and key points extracted. This report is based only on important points and not everything that the interviewee said.
Essential Background
Computer science is a field of technology that deals with studying processes that interact with data and which can be depicted as data in program form. An expert in computer science has knowledge in computation theory as well as the practice of software systems design. Computer scientists are also popularly known as computer and information scientists and can work in a range of environments. For instance, these professionals work in private software publishers, government agencies, academic institutions, and engineering firms (Page & Smart, 2013). Wherever they work, computer scientists’ general roles include solving computing problems as well as developing new products.
The professional interviewed for this report has in-depth knowledge in computer systems and management. Through his leadership skill, he organizes the successful delivery of effective and efficient technical solutions within the company. He is responsible for planning, designing, developing, production, and testing communication systems.
He is also responsible for supervising:
· Technical and Operations teams
· Landline and Cellular network
· IT Infrastructure
· Service platforms
He works with the chief technical officer (who is an expert in telecommunications engineering) to design and develop software that facilitates landline and cellular networks.
Challenges
· Education: According to the interviewee, the challenges in the field of computer science starts right from education and training. He says that ...
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia How did approaches t.docxelbanglis
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
Introduction
In 1279, under the leadership of Kublai Khan, the Mongols ousted the Song dynasty
and completed their conquest of China. As they
took control, they established the Yuan dynasty,
with Kublai Khan serving as emperor. However,
Mongol rule over China was relatively short lived.
Within 100 years, the Yuan dynasty would be
forced out by Chinese rebels.
Under Mongol rule, the Chinese became
increasingly angered by policies that favored
Mongols and foreigners. This anger and resentment
eventually resulted in unrest. Around 1350, small
states in China began to emerge to fight the
Mongols. Chinese leaders turned to military force to
advance their interests and establish regional
power. Some leaders were members of the upper class, and others were religious
leaders or bandits supported by peasants. By the middle of the 1350s, these Chinese
powers were united in their campaign to get rid of Mongol rule.
The years of ongoing warfare spurred military innovation among the Chinese.
Although the Mongols had access to gunpowder weapons, they did not develop new
technologies. In contrast, the first large cannons in China were manufactured by the
Chinese rebels. While the term “Gunpowder Empire” is often associated with the
Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire, the Chinese
advancements in gunpowder weaponry has led some historians to regard Ming China
as the world’s first gunpowder empire.
1
Expansion and Isolationism in Eurasia
How did approaches to cultural interaction shape empires in Eurasia?
In this lesson, you will learn about three countries in Eurasia that used gunpowder
to expand and maintain their control: China, Japan, and Russia. You will consider the
rise and fall of the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. You will examine the unification of
Japan under the Tokugawa. Finally, you will explore the growth of the Russian Empire
during the Romanov dynasty.
Section 1. China Under the Ming and Qing
Between the 14th and the early 20th centuries,
two dynasties governed China: the Ming and the Qing.
Both dynasties took power during times of upheaval.
To restore order, they established strong, centralized
rule and revived traditional Chinese values, including
Confucian ideals.
The Ming Revival By the mid-1300s, China was in
turmoil. The Mongols’ hold on power had became
unstable. Disease and natural disasters had weakened
the Mongol grip. Additionally, feuds broke out within the government, leaving the
countryside unprotected against bandits and rebels.
As life became more dangerous and difficult, Chinese peasants grew increasingly
frustrated with the incompetence of their rulers. Led by Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant
uprising successfully invaded the city of Nanjing. In 1368, aided by gunpowder
weapons, Zhu and his army capt ...
Experimental PsychologyWriting and PresentingPaper Secti.docxelbanglis
Experimental Psychology
Writing and Presenting
Paper Sections
Title
Introduction
Method
Tables and figures (if applicable)
Results
Tables and figures (if applicable)
Discussion
References
Presentation
Simplify, limit number of words, use color and formatting to highlight important points. Check spelling.
Include slides with the following
Title
Introduction
Method
Results
Tables and figures
Discussion
References (provide as a separate slide, but there is no need to discuss or ensure visibility of individual items on this slide.)
...
EXPEDIA VS. PRICELINE -- WHOSE MEDIA PLAN TO BOOK Optim.docxelbanglis
EXPEDIA VS. PRICELINE -- WHOSE
MEDIA PLAN TO BOOK?
Optimedia's Antony Young Analyzes the Media Strategies
Behind Rival Travel Sites
By Antony Young
Published: June 30, 2010
As schools break for summer, some families -- like mine -- are still planning their vacations. So I
took a look at two prominent travel sites, Expedia and Priceline, to see which one's media strategy
is likely to attract more trip planners.
Their media plans are especially important as the travel industry picks up after a tough 2009.
Demand for flights and hotels are rebounding and so, too, are airfares and room rates. With
slimmer margins on airline tickets, hotels have very much become the major battleground for
Expedia and Priceline and this is reflected in the focus of their advertising. Online Travel Agencies
(OTA's) accounted for 34.7% of all U.S. hotel bookings in the first quarter of 2010, up from 27.8% in
2009, Priceline CMO Brett Keller said in a recent speech.
Creative executions
Expedia launched a new branding campaign for 2010. Its tagline, "Where you book matters,"
accompanied a new logo incorporated into its creative messaging. The campaign, which targets
frequent leisure travelers, launched Dec. 26 with commercials featuring a visual metaphor of
building blocks as a way to demonstrate how consumers interact with Expedia. The first spot starts
with upbeat soft-rock music narrated by an unseen woman dictating her specifications for the
perfect "girls' weekend." She talks about having multiple hotel options and the ability to compare
dates for the best savings. Expedia's signature "dot coooom" jingle ends the spot. A spot with a
man's voice and trip goals was launched in February.
http://adage.com/
Priceline has built its position in the market on the opportunity for customers to name their own
price, brought to life through some hilarious spots fronted by pitchman William Shatner. This year,
Shatner introduced his new sidekick "Big Deal," a 520 lb 6'5" character who helps persuade hotels
to take a deal. In February, the Big Deal ads were joined by new creative that featured the
Negotiator's "Evil Twin" (played, of course, by Shatner). Priceline takes a karate chop at
Expedia.com (and Hotels.com), claiming that Priceline can get prices 50% lower.
The strategies of the two companies differed noticeably. Expedia.com attracted 16.7 million unique
visitors in May, 59% more than the 10.5 million who visited Priceline.com, according to ComScore.
And Expedia media seems to reflect this, promoting the site as the generic travel brand for a broad
audience and highlighting its full range of services and travel destinations. Priceline is more single-
mindedly focused on price, and its media appears to target lower down the purchase funnel with an
emphasis on converting transactions.
RATINGS
Outstanding
Highly effective
Good
Disappointing
A disaster
Television strategy
Expedia. ...
Experiments with duckweed–moth systems suggest thatglobal wa.docxelbanglis
Experiments with duckweed–moth systems suggest that
global warming may reduce rather than promote
herbivory
TJISSE VAN DER HEIDE, RUDI M. M. ROIJACKERS, EDWIN T. H. M. PEETERS AND
EGBERT H. VAN NES
Department of Environmental Sciences, Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management group, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, The Netherlands
SUMMARY
1. Wilf & Labandeira (1999) suggested that increased temperatures because of global
warming will cause an increase in herbivory by insects. This conclusion was based on the
supposed effect of temperature on herbivores but did not consider an effect of temperature
on plant growth.
2. We studied the effect of temperature on grazing pressure by the small China-mark moth
(Cataclysta lemnata L.) on Lemna minor L. in laboratory experiments.
3. Between temperatures of 15 and 24 �C we found a sigmoidal increase in C. lemnata
grazing rates, and an approximately linear increase in L. minor growth rates. Therefore, an
increase in temperature did not always result in higher grazing pressure by this insect as
the regrowth of Lemna changes also.
4. At temperatures below 18.7 �C, Lemna benefited more than Cataclysta from an increase in
temperature, causing a decrease in grazing pressure.
5. In the context of global warming, we conclude that rising temperatures will not
necessarily increase grazing pressure by herbivorous insects.
Keywords: Cataclysta, grazing, herbivory, Lemna, temperature
Introduction
Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) are often abundant in dit-
ches and ponds (Landolt, 1986). Especially when
nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the water
column are high, the surface area can become covered
with dense floating mats of duckweed (Lüönd, 1980,
1983; Portielje & Roijackers, 1995). These mats have
large impacts on freshwater ecosystems, restricting
oxygen supply (Pokorny & Rejmánková, 1983), light
availability of algae and submerged macrophytes
(Wolek, 1974) and temperature fluxes (Dale &
Gillespie, 1976; Landolt, 1986; Goldsborough, 1993).
These changed conditions often have a negative effect
on the biodiversity of the ecosystem (Janse & van
Puijenbroek, 1998). Other free-floating plants such as
red water fern (Azolla filiculoides), water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes)
often cause serious problems in tropical and sub-
tropical regions (Mehra et al., 1999; Hill, 2003).
Various species of herbivorous insects consume
free-floating macrophytes. Several species of weevils
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) are able to consume large
amounts of red water fern, water hyacinth and water
lettuce (Cilliers, 1991; Hill & Cilliers, 1999; Aguilar
et al., 2003), while the larvae of the semi-aquatic Small
China-mark moth (Cataclysta lemnata) are capable of
removing large parts of floating cover of Lemnaceae
covers (Wesenberg-Lund, 1943). Duckweed is not
only used as food source, but also as building material
Correspondence: Rudi M. M. Roijacker ...
EXP4304.521F19: Motivation 1
EXP4304.521F19: Motivation: Further Study Summaries (FSS); Version 1; Last modified August 22, 2019
Overview: Reeve’s textbook provides “readings for further study” at the end of most chapters. Choose readings of
interest throughout the course; then, for five select readings, compose a 1-3 page “further study summary” (FSS). FSS
instructions are posted under “Files” on CANVAS.
Deadline: Each FSS is worth up to 25 points. Final drafts of FSS #1-5 due by Monday, December 9.
Relation of FSS to DRP: Students may choose any “readings for further study” from the textbook for their FSS. Some
students find it helpful to select readings that are relevant to the directed research proposal (DRP; details below).
Questions and Feedback: Please email with any requests for developmental feedback, requests for help with the USF
library, and/or questions about academic honesty. Working drafts of FSS #1-5 may be submitted in advance of the
deadline for developmental feedback and/or for early-grading; working drafts of FSSs are to be emailed to
[email protected] with Request for Feedback in Subject Line.
Instructions/Rubric:
• Please number each summary (FSS #1, #2, #3, #4, and #5) – thank you!
• Please number your responses so that answers directly correspond to the questions provided below
• Per #7 below, FSS must follow the “APA citation basics” from Paiz et al. (2013) – see pages 2-3
• Review (i.e., non-empirical) articles are acceptable for summaries; please adjust instructions as needed
• Sample FSS available – see pages 4-7
1. Article: What is the article? (+2)
a) Title of article
b) Name of journal
c) Name of author(s)
2. Source: What is the source of the article? (+2) This will either be a chapter and page from the textbook (e.g.,
Grand Theories Era of Ch. 2, p. 45) or it will be chapter and slide from my lecture (e.g., Self-Determination
Theory, Ch. 5, slide 2)
3. Summary: What is the study about? (See a-d below) (+4)
a) What are the main research questions?
b) What is the design of the study?
c) What are its results?
d) Were there any ethical concerns?
4. Analysis of Theory and Results: Is the study well-done? (+3) How well does the method test its hypotheses? Is
there something that could be done in the future to improve the study?
5. Motivation and Emotion: What does the study have to do with motivation and emotion? (+3) Why do you
think this reading was identified as worthy of further investigation?
6. Value Added: What are TWO things that you learned from the further reading, relative to the textbook
chapter? (+8) What is the value of the article “above and beyond the chapter” if any?
7. In-text Citations and Reference Page: Follow APA citation-basics (+2) (Paiz et al., 2013;
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/ -- see next two pages) (+3)
mailto:[email protected]
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/ ...
Exercise Package 2 Systems and its properties (Tip Alwa.docxelbanglis
Exercise Package 2:
Systems and its properties: (Tip: Always use the components symbols, C, RS, KT, etc., in the derivation of
transfer function and only plug in component values at the last step. Show your steps and tell me a complete
story.)
1) Consider a 100mH inductor with v-i relationship in passive device labeling convention:
a. Find transfer function H(s) with current flowing through the inductor as the input, i(t),
and voltage across the inductor as the output, v(t), (in the unit of Ohms).
b. Find the same input-output relationship in the expression of differential equation.
c. Find v1(t) with input i1(t)=2sin(100t) (mA) and v2(t) with input i2(t)=0.4cos(500t) (mA)
respectively.
d. Show time invariant such that v(t)=v1(t−τ) as i(t)=i1(t−τ)=2sin(100t−0.9) (mA).
e. Show linearity using superposition such that v(t)=v1(t)+v2(t) as i(t)=i1(t)+i2(t).
2) Given following, a practical integrator, circuit, where Rf=100KΩ, R1=9.1KΩ, RS=100Ω, C=0.1µF,
and the OpAmp is an ideal operational amplifier:
a. Find the transfer function in between the output VO(t) and input VS(t), VO(t)=H(s){VS(t)}.
b. Find the same input-output relationship in the expression of differential equation.
c. Find VO1(t) (sinusoidal steady state response) with input VS1(t)=0.2sin(100t) (V) and VO2(t)
with input VS2(t)=0.4cos(5000t) (V) respectively.
d. Show time invariant such that VO(t)= VO1(t−τ) as VS(t)= VS1(t−τ)=0.2sin(100t−0.9) (V).
e. Show linearity using superposition such that VO(t)= VO1(t)+VO2(t) with VS(t)=VS1(t)+ VS2(t).
3) Here is a typical coupling network in electronics where coupling capacitor, selected, C=0.022µF,
input impedance, Zi=5.7KΩ, and input source resistor, RS=520Ω:
a. Find the transfer function, H(s), Vout(t)=H(s){Vin(t)}.
b. Find the same input-output relationship in the expression of differential equation.
c. Find VOut(t) (sinusoidal steady state response) with input Vin1(t)=2sin(50t+0.4) (V) and
Vin2(t) with input Vin2(t)=4cos(10000t) (V) respectively.
4) Here is a typical bypass network in electronics where bypass capacitor, selected, C=10µF, and
the equivalent (Thevenin) resistor of circuit to be bypassed, Req=376Ω:
Vcc+
Vcc-
Vo
Vs
Rf
R1Rs
C
Vin Vout
CRs
Zi
a. Find the transfer function, H(s), VS(t)=H(s){IS(t)} (note: the unit is ohm).
b. Find the same input-output relationship in the expression of differential equation.
c. Find VS1(t) (sinusoidal steady state response) with input Is1(t)=0.2cos(10t+0.3) (A) and
VS2(t) with input IS2(t)=0.5cos(10000t) (A) respectively.
5) The following circuit is an active filter (2nd order Butterworth low-pass filter), with the selected
values: R=10KΩ, C=8200pF, Rf=68KΩ, and R1=120KΩ.
a. Derive the transfer function, H(s), Vout(t)=H(s){Vin(t)}. (Tip: the selected R is much greater
than RS such that RS can be ignored in the derivation. Label extraordinary nodes and use
node voltage method. OpAmp is considered ideal.)
b. Show that th ...
Exercises for Chapter 8 Exercises III Reflective ListeningRef.docxelbanglis
Exercises for Chapter 8
Exercises III: Reflective Listening
Reflective Listening I
Instructions: People communicate words and ideas, and sometimes it seems appropriate to respond to the content of what someone has just said. Behind the words, however, lie the feelings. Often it is most helpful to respond to the feelings.
Following are statements made by people with problems. For each statement, first identify the feeling; write down the word you think best describes how the person might be feeling. Next, write a brief empathic response—a short sentence that includes the feeling. Refer to the sample openers provided in Chapter 7 under the heading “Useful Responses.”
1. “When I was in court, the defense attorney really pounded me. You know, like he thought I was lying or didn’t believe me or thought I was exaggerating.”
FEELING:
EMPATHIC RESPONSE:
2. “Those dirty, lousy creeps! Everything was fine in my life, and they really, really ruined everything! I don’t care if I go on or not. Why live if someone can just take everything away from you in one night?”
FEELING:
EMPATHIC RESPONSE:
3. “I know you said this is temporary housing and all, but I never had a place like this place. I can’t stand to think I have to move again sometime, and God knows where I’ll go.”
FEELING:
EMPATHIC RESPONSE:
4. “This whole setup is the pits. He gets to stay in the house after beating me half to death, and I have to go to this cramped little room. Does that make sense?”
FEELING:
EMPATHIC RESPONSE:
Instructions Part II: Now go back and respond to the content in each of these vignettes.
Reflective Listening II
Instructions: People communicate words and ideas, and sometimes it seems appropriate to respond to the content of what someone has just said. Behind the words, however, lie the feelings. Often it is most helpful to respond to the feelings.
Following are statements made by people with problems. For each statement, first identify the feeling; write down the word you think best describes how the person might be feeling. Next, write a brief empathic response—a short sentence that includes the feeling. Refer to the sample openers provided in Chapter 7 under the heading “Useful Responses.”
1. “Sometimes it kind of makes me sick to think of all the stuff I did when I was drinking. I’d like to go and take it all back, but how do you ever do that?”
FEELING:
EMPATHIC RESPONSE:
2. “I just can’t go out in the car. All I hear is the screech of tires and the awful thud and scrape of metal. I thought I was dying. I can see it all before me as if it was yesterday.”
FEELING:
EMPATHIC RESPONSE:
3. “We have a neighborhood problem here! Yes we do! A real big idiot lives in that house. A real nut! He trimmed my own yard with a string trimmer and threw stones all over my car. Ruined the paint!”
FEELING:
EMPATHIC RESPONSE:
4. “I never meant to get pregnant. I know everyone says that, but I didn’t! I can’t think straight. What about my job and school and all ...
Exercise 9-08On July 1, 2019, Sheridan Company purchased new equ.docxelbanglis
Exercise 9-08
On July 1, 2019, Sheridan Company purchased new equipment for $80,000. Its estimated useful life was 8 years with a $12,000 salvage value. On December 31, 2022, the company estimated that the equipment’s remaining useful life was 10 years, with a revised salvage value of $5,000.
Prepare the journal entry to record depreciation on December 31, 2019. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually. If no entry is required, select "No Entry" for the account titles and enter 0 for the amounts.)
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
enter an account title
enter a debit amount
enter a credit amount
enter an account title
enter a debit amount
enter a credit amount
Prepare the journal entry to record depreciation on December 31, 2020. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually. If no entry is required, select "No Entry" for the account titles and enter 0 for the amounts.)
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
enter an account title
enter a debit amount
enter a credit amount
enter an account title
enter a debit amount
enter a credit amount
Compute the revised annual depreciation on December 31, 2022.
Revised annual depreciation
$
Prepare the journal entry to record depreciation on December 31, 2022. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when amount is entered. Do not indent manually. If no entry is required, select "No Entry" for the account titles and enter 0 for the amounts.)
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
enter an account title
enter a debit amount
enter a credit amount
enter an account title
enter a debit amount
enter a credit amount
Compute the balance in Accumulated Depreciation—Equipment for this equipment after depreciation expense has been recorded on December 31, 2022.
Accumulated Depreciation—Equipment
$
Problem 9-03A
Ivanhoe Company had the following assets on January 1, 2022.
Item
Cost
Purchase Date
Useful Life
(in years)
Salvage Value
Machinery
$73,000
Jan. 1, 2012
10
$ 0
Forklift
32,000
Jan. 1, 2019
5
0
Truck
38,400
Jan. 1, 2017
8
3,000
During 2022, each of the assets was removed from service. The machinery was retired on January 1. The forklift was sold on June 30 for $12,200. The truck was discarded on December 31.
Journalize all entries required on the above dates, including entries to update depreciation, where applicable, on disposed assets. The company uses straight-line depreciation. All depreciation was up to date as of December 31, 2021. (Credit account titles are automatically indented when the amount is entered. Do not indent manually. If no entry is required, select "No Entry" for the account titles and enter 0 for the amounts.)
Date
Account Titles and Explanation
Debit
Credit
choose a transaction date
enter an account title
enter a debit amount
enter a credit amount
enter an ac ...
ExemplaryVery GoodProficientOpportunity for ImprovementU.docxelbanglis
Exemplary
Very Good
Proficient
Opportunity for Improvement
Unacceptable
Element 1a: Content of Executive Summary: Responding to the Questions
6.5 (5%)
Student presents a thorough and complete Executive Summary with rich, articulate, and well-reasoned responses to all of the questions posed in the assignment and eloquently embeds them into a cohesive and compelling Executive Summary, with direct and relevant references to the Course and Program Outcomes.
6.04 (4.65%)
Student presents an Executive Summary with well-reasoned responses to all of the questions posed in the assignment and embeds them into an Executive Summary with references to the Course and Program Outcomes.
5.53 (4.25%)
Student presents an Executive Summary of the course that addresses the questions posed in the assignment and makes some connections to the Course and Program Outcomes. Some examples and resources support thinking.
4.88 (3.75%)
Student provides cursory coverage of some or all the questions posed as part of the requirements for the Executive Summary or does not address all of the questions, although he/she does provide a summary of one or two.
0 (0%)
Not submitted or little to no evidence of addressing the criterion.
Element 1b: Content of Executive Summary: Impact of Lessons Learned In Course
6.5 (5%)
Student provides a comprehensive summary of his/her main lessons from the course and how those support his/her achievement of at least two course outcomes providing a rich assessment of the main ideas or conclusions he/she has taken from the experience in the course including assessing how these will affect his/her practices now and in the future.
6.04 (4.65%)
Student provides a summary of his/her main lessons from the course and how those support his/her achievement of one or two course outcomes providing an assessment of the main ideas or conclusions he/she has taken from the experience in the course including assessing how these will affect his/her practices now and in the future.
5.53 (4.25%)
Student provides a description of the main lessons of the course and how those relate to his/her achievement of course and program outcomes as well as how these will affect his/her practices now and in the future.
4.88 (3.75%)
Student summarizes a few main points from the classroom, but does not create an Executive Summary aligned with the expectations as outlined in the document provided in the classroom.
0 (0%)
Not submitted or little to no evidence of addressing the criterion.
Element 1c: Format of Executive Summary: Beginning
6.5 (5%)
Student begins the Executive Summary with a compelling statement of its purpose and presents a succinct and cohesive summary that focuses on the main outcomes he/she ascertained from the course and his/her experience in engaging in the assignments and discussions. Relevant examples and resources support thinking.
6.04 (4.65%)
Student begins the Executive Summary with a statement of its purpose and presents a succinct summary that focuses on ...
Exercise Question #1 Highlight your table in Excel. Copy the ta.docxelbanglis
Exercise Question #1
Highlight your table in Excel. Copy the table. In Word, place cursor where you want to Paste the Table. Right click and under Paste Options click Picture. This will paste the Table into your Word document as a Picture.
Discussion: Your Discussion should be double spaced and fill the rest of the page.
Exercise Question #2
Discussion:
1064
435
323
243
134
Project A
Project B
Project C
Project D
Weighted
& Total
Score
Project\
Criteria &
Weight
Criteria 1Criteria 2Criteria 3
1073
134
353
543
231
Project D
Project\
Criteria &
Weight
Project B
Criteria 2Criteria 3
Weighted
& Total
Score
Project A
Criteria 1
Project C
C9-1
CASE STUDY 9
ST. LUKE'S HEALTH CARE SYSTEM
Hospitals have been some of the earliest adopters of wireless local area
networks (WLANs). The clinician user population is typically mobile and
spread out across a number of buildings, with a need to enter and access
data in real time. St. Luke's Episcopal Health System in Houston, Texas
(www.stlukestexas.com) is a good example of a hospital that has made
effective use wireless technologies to streamline clinical work processes.
Their wireless network is distributed throughout several hospital buildings
and is used in many different applications. The majority of the St. Luke’s
staff uses wireless devices to access data in real-time, 24 hours a day.
Examples include the following:
• Diagnosing patients and charting their progress: Doctors and
nurses use wireless laptops and tablet PCs to track and chart patient
care data.
• Prescriptions: Medications are dispensed from a cart that is wheeled
from room to room. Clinician uses a wireless scanner to scan the
patient's ID bracelet. If a prescription order has been changed or
cancelled, the clinician will know immediately because the mobile device
displays current patient data.
http://www.stlukestexas.com/
C9-2
• Critical care units: These areas use the WLAN because running hard
wires would mean moving ceiling panels. The dust and microbes that
such work stirs up would pose a threat to patients.
• Case management: The case managers in the Utilization Management
Department use the WLAN to document patient reviews, insurance
calls/authorization information, and denial information. The wireless
session enables real time access to information that ensures the correct
level of care for a patient and/or timely discharge.
• Blood management: Blood management is a complex process that
involves monitoring both patients and blood products during all stages of
a treatment process. To ensure that blood products and patients are
matched correctly, St. Luke’s uses a wireless bar code scanning process
that involves scanning both patient and blood product bar codes during
the infusion process. This enables clinicians to confirm patient and blood
product identification before proceeding with t ...
Executive SummaryXYZ Development, LLC has requested ASU Geotechn.docxelbanglis
Executive Summary
XYZ Development, LLC has requested ASU Geotechnical, Inc. to organize a geotechnical evaluation with recommendations regarding foundation for three planned structures. XYZ Development, LLC has planned to construct a three-story medical tower, a one-story office building, and a multi-story parking garage on a 10-acre property that is in West Memphis, AR. In addition, an 18-feet high retaining wall is planned to be constructed on the north side of the parking garage.
ASU Geotechnical, Inc. was provided with soil data included a log of a borehole that extended to a depth of 100 feet. Has recommended a 6’ x 6’ shallow foundation for the one- story building at depth of 5 feet. The expected settlement under the foundation for the parking garage was calculated to be 1.09 inches, and the expected settlement for the medical tower was calculated to be 0.78 inch. Also, ASU Geotechnical, Inc. has recommended a drilled shaft deep foundation design to be used for the three-story medical tower. Furthermore, for the 3-story medical tower the pile should have a diameter of 48 inches and reach a depth of 40 feet below the ground surface with a total of 2 piles required per column. For the multi-story parking garage, a drilled shaft should have a diameter of 48 inches and reach a depth of 70 feet below the ground surface with a total of 2 piles required per column.
The expected total differential settlement for the parking garage was calculated to be 0.31 inches, and the total differential settlement for the tower was calculated to be 0.23 inch. The recommended dimensions for the retaining wall include a 12-foot-wide footing base with 1.5-foot thickness. The entire retaining wall should have a total height of 20 feet, with only 18 feet above the ground surface. The 0.5 foot of soil above the toe was placed to adjust the effects of sliding of the wall. The base of the stem wall should have a thickness of 1.5-foot, and the top of the stem wall should have a thickness of 8 inches. Also, the factor of safety for sliding was calculated to be 1.59, the factor of safety for the bearing capacity was calculated to be 2.78
Introduction
XYZ Development, LLC in planning to construct residential and commercial facilities on a 10-acre property that is in West Memphis, AR the largest city in Crittenden County. The property will include a one-story office building, a three-story medical tower, and a multi-story parking garage with an 18-feet high retaining wall on the north side of the parking garage. The expected maximum column load for the one- story office building would be 50 kips, 350 kips for the three-story medical tower, and 900 kips for the parking garage. The dead load was expected to be 65 % of the maximum column load with column spacing at 35 feet. ABC Engineering, Inc. has requested ASU geotechnical Inc. to submit a geotechnical report that included: shallow foundation recommendations, total and different settlements under the maximum column ...
Exemplary
Proficient
Progressing
Emerging
Element (1): Responsiveness: Did the student respond to the main question of the week?
9 points (28%)
Posts exceed requirements of the Discussion instructions (e.g., respond to the question being asked; go beyond what is required [i.e., incorporates additional readings outside of the assigned Learning Resources, and/or shares relevant professional experiences]; are substantive, reflective, and refers to Learning Resources demonstrating that the student has considered the information in Learning Resources and colleague postings).
9 points
Posts are responsive to and meet the requirements of the Discussion instructions. Posts respond to the question being asked in a substantive, reflective way and refer to Learning Resources demonstrating that the student has read, viewed, and considered the Learning Resources and colleague postings.
7–8 points
Posts are somewhat responsive to the requirements of the Discussion instructions. Posts are not substantive and rely more on anecdotal evidence (i.e., largely comprised of student opinion); and/or does not adequately demonstrate that the student has read, viewed, and considered Learning Resources and colleague postings.
4–6 points
Posts are unresponsive to the requirements of the Discussion instructions; miss the point of the question by providing responses that are not substantive and/or solely anecdotal (i.e., comprised of only student opinion); and do not demonstrate that the student has read, viewed, and considered Learning Resources and colleague postings.
0–3 points
Element (2): Critical Thinking, Analysis, and Synthesis: Is the student able to make meaning of the information?
9 points (28%)
Posts demonstrate the student’s ability to apply, reflect, AND synthesize concepts and issues presented in the weekly Learning Objectives. Student has integrated and mastered the general principles, ideas, and skills presented. Reflections include clear and direct correlation to authentic examples or are drawn from professional experience; insights demonstrate significant changes in awareness, self-understanding, and knowledge.
9 points
Posts demonstrate the student’s ability to apply, reflect OR synthesize concepts and issues presented in the weekly Learning Objectives. The student has integrated many of the general principles, ideas, and skills presented. Reflections include clear and direct correlation to authentic examples or are drawn from professional experience, share insights that demonstrate a change in awareness, self- understanding, and knowledge.
7–8 points
Posts demonstrate minimal ability to apply, reflect, or synthesize concepts and issues presented in the weekly Learning Objectives. The student has not fully integrated the general principles, ideas, and skills presented. There are little to no salient reflections, examples, or insights/experiences provided.
4–6 points
Posts demonstrate a lack of ability to apply, reflect, or synthesize c ...
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
In this research, it concludes that while the readiness of teachers in Caloocan City to implement the MATATAG Curriculum is generally positive, targeted efforts in professional development, resource distribution, support networks, and comprehensive preparation can address the existing gaps and ensure successful curriculum implementation.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Thesis Statement for students diagnonsed withADHD.ppt
Executive FunctionThe Search for an Integrated AccountMari.docx
1. Executive Function
The Search for an Integrated Account
Marie T. Banich
Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, and Institute of
Cognitive Science, University of Colorado at Boulder;
Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado Denver
ABSTRACT—In general, executive function can be thought
of as the set of abilities required to effortfully guide be-
havior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations.
Psychologists are interested in expanding the under-
standing of executive function because it is thought to be a
key process in intelligent behavior, it is compromised in a
variety of psychiatric and neurological disorders, it varies
across the life span, and it affects performance in compli-
cated environments, such as the cockpits of advanced
aircraft. This article provides a brief introduction to the
concept of executive function and discusses how it is
assessed and the conditions under which it is compromised.
2. A short overview of the diverse theoretical viewpoints re-
garding its psychological and biological underpinnings is
also provided. The article concludes with a consideration
of how a multilevel approach may provide a more inte-
grated account of executive function than has been previ-
ously available.
KEYWORDS—executive function; frontal lobe; prefrontal
cortex; inhibition; task switching; working memory; atten-
tion; top-down control
Like other psychological constructs, such as memory, executive
function is multidimensional. As such, there exists a variety of
models that provide varying viewpoints as to its basic
component
processes. Nonetheless, common across most of them is the idea
that executive function is a process used to effortfully guide
behavior toward a goal, especially in nonroutine situations.
Various functions or abilities are thought to fall under the
rubric
of executive function. These include prioritizing and sequencing
3. behavior, inhibiting familiar or stereotyped behaviors, creating
and maintaining an idea of what task or information is most
relevant for current purposes (often referred to as an attentional
or mental set), providing resistance to information that is dis-
tracting or task irrelevant, switching between task goals, uti-
lizing relevant information in support of decision making,
categorizing or otherwise abstracting common elements across
items, and handling novel information or situations. As can be
seen from this list, the functions that fall under the category of
executive function are indeed wide ranging.
ASSESSING EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
The very nature of executive function makes it difficult to
measure in the clinic or the laboratory; it involves an individual
guiding his or her behavior, especially in novel, unstructured,
and nonroutine situations that require some degree of judgment.
In contrast, standard testing situations are structured—partic-
ipants are explicitly told what the task is, given rules for per-
forming the task, and provided with information on task
4. constraints (e.g., time limits). Since executive function covers
a wide domain of skills, there is no single agreed-upon ‘‘gold
standard’’ test of executive function. Rather, different tasks are
typically used to assess its different facets.
One classic test often used to assess the compromise of ex-
ecutive function after brain injury is the Wisconsin Card Sorting
Test. This task is thought to measure a variety of executive
subprocesses, including the ability to infer the categories that
should guide behavior, the ability to create an attentional set
based on those abstract categories, and the ability to switch
one’s
attentional set as task demands change. Briefly, individuals
must
deduce from the experimenter’s response the rule by which the
cards should be sorted (rather than being told the rule
explicitly;
see Fig. 1a). After the initial rule is learned successfully, the
examiner changes the rule without informing the individual. At
this point the old rule must be rejected, the new rule discovered,
5. and a switch made from the old rule to the new. The ability to
exhibit such flexible readjustment of behavior is a cardinal
characteristic of executive function. Individuals with frontal
lobe damage and children younger than 4 years (who are typi-
cally tested on a two-dimensional version of the sorting task)
tend to persist in sorting items according to the previous and
now
inappropriate rule.
Address correspondence to Marie Banich, Director, Institute of
Cognitive Science, University of Colorado at Boulder, UCB
0344,
Boulder, CO 80305; e-mail: [email protected]
CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Volume 18—Number 2 89Copyright r 2009 Association for
Psychological Science
Cognitive psychologists have attempted to disentangle the
different executive subprocesses that underlie performance on
the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, as well as to identify other
executive subprocesses. For example, the ability to switch
mental sets has been studied by presenting individuals with
6. multidimensional stimuli (e.g., a colored numeral) along with a
cue that indicates the attribute on which a response should be
based (e.g., color, or whether the number is odd or even). Indi-
viduals are slower to respond and make more errors on trials
requiring a task switch (e.g., categorize by color preceded by
categorize by odd/even) than they do on those that do not (e.g.,
categorize by color preceded by categorize by color), indicating
that task switching requires executive control (Monsell, 2003).
In other executive tasks, decisions must be based on task-
relevant information in the face of distracting information. One
such measure of this ability is the Stroop task, in which a
word’s
color must be identified while ignoring the word itself. Since
word reading is more automatic than color naming, executive
control is required to override the tendency to read or to
respond
on the basis of the word rather than the ink color. The need for
such control is reflected in slower responses when the word
names a competing ink color (e.g., the word ‘‘red’’ printed in
blue
7. ink) than when it does not (e.g., the word ‘‘sum’’ in red ink or
the
word ‘‘red’’ in red ink).
Other tasks, such as the Tower of London task, examine the
ability to plan and sequence behavior towards a goal. In this
task,
a start state and a goal state are shown, and the individual must
determine the shortest number of moves required to get the balls
from the starting state to the goal state (see Fig. 1b). An
inability
to solve the problems, taking more steps than necessary, and/or
impulsively starting to move the balls before planning are all
symptoms of executive dysfunction on this task.
THE COMPROMISE OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
Psychologists are interested in executive function because it is
critical for self-directed behavior, so much so that the greater
the
decrement in executive function after brain damage, the poorer
the ability to live independently (Hanks, Rapport, Millis, &
Deshpande, 1999). Normal children, adolescents, and older
8. adults also show decrements in executive function. Most notable
in children is their perseveration when required to switch tasks.
Although they can correctly answer questions about what they
should do, they nonetheless are often unable to produce the
correct motor response (Zelazo, Fyre, & Rapus, 1996).
Similarly,
parents often wonder why teenagers take risks and make im-
prudent decisions even though they seem to ‘‘know’’ better.
This
demonstrated knowledge about abstract rules coupled with an
inability to implement them, especially in the face of distracting
or conflicting information, is reminiscent of that observed in
children. The ability to plan ahead in multistep processes, to
learn about contingences between reward and punishment in
multifaceted decision-making tasks, and to exert inhibitory
control and reduce impulsive behavior continues to increase
during the teenage years and, in fact, well into the early 20s
(Steinberg, 2007). Executive function is also the cognitive
ability most affected by aging (e.g., Treitz, Heyder, & Daum,
9. 2007), with even more severe decline associated with mild
cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Finally, execu-
tive function is compromised across a large number of psychi-
atric illnesses, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder,
??
First Move
Second Move
FinishStart
Fourth Move
Third Move
a
b
Fig. 1. Examples of tasks often used to assess executive
function. In the
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (a), individuals must sort cards
into one of
four piles; each card has items on it that vary along three
dimensions—
color, number, and shape—with each dimension having one of
four values
(e.g., Color: red, blue, green, or yellow; Number: 1, 2, 3, or 4;
Shape:
circle, square, triangle, or cross). Individuals must deduce the
10. correct rule
(i.e., dimension) on which to sort the cards based on feedback
provided by
the examiner about whether each choice made was correct or
incorrect.
When therule is changed,individualswith prefrontaldamage
andchildren
younger than 4 often perseverate on this type of task. They are
either
unable to learn the new rule or return to the old rule even after
they have
successfully sorted a number of trials by that new rule. In the
Tower of
London task (b), an individual is shown a series of items with
an initial state
and a goal state; on every trial, there are three pegs, which can
hold one,
two, and three balls, respectively. The individual must
determine the
shortest number of moves required to get from the initial state
to the final
goalstate.In somecases,suchas
inthesequenceshownhere,theindividual
may have to backtrack—that is, move a ball to a temporary
position (the
first move) before moving it back to its final position.
90 Volume 18—Number 2
Executive Function
depression, substance use disorders, and attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (e.g., Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, &
11. Pennington, 2005).
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND NEUROBIOLOGICAL MODELS
OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
Even though there is agreement that damage to the frontal lobe
is
associated with compromised executive function, there is little
accord on much else—with regard either to the cognitive com-
ponents of executive function or to the manner in which the
frontal lobe supports executive function. This lack of consensus
seriously inhibits our understanding of the psychological and
neural mechanisms underlying executive function, as well as the
development of treatments to prevent or ameliorate deficits in
this area.
To somewhat oversimplify a complicated literature, one class
of models argues that executive function is an emergent
function
of a more basic, largely monolithic psychological construct like
general intelligence (g), fluid intelligence, reasoning and pro-
cessing speed, or the ability to actively maintain information
12. online to meet task demands (often conceptualized as working
memory; e.g., Salthouse & Davis, 2006). Studies examining in-
dividual differences in task performance across neurologically
intact individuals suggest that there may actually be distinct
subcomponents to executive function, including the ability to
inhibit a prepotent response, the ability to shift the task set
guiding behavior, and the ability to update the contents of
working memory. Of note, studies of twins suggest that at least
some of these subcomponents, notably response inhibition and
set shifting, appear to be separable from g (Friedman et al.,
2006).
Equally contentious are theories regarding the neural mech-
anisms of executive function. Some researchers have argued
that
lateral regions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are engaged across
a diverse set of demands that engage executive function
(Duncan
& Owen, 2000). Such theories are consistent with findings that
the performance of patients with frontal lobe lesions across
13. distinct tasks can be explained by a single factor. Other theories
hold, however, that distinct regions of the prefrontal cortex are
involved in different aspects of executive functions. For exam-
ple, Petrides (2005) has argued that inferior lateral regions of
the
prefrontal cortex (Brodmann Areas [BA] 45, 47) maintain in-
formation in working memory while others, notably mid-dorso-
lateral prefrontal regions (BA 9, 46), perform executive-control
operations on that information. Another theory is that control
mechanisms in the prefrontal cortex are organized in a hierar-
chical manner, with more anterior regions using internally
generated information to guide behavior and more posterior
regions using information from the environment (Christoff &
Gabrieli, 2000). Another idea, based on the pattern of
decrement
found across a battery of tests in patients with focal frontal le-
sions, is that there are three main types of executive function,
each associated with a different part of the frontal cortex. In
this
14. view, initiating and sustaining a response rely on medial frontal
regions, task setting relies on left lateral regions, and
monitoring
involved in checking and adjusting task performance over time
relies on right lateral regions (Stuss & Alexander, 2007).
Based on functional neuroimaging studies with the Stroop
task, our laboratory has taken yet another view. We suggest that
executive function involves a temporal cascade of selection
processes that are implemented at distinct way stations in the
PFC (see Fig. 2). In this model, posterior regions of the dorso-
lateral PFC (DLPFC) impose an attentional set toward task-
relevant processes. This region activates when it is difficult
to ignore information that engages a task-irrelevant process,
regardless of the type of task-irrelevant process (e.g., word
reading, color identification) or the nature of the process that
is required for the task (e.g., color identification, object identi-
fication; Banich et al., 2000). In contrast, the mid-DLPFC
selects among the specific representations identified as task-
relevant. For example, this region becomes activated for both
15. incongruent (e.g., ‘‘red’’ in blue ink) and congruent (e.g.,
‘‘red’’ in
red ink) trials in the Stroop task, because one must determine
which source of color information (that contained in the ink
color
or that contained in the word) is task-relevant (Milham, Banich,
& Barad, 2003). Posterior portions of the dorsal anterior
cingulate cortex (ACC) tend to be involved in late-stage aspects
of selection, being especially sensitive to response-related fac-
tors. This region shows the greatest activity when stimuli lead
to
two competing responses and is less sensitive to semantic types
of conflict (Milham et al., 2001). Finally, anterior regions of the
dorsal ACC appear to be involved in processes related to re-
sponse evaluation, as activity in this region increases when the
probability of making an error increases (Miham & Banich,
2005). An important part of our theory is that how much any of
these executive-control mechanisms are invoked depends on
how effectively control was applied at earlier way stations, with
16. activity in the ACC being affected by how well regions of
DLPFC
impose control. For example, with increased practice at a Stroop
task, activity in the DLPFC drops slightly, but that of the pos-
terior dorsal ACC diminishes greatly as control by DLPFC
becomes more effective (Milham, Banich, Claus, & Cohen,
2003). Conversely, relative to younger adults, older adults show
less DLPFC activity but increased cingulate activity (Miham
et al., 2002), which is consistent with the cascade-of-control
model.
TOWARD AN INTEGRATED MODEL
How can all these different conceptions of executive function be
reconciled? This is a major challenge facing the field today. In
pursuit of a more integrated account of executive function, our
laboratory is working collaboratively along with others at the
University of Colorado and the University of Illinois under the
auspices of a National Institute of Mental Health center grant to
Volume 18—Number 2 91
Marie T. Banich
17. link theories of executive function across different levels of
analysis. We are considering the nature of executive function at
three distinct levels: the neurobiological (at the level of both
neurotransmitters and brain systems), the psychological, and
the computational. Our goal is to consider how information at
each of these levels can be linked, and thereby lead to a theory
of
executive function that can better account for the many
disparate
pieces of knowledge currently available.
One example of an issue being actively examined within our
center is the nature of executive processes involved in the im-
position and switching of task sets. Our computational models,
as well as empirical studies ofneurotransmitter function, suggest
that dopaminergic connections from the basal ganglia to the
frontal cortex act as a gate, signaling whether one should
hold onto the information currently being maintained in
working memory or clear it out to allow new information to
18. enter
(O’Reilly, 2006). These findings raise the possibility that
genetic
variation in dopaminergic function influences the maintenance
and switching of task sets, a possibility we are currently inves-
tigating. At the level of brain systems, one major area affected
by
this gating would be the posterior portion of the DLPFC, which
according to our cascade-of-control model is involved in creat-
ing and maintaining an attentional set. Moreover, recent work
by
colleagues at the University of Illinois suggests that these same
posterior regions of the DLPFC are involved in creating and
maintaining an ‘‘affective’’ set, as activity in this region during
attentionally demanding tasks differs between depressed and
nondepressed individuals (Herrington et al., 2009). Develop-
mental research in our center shows, at the psychological and
computational levels, that a child’s ability to create abstract
representations of categories predicts her or his task-switching
abilities (Kharitonova, Chien, Colunga, & Munakata, in press).
19. One potential explanation is that actively maintained task-set
representations are relatively weak in children. They only be-
come stronger, as well as more abstract and able to be general-
ized, with practice or experience. Hence, a new task set with
3
Posterior dorsal ACC:
Select the information that
should guide responding
4
Anterior dorsal ACC:
Evaluate the response
W
C
mid-DLPFC:
Bias to task-relevant representations
21
WB
CG
RB
RG
Posterior DLPFC:
20. Bias to task-relevant processes
Fig. 2. Thecascade-of-
controlmodelofexecutivefunctioninfrontalcortex.Here we
showhow the
cascade-of-control model (Banich et al., 2000; Milham &
Banich, 2005; Milham, Banich, Claus, &
Cohen, 2003; Milham et al., 2002) would explain performance
on the Stroop task. The example
shown is for the word ‘‘blue’’ printed in green ink. The
direction of the cascade is indicated by the
dashed arrows. First, posterior regions of the dorsolateral
prefrontal cortex (DLPFC; 1) create
and impose a top-down attentional set for task-relevant goals. In
this case, a top-down attentional
set is imposed toward activation of brain regions involved in
ink-color identification (C). This bias
must be strong (as denoted by the thick line) to counteract the
automatic bias (noted by a thin line)
toward brain regionsthat areinvolvedin wordprocessing (W).
However, thistop-down attentional
set cannot overcome a lifetime of word reading, so selection
must occur among the representations
that are identified as related to color. We argue that mid-DLPFC
(2) selects which of the repre-
sentations,mostlikelybeing activelymaintained, is mosttask
relevant. Herethe selectionwouldbe
toward the ink color green (CG) as compared to the word
‘‘blue’’ (WB). Next, posterior regions of
the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (3) must determine what
information should be used in de-
termining the response (R), in this case selecting the response
(either verbal or manual) associated
with green (RG) as compared to the response associated with
blue (RB). However, if selection by
prior regions in the cascade (i.e., those in DLPFC) is poor, the
21. posterior dorsal cingulate must also
deal with any unresolved issues of selection from prior way
stations in the cascade before a re-
sponse can be emitted. Finally, more anterior regions of the
dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC;
4) are involved in response evaluation. If such an evaluation
suggests that an incorrect response
was made, these anterior regions of the dorsal ACC send a
signal back to posterior-DLPFC, telling
it to assert top-down control more strongly.
92 Volume 18—Number 2
Executive Function
which a child lacks experience will be relatively weak compared
to a prior task set that has been used repeatedly on preceding
trials.
These are some of our first steps at linking neurobiological,
psychological, and computational approaches in an effort to
better understand executive function. How might such an inte-
grated account be helpful? We believe that a more integrated
account may aid in the design of new interventions for
executive
dysfunction. For example, our findings suggest the possibility
22. that training people in building abstract categories may bolster
aspects of executive function such as task switching. One diffi-
culty with training regimens is that sometimes their results are
not immediately apparent but are only seen down the road.
Brain
imaging might provide a means to determine whether additional
or different regions come on line during the course of training
even before behavioral changes are manifest. Studies with drug
interventions might provide another way to bolster engagement
of brain regions necessary for executive function. In sum, an
integrated understanding of executive function should open up
new avenues for intervention to aid individuals who have com-
promised executive functioning because of a psychiatric disor-
der, brain damage, aging, or other factors.
Recommended Reading
Jurado, M.B., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive nature of
executive
function: A review of our current understanding.
Neuropsychology
Review, 17, 213–233. A longer review of executive function
from
the perspective of neuropsychology, linking behavior to brain
23. systems.
Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Emerson, M.J., Witzki, A.H.,
Howerter, A.,
& Wager, T.D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive
func-
tions and their contributions to complex ‘‘frontal lobe’’ tasks:
A
latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.
Out-
lines the argument for separable subcomponents of executive
function, drawn from a cognitive and individual-differences
perspective.
Royall, D.R., Lauterbach, E.C., Cummings, J.L., Reeve, A.,
Rummans,
T.A., Kaufer, D.I., et al. (2002). Executive control function: A
re-
view of its promise and challenges for clinical research. A
report
from the Committeeon Research of the
AmericanNeuropsychiatric
Association. Journal of Neuropsychiatry & Clinical
Neurosciences,
14, 377–405. Discusses the psychiatric and medical disorders
that
24. are associated with compromised executive function, how
execu-
tive function is assessed in clinical settings, and the linkage of
executive function with functional outcome; also discusses chal-
lenges in designing treatments for executive dysfunction.
Acknowledgments—The author would like to thank Gregory
Burgess, Wendy Heller, Gregory A. Miller, Yuko Munakata, and
Randy O’Reilly for comments on earlier versions of this manu-
script. The author would also like to thank all the members of
the Interdisciplinary Behavioral Science Center on the
Determinants of Executive Function and Dysfunction (NIMH
P50 MH079485) for their contributions to some of the ideas
presented in this article. Finally the author would like to
acknowledge the support of NIMH Grants P50 MH079485
and R01 MH070037, on which she serves as Principle Investi-
gator, and NIMH Grant R01 MH061358 (Wendy Heller,
Principal Investigator).
REFERENCES
Banich, M.T., Milham, M.P., Atchley, R.A, Cohen, N.J, Webb,
25. A.,
Wszalek, T., et al. (2000). fMRI studies of Stroop tasks reveal
unique roles of anterior and posterior brain systems in
attentional
selection. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 988–1000.
Christoff, K., & Gabrieli, J.D.E. (2000). The frontopolar cortex
and
human cognition: Evidence for a rostrocaudal hierarchical orga-
nization within the human prefrontal cortex. Psychobiology, 28,
168–186.
Duncan, J., & Owen, A.M. (2000). Common regions of the
human
frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Trends in
Neurosciences, 23, 475–483.
Friedman, N.P., Miyake, A., Corley, R.P., Young, S.E.,
DeFries, J.C., &
Hewitt, J.K. (2006). Not all executive functions are related to
intelligence. Psychological Science, 17, 172–179.
Hanks, R.A., Rapport, L.J., Millis, S.R., & Deshpande, S.A.
(1999).
Measures of executive functioning as predictors of functional
ability and social integration in a rehabilitation sample.
26. Archives
of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 80, 1030–1037.
Herrington, J.D., Heller, W., Mohanty, A., Engels, A., Banich,
M.T.,
Webb, A.G., & Miller, G.A. (2009). Lateralization of
asymmetric
brain function in emotion and depression. Manuscript submitted
for publication.
Kharitonova, M., Chien, S., Colunga, E., & Munakata, Y. (in
press).
More than a matter of getting ‘‘unstuck’’: Flexible thinkers use
more abstract representations than perseverators. Developmental
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Milham, M.P., & Banich, M.T. (2005). Anterior cingulate
cortex: An
fMRI analysis of conflict specificity & functional
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Human Brain Mapping, 25, 328–335.
Milham, M.P., Banich, M.T., & Barad, V. (2003). Competition
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priority in processing increases prefrontal cortex’s involvement
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Milham, M.P., Banich, M.T., Claus, E., & Cohen, N. (2003).
Practice-
related effects demonstrate complementary roles of anterior
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age, 18, 483–493.
Milham, M.P., Banich, M.T., Webb, A., Barad, V., Cohen, N.J.,
Wszalek,
T., & Kramer, A.F. (2001). The relative involvement of an-
terior cingulate and prefrontal cortex in attentional control
depends on nature of conflict. Cognitive Brain Research, 12,
467–473.
Milham, M.P., Erickson, K.I., Banich, M.T., Kramer, A.F.,
Webb, A.,
Wszalek, T., & Cohen, N.J. (2002). Attentional control in the
aging
brain: Insights from an fMRI study of the Stroop task. Brain &
Cognition, 49, 277–296.
Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 7, 134–
140.
O’Reilly, R.C. (2006). Biologically based computational models
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28. high-level cognition. Science, 314, 91–94.
Volume 18—Number 2 93
Marie T. Banich
Petrides, M. (2005). Lateral prefrontal cortex: Architectonic and
functional organization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 360, 781–795.
Salthouse, T.A., & Davis, H.P.(2006). Organization of cognitive
abilities
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mental Review, 26, 31–54.
Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk tasking in adolescence: New
perspectives
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logical Science, 16, 55–59.
Stuss, D.T., & Alexander, M.P. (2007). Is there a dysexecutive
syndrome? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Series B, Biological Sciences, 362, 901–915.
Treitz, F., Heyder, K., & Daum, I. (2007). Differential course of
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utive control changes during normal aging. Aging,
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ogy, and Cognition, 14, 370–393.
Willcutt, E.G., Doyle, A.E., Nigg, J.T., Faraone, S.V.,
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Zelazo, P.D., Frye, D., & Rapus, T. (1996). An age-related
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between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development,
11, 37–63.
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Week 2 Review Part 2: Essay Question
[WLOs: 1, 2, 5, 6] [CLOs: 1, 2, 3, 4]
The writing assignment this week is the second part of the
Weekly Review activity. You have received your randomized
essay question as the final part of your Week 2 Review Part 1:
Objective Questions activity. You will copy and paste this
prompt into a word document and write a short essay that
addresses the prompt. The prompts will be associated with real-
life scenarios; however you will use your Study Guide to
prepare. This portion of your Weekly Review cannot be retaken
as you were able to retake the Part 1 Objective Questions. The
essay question will be graded by the instructor and not
automatically. Feedback will be given so you can improve your
performance throughout the course.
Your essay
· Must be two to three double-spaced pages in length (not
including the reference page) and formatted according to APA
style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center (Links to an
external site.)’s APA Style (Links to an external site.)
· No title page is required.
42. · Must utilize academic voice. See the Academic Voice (Links
to an external site.) resource for additional guidance.
· Must begin with an introductory paragraph that has a distinct
thesis statement.
· A thesis statement is required because it is important to tell
your reader what you are going to inform them about. It should
clearly state the topic and the stance you are taking about this
topic. This can also help you to make sure you stay on topic
within your paper.
· Not sure how to write a clear thesis? Try using the Ashford
University Writing Center’s Thesis Generator (Links to an
external site.) or Writing a Thesis Statement (Links to an
external site.)
· Must end with a conclusion that summarizes your thought.
· Tell your reader why or how you have proven your position on
the topic.
· For assistance on writing Introductions & Conclusions (Links
to an external site.), refer to the Ashford Writing Center.
· Must address the topic of the essay with critical thought.
· Must use at least one scholarly source in addition to your
required course text, citing also within the body of writing as
support for your stance.
· The Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible
Sources (Links to an external site.) table offers additional
guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions
about whether a specific source is appropriate for this
assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has
the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a
particular assignment.
· Must document, in APA style, any information used from
sources with citations and as a list of references, at the end of
the essay. See the Formatting Your References List (Links to an
external site.) resource in the Ashford Writing Center for
specifications.