Entrepreneurs have played a major role in developing the Canad.docx

Entrepreneurs have played a major role in developing the
Canadian economy.
Choose a Canadian franchise you might be interested in
(excluding Canadian Tire).
Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of
franchising.
Write a 750-word essay covering the above topic (about 3
pages).
Give at least 5-6 valid academic references. Include a separate
reference page. Follow APA.
Evelyn Velasco
Professor K.Miller
Oceanography
6 December 2018
Current Event Project
In the article “Ocean Life Eats Tons of Plastic” by the
nationalgeographic new depicts
about how marine pollution causes harm. “As larger pieces of

plastic debris in the ocean are
broken down, they also collect algae and take an odor that is
similar to food that marine animals
consume..”(
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/08/ocean-life-eats-
plastic-larvaceans-anch
ovy-environment/ ). Since the plastic gives off this odor as if it
were food to these animals, they
have no idea what they are really consuming which causes them
to die easily or even worse get
consumed from people who eat fish specifically. To add on
plastic can end up getting caught
around animals necks even trapping them such as birds, turtles,
and etc.
Based on the current event that I’ve chosen in chapter 11, I saw
how plastic has always
been a major problem to manage in oceans since it is hard to
dispose and reuse again.
Throughout time the large pieces of plastic in the ocean end up
breaking up into small pieces
which ends up getting consumed by marine animals. Plastic
contains a lot of chemicals and this
is how it becomes even more fatal to these marine animals
causing them vanish rapidly. Some of

these chemicals such as mercury, DDT, and PCB is what making
environmentalist question
whether seafood is even safe enough to consume. In class we
discussed on how these micro
plastics are that getting broken down should be removed. In
other words, how can we convey
this message around the world on how to get rid of this waste
and not let it keep affecting oceans.
Amparo brijil
Kimberly miller oceanography
December 5, 2018
oceanography current event project
I read an article by Sarah gibbons (November 30 2018) “how
whales and dolphins may be
harmed by new seismic airgun approval” retrieved from
http://www.nationalgeographic.com. In
this article it states how conservationist are worries about
marine life, particular right whales a
species thats on the verge of extinction being effected by
seismic aigret to search for oil and gas
deposits buried in the sea floor. The reason conservationist are
concerned about this is due to the

threat of marine mammals such as whales and dolphins using
their sound for communicating ,
feeding or mating may be impacted by this blast. The studies
show that the blast can also harm
small marine life members such as zooplankton by decreasing
them about 64 percent with in
4,000 feet of the blast. A few topics that I learned from
oceanography have helped me
understand this article fully and how it really can effects
dolphins, whales, and zooplankton. With
out learning how important zooplankton are in the food chain
especially for whales such as the
right whales which have different ways of feeding compared to
other whales. Being apart of the
baleen category which means that they open their mouth wide to
fill with water and spit the
water out of the side of their mouth in order to keep krill or
planktons such as zooplankton.
Another thing I have learned from ch. 14 is how whales and
dolphins use echolocation and how
its important for them in many ways such as communicating and
feeding. The way echolocation
helps them with feeding is during mucky water when its hard to
see they can use echolocation in

order to see the shape of their pray through the water. I can see
how this blast can be bad and
effect these marine mammals especially when echolocation is a
main source for many to use in
lots of ways. Another thing I learned from ch. 2 about
petroleum oil spills and gas hydrates is I
can see this blast effecting marine life is that its main purpose
is to search for gas and oil deposits
and as I learned in oceanography class this can lead to oil spills
caused by offshore ocean
draining . learning and understanding different topics from my
class has help me understand why
this blast isn’t a good idea and why the conversationist are
worried.
Wendy Torres
Professor Miller
Oceanography 001
6 December 2018
I read the article “Tsunami and Earthquakes in Indonesia kill

nearly 400, officials say”, by
Richard C. Paddock and Muktita Suhartono published
September 28, 2018 in The New York
Times. The article discusses the tsunami that hit Indonesia in
the central Island of Sulawesi, after
a 7.5 magnitude earthquake had just passed. The article
continues talking about the number of
people affected by the earthquake, making 540 injured and 29
missing. Then more people were
confirmed dead after the tsunami hit the beach festival where
people were preparing for the
event. The article also talks about a video that was recorded by
a cellphone on top of a building,
showing the wave crashing onto the shore, then hitting roofs of
one-story buildings. The
estimated height of the tsunami was about 16 feet or 5 meters.
The article is about waves and water dynamics. In our class we
discussed waves and
water dynamics in chapter 8. We learned the way that tsunamis
are created and what causes
them. Tsunamis are caused by three things, earthquakes,
turbidity currents and underwater
volcanoes. The article also references seismic waves which is a
tsunami, because its triggered by

a seismic wave. A tsunami is basically a large destructive wave
that takes anything that is in its
way, it produces massive flooding. A vertical movement causes
displacement of the sea water
leading to a tsunami wave.
Wendy Torres
Professor Miller
Oceanography 001
6 December 2018
I read the article “Tsunami and Earthquakes in Indonesia kill
nearly 400, officials say”, by
Richard C. Paddock and Muktita Suhartono published
September 28, 2018 in The New York
Times. The article discusses the tsunami that hit Indonesia in
the central Island of Sulawesi, after
a 7.5 magnitude earthquake had just passed. The article
continues talking about the number of

people affected by the earthquake, making 540 injured and 29
missing. Then more people were
confirmed dead after the tsunami hit the beach festival where
people were preparing for the
event. The article also talks about a video that was recorded by
a cellphone on top of a building,
showing the wave crashing onto the shore, then hitting roofs of
one-story buildings. The
estimated height of the tsunami was about 16 feet or 5 meters.
The article is about waves and water dynamics. In our class we
discussed waves and
water dynamics in chapter 8. We learned the way that tsunamis
are created and what causes
them. Tsunamis are caused by three things, earthquakes,
turbidity currents and underwater
volcanoes. The article also references seismic waves which is a
tsunami, because its triggered by
a seismic wave. A tsunami is basically a large destructive wave
that takes anything that is in its
way, it produces massive flooding. A vertical movement causes
displacement of the sea water
leading to a tsunami wave.

Evelyn Velasco
Professor K.Miller
Oceanography
6 December 2018
In the article “Ocean Life Eats Tons of Plastic” by the
nationalgeographic new depicts
about how marine pollution causes harm. “As larger pieces of
plastic debris in the ocean are
broken down, they also collect algae and take an odor that is
similar to food that marine animals
consume..”(
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/08/ocean-life-eats-
plastic-larvaceans-anch
ovy-environment/ ). Since the plastic gives off this odor as if it
were food to these animals, they
have no idea what they are really consuming which causes them
to die easily or even worse get
consumed from people who eat fish specifically. To add on
plastic can end up getting caught
around animals necks even trapping them such as birds, turtles,

and etc.
Based on the current event that I’ve chosen in chapter 11, I saw
how plastic has always
been a major problem to manage in oceans since it is hard to
dispose and reuse again.
Throughout time the large pieces of plastic in the ocean end up
breaking up into small pieces
which ends up getting consumed by marine animals. Plastic
contains a lot of chemicals and this
is how it becomes even more fatal to these marine animals
causing them vanish rapidly. Some of
these chemicals such as mercury, DDT, and PCB is what making
environmentalist question
whether seafood is even safe enough to consume. In class we
discussed on how these micro
plastics are that getting broken down should be removed. In
other words, how can we convey
this message around the world on how to get rid of this waste
and not let it keep affecting oceans.
Amparo brijil
Kimberly miller oceanography

December 5, 2018
oceanography current event project
I read an article by Sarah gibbons (November 30 2018) “how
whales and dolphins may be
harmed by new seismic airgun approval” retrieved from
http://www.nationalgeographic.com. In
this article it states how conservationist are worries about
marine life, particular right whales a
species thats on the verge of extinction being effected by
seismic aigret to search for oil and gas
deposits buried in the sea floor. The reason conservationist are
concerned about this is due to the
threat of marine mammals such as whales and dolphins using
their sound for communicating ,
feeding or mating may be impacted by this blast. The studies
show that the blast can also harm
small marine life members such as zooplankton by decreasing
them about 64 percent with in
4,000 feet of the blast. A few topics that I learned from
oceanography have helped me
understand this article fully and how it really can effects
dolphins, whales, and zooplankton. With
out learning how important zooplankton are in the food chain
especially for whales such as the

right whales which have different ways of feeding compared to
other whales. Being apart of the
baleen category which means that they open their mouth wide to
fill with water and spit the
water out of the side of their mouth in order to keep krill or
planktons such as zooplankton.
Another thing I have learned from ch. 14 is how whales and
dolphins use echolocation and how
its important for them in many ways such as communicating and
feeding. The way echolocation
helps them with feeding is during mucky water when its hard to
see they can use echolocation in
order to see the shape of their pray through the water. I can see
how this blast can be bad and
effect these marine mammals especially when echolocation is a
main source for many to use in
lots of ways. Another thing I learned from ch. 2 about
petroleum oil spills and gas hydrates is I
can see this blast effecting marine life is that its main purpose
is to search for gas and oil deposits
and as I learned in oceanography class this can lead to oil spills
caused by offshore ocean
draining . learning and understanding different topics from my
class has help me understand why

this blast isn’t a good idea and why the conversationist are
worried.
4/23/18
1
Chapter 10: Beaches, Shorelines, and
the Coastal Ocean
• Beach terminology
• Sand transport on the beach
• Erosional and depositional shores
• Sea-level changes
• Types of coastal waters
Coastal Terminology
Shore – the zone that lies between
low tide and the highest elevation
on land affected by storm waves.
Can range from few meters to
100’s of meters.
Coast – extends inland from the
shore as far as ocean features can
be found. Can range from <1km to
tens of km.
Coastline - the boundary between
the shore and coast. The landward
limit of the effect of the highest
storm waves on the shore.

Beach Terminology
Backshore – area above high tide
and is covered in water only during
storms.
Foreshore – portion of shore that
is exposed at low tide and
submerged at high tide.
Shoreline – the water’s edge; line
marking the intersection of the
water surface with dry land. This
line migrates back and forth with
the tide.
Beach Terminology
Nearshore – extends seaward from
the low tide shoreline to the low
tide breaker line. It is never
exposed to atmosphere but it is
affected by waves that touch the
bottom.
Offshore – area beyond low tide
breakers which is deep enough
that waves rarely affect bottom.
Beach – a deposit of the shore
area. Sediment deposit seaward of
the coastline through the surf
zone. Consists of waveworked
sediment and is the active area of
the coast.

4/23/18
2
Beach Terminology
Wave-cut bench – flat, wave
eroded surface that sediment
moves along.
Berm – dry gently sloping, slightly
elevated margin of the beach that
can be found at the foot of coastal
cliffs or sand dunes. This is where
you hang out when you go to the
beach!
Beachface – offshore of berm, it is
a wet, sloping surface that extends
from the bermto the shoreline. It
is more fully exposed during low
tide. Sand is more hard-packed so
good for runners!
Beach Terminology
Longshore bars – offshore of
beachface. They are sand bars
that are parallel to the coast. They
may become exposed during
certain times of the year when low
tide is extremely low.
Longshore trough – low area of
beach that separates beach face
from longshore bars.
Beach Composition

Beaches are composed of whatever material is
locally available.
• Nearby coastal cliffs or mountains→ coarse
texture.
• Rivers → fine texture.
• Fine clay particles → mudflats along shore.
• High biological component with little rock/sand
input→ beaches mostly composed of shell
fragments.
Beach Composition
Regardless of composition:
Ø Sediment on beach does not stay in one
place, but instead the waves that crash along
the shore are constantlymoving it.
Ø Beaches can be thought of as material in
transit along the shoreline.
4/23/18
3
Movement of Sand on Beach
Transport of sand on the beach can happen in
two directions:
1. Perpendicular to the shoreline.
• Toward shore

• Away from shore
2. Parallelto the shoreline.
• Up coast
• Down coast
Movement Perpendicular to Shoreline
Swash – a thin layerof water that washes
up over exposed beach as waves break at
the shore.
Backwash – the flow of water down the
beachface toward the ocean from a
previously broken wave.
Some swash soaks into beach but most
drains awayas backwash.
When next wavebreaks on beach, it
sends its swash on tip of previous wave’s
backwash.
swash
backwash
Swash and backwash transport sand up and down
beachface perpendicular to the shore.
Whether swash or backwash dominates will determine if
sand is deposited on or eroded from beach.
Light versus Heavy Wave Activity
Light waveactivity – characterized
by less energetic waves.

Ø Much swash soaks into beach, so
backwash is reduced.
Ø Swash dominates sand transport
so net movementsand up the
beachface toward berm.
Ø Creates well-developed berm.
Heavy waveactivity – characterized
by high energy waves.
Ø The beach is saturates by
previous waves, so little swash
gets soaked into beach
Ø Backwash dominates sand
transport so net transport of sand
down beachface.
Ø Erodes the berm.
Ø Where does sand go? Sand accumulates just beyond
where the waves break creating
longshore sand bars.
Ø Light and heavy waveactivity alternate seasonally
at most beaches.
4/23/18
4

Summertime and Wintertime Beaches
Summertime beach – light waveactivity with
wide sandy bermand overall steepbeachface
with no longshore bars. (depositional beach)
Wintertime beach – heavy waveactivity
produces narrow rocky bermand overall
flattened beachface that builds prominent
longshore bars. (erosional beach)
Movement Parallel to Shoreline
• Within surf zone, waves refract (bend), causing
the
swash to move up the beach at a slight
angle.
• Then gravity pulls the backwash down the
beachface
perpendicular to the shore.
• Therfore water moves in a zigzag pattern
along the
shore.
Longshore current – the zigzagging movementof
water
along the shore.
Ø Can have speeds up to 4km/hr and speeds
increase
as:
1. Beach slopes increase
2. Angle on incoming waves increases

3. Wave height increases
4. Wave frequency increases
Longshore drift – or longshore transport is the
movementof sediment in a zigzagging pattern
caused
by the longshore current.
Both longshore currents and longshore drift only occur in
the surf zone.
Longshore Currents
Longshore currents can change
directions, but typically they flow
southwardalong both Atlantic and
Pacific coasts of US.
4/23/18
5
Erosional and Depositional Shores
Although all shores exhibit someerosion
and somedeposition, most can be
identified as primarily one or the other.
Erosional shores – shores with well-
developed cliffs in areaswhere tectonic
uplift of the coastoccurs.
Ø Ex: Pacific Coast of US
Depositional shores – shores that have

sand deposits and offshore barrier
islands in areaswhere the shore is
gradually subsiding.
Ø Ex: US Southeastern Atlantic and Gulf
Coast
Features on Erosional Shores
Headlands – a steep-faced irregularity
of the coastthat extends out into the
ocean.
Ø Wave refraction concentrates the
waveenergy on the headlands
causing the headlands to erode
more quickly.
Wave-cut cliffs – cliffs formed as
waves crash at the base of headlands,
undermining the upper portions
which eventually collapse.
Sea caves – waves eroding the base
of cliffs.
Sea arches – as waves continue to
erode headlands, sea caves can erode
to the otherside of the cliff forming
sea arches.
Sea stacks – as erosion continues,sea
arches become unstable and crumble
to produce sea stacks.

sea arches.
4/23/18
6
Marine terrace – gently sloping area
above sea level that is an uplifted or
elevated wavecut bench.
Terraces are especially seen in areas
with episodic uplift due to
earthquakes (like CA). In someplaces
you can observe multiple stacked
terraces in a progressive series.
Marine Terraces
Marine terrace – gently sloping area above
sea level that is an uplifted or elevated wave
cut bench.
Terraces are especially seen in areaswith episodic uplift
due to earthquakes (like CA). In someplaces
you can
observe multiple stacked terraces in a progressive

series.
Features of Depositional Shores
Spit – a linear ridgeof sediment that extends in
the direction of longshore drift from land into the
deeper water near the mouth of the bay.
Bay barrier – or bay mouth bar - a buildup of
sand usually <1m above sea level that cuts off
the bay
from the open ocean.
Tombolo – a sand ridgethat connects an island or
sea stackto the mainland or two adjacent islands.
Formed in the wave-energy shadow behind islands.
4/23/18
7
Barrier island – extremely long offshore deposits of
sand that are parallel to the coast.
Ø Protects the shoreline against rising sea level
and high energy storms.
Ø Origin is complex but appear to be related to
sea level rise associatedwith melting glaciers from
last ice age ~18 kyr ago.

Ø ~300 barrier islands along Atlantic and Gulf
coasts.
Ø Length <100km.
Ø Separated from land by lagoon.
Barrier Islands
Features of Barrier Islands
From ocean landward:
1. Ocean beach
2. Dunes
3. Barrier flat
4. High salt marsh/Low salt marsh
5. Lagoon
1. Ocean Beach
In summer → gentle waves carrysand to the
ocean beach, so it widens and becomes
steeper.
In winter → higher energy waves carrysand
offshore and produce a narrow, gently sloping
bench.
4/23/18
8

2. Dunes
Winds blow sand producing coastal dunes, which
are stabilized by
dune grasses.
3. Barrier flat
Barrier flat forms behind dunes from sands
that pass through dunes. Grasses colonize
flats which can
turn into woodlands and forests if flood
infrequently.
4. Salt Marsh (high and low)
Salt marshes typically lie inland of barrier flat
and are divided into low marsh and high marsh.
Ø Low marsh – mean sea level to high neap tide
line. Mostbiologically productive part of marsh.
Ø High marsh – high neap tide line to highest
spring tide line.
New marsh land forms as overwash carries
sediment into the lagoon.
Barrier Island Migration
A gradual rise in sea level can cause barrier
islands
to migrate landward.

This has been observed on the North Atlantic Coast
of US.
Island slowly rolls over itselfas it migrates towards
coast, leaving a trail of peat deposits (organic
remains from salt marshes).
4/23/18
9
Deltas
Deltas – formed when rivers
carrying largesediment loads
outlet into the ocean.
The river is carrying more
sediment than the longshore
current can distribute so the river
deposits sediment at its mouth.
Delta formation begins when a
river has filled its mouth with
sediment.
Deltas
The delta grows through the formation
of distributary channels – branching
channels that deposit sediment as they
radiate out over the delta in finger like
extensions.

Over time thesechannels fill with
sediment and flood the entire delta.
New channels form and the process
repeats, growing the delta larger.
Beach Compartments
Beach compartment – a series of
rivers, beaches, and submarine
canyons involved in the movement
of sediment to the coast, along the
coast, and down a submarine
canyon.
Beach compartments consists of:
1. A series of rivers that supply
sand to a beach.
2. The beach itself.
3. Offshore submarinecanyons
where sand is drained away
from the beach.
4/23/18
10
Beach Compartments
Beach compartments drainawaysand
from the beaches into the ocean where
they are lost from the beach forever.

To the south of beach compartments,
beaches are typically thin and rocky
with little sand.
The process begins all over again at the
upcoast end of the next beach
compartment where rivers add
sediment to the beach.
Farther downcoast beaches widen and
has abundance of sand until it is
diverted offshore to submarinecanyon.
Beach Compartments
Beach starvation – Caused by an
interruption of the sediment supply.
Occurs when sediment loads are
reduced in rivers delivering
sediment to beach compartments
(dams, flood control, etc).
The sediment is still being delivered
to submarinecanyons causing
beaches to narrow.
Sea Level Change
In addition, to a shoreline being described as
erosional or depositional, shoreline can also be
classified based on their position to relative sea
level.
Sea level changes through time due to:
1. Level of land changes (uplift or subsidence)
2. Level of sea changes (rising or lowering water
levels)

3. Combinationof both
Emerging Shorelines – shorelines that are rising above
sea-level.
Submerging Shoreline – shoreline that are sinking
below sea level.
Features of Emerging Shorelines
Marine terraces – flat platforms
backed by cliffs, which form when
a wave-cut beach is exposed above
sea level.
Stranded beach deposits – ancient
beach deposit found above
present sea level.
4/23/18
11
Features of Submerging Shorelines
Drowned beaches – an ancient
beach now beneath the coastal
ocean because of rising sea level or
subsidence of the coast.
Submerged dune topography –
ancient coastal dune deposits
found submerged beneath the
present shoreline because of a rise
in sea level or submergence of the
coast.

Drowned river valley – the lower
part of a river valley that has been
submerged by rising sea level.
Changes is Sea Level
Two ways to change sea level:
1. Raising and lowering of land.
2. Worldwide changes in the amount of water in
ocean.
Sea Level Change Due to Movement
of Earth’s Crust
This change is sea level is called a “relative
change in sea level”
because it is the land that is changing not the
sea.
Tectonic movement – changes in land level sue to
uplift and
subsidence of the Earth’s crust usually happeningat
plate
boundaries.
Isostatic Adjustment – The Earth’s crust sinksunder
the
accumulation of heavy loads of ice, vast piles of
sediment, or
outpourings of lava, and it rises when theseloads
are removed.
Ex: ice caps/ice sheets/glaciers during last ice age
were heavy loads
on crust. There are still areastoday that

are rebounding from the
last ice age 18kyr ago.
Worldwide Eustatic Changes in Sea Level
Eustatic sea level change –
changes in sea level that are
experienced worldwide due
to changes in sea water
volume or ocean basin
capacity.
Examples include:
• Formation and
destruction of largelakes
• Seafloor spreading rates
and the size of the ocean
basins.
• Ice Ages when water is
tied up in glaciers
lowering sea level, but
also thermal contraction
of water.
4/23/18
12
Estuaries
Estuary – partially enclosed coastal body of
water in which freshwater runoff from a
river

dilutes inputof salty ocean water. Ex: river
mouth, bays, inlet, gulfs, sounds.
There are 4 major types based on their
geological origin:
1. Coastal plainestuary
2. Fjord
3. Bar-built estuary
4. Tectonic estuary
Estuaries
Coastal PlainEstuary – forms as sea level rises and
floods existing river valley. Also called
drowned river
valleys.
EX: Chesapeake Bay, VA/MD
Estuaries
Fjord – Forms as se level rises and floods a
glaciated
valley. They are u-shaped valleys with steepwalls.
EX: Norway, Alaska, Canada
Estuaries
Bar-build estuary – shallow estuary that is
separated from the open ocean by sand
bars that are deposited parallel to the coast
by waveaction. Lagoons that separate
barrier islands from the mainland.

EX: Laguna Madre, TX
4/23/18
13
Estuaries
Tectonic estuary – Forms when faulting or
folding of rocks creates restricted down-
dropped area into which sea has flooded.
EX: San Francisco Bay, CA
Water Mixing in Estuaries
Less dense freshwater from rivers mixes with
dense salty sea water in
estuaries.
Estuaries are classified bases on how water mixes
within them:
1. Vertically mixed estuary
2. Slightly stratified estuary
3. Highly stratified estuary
4. Salt-wedge estuary
Vertically mixed estuary – very
shallow estuaries such as

lagoons in which freshwater
and sea water are totally mixed
from top to bottom so that the
salinity at the surface and he
bottom is the same in most
places.
Slightly stratified estuary – an
estuary of moderate depth in
which sea water invades
beneath the freshwater runoff.
The two water masses mix so
that the bottom water is
slightly saltier than the surface
water in most places.
Estuarine circulation pattern –
a flow pattern in an estuary
characterized by a net surface
flow of low salinity water
toward the ocean and an
opposite net subsurface flow of
seawater toward the head of
estuary.
4/23/18
14
Highly stratified estuary – a
relatively deep estuary in

which a significant volume of
sea water enters as a
subsurface flow. A large
volume of freshwater runoff
produces a widespread low
surface salinity condition that
produces a well-developed
halocline throughout most of
estuary. Pronounced
circulation pattern.
Salt wedge estuary – a very
deep river mouth with a very
largevolume of freshwater
beneath which a wedge of
saltwater from the ocean
invades.
Ex: Mississippi River
Questions???
4/23/18
1
Chapter 10: Beaches, Shorelines, and
the Coastal Ocean
• Beach terminology
• Sand transport on the beach

• Erosional and depositional shores
• Sea-level changes
• Types of coastal waters
Coastal Terminology
Shore – the zone that lies between
low tide and the highest elevation
on land affected by storm waves.
Can range from few meters to
100’s of meters.
Coast – extends inland from the
shore as far as ocean features can
be found. Can range from <1km to
tens of km.
Coastline - the boundary between
the shore and coast. The landward
limit of the effect of the highest
storm waves on the shore.
Beach Terminology
Backshore – area above high tide
and is covered in water only during
storms.
Foreshore – portion of shore that
is exposed at low tide and
submerged at high tide.
Shoreline – the water’s edge; line
marking the intersection of the
water surface with dry land. This
line migrates back and forth with
the tide.

Beach Terminology
Nearshore – extends seaward from
the low tide shoreline to the low
tide breaker line. It is never
exposed to atmosphere but it is
affected by waves that touch the
bottom.
Offshore – area beyond low tide
breakers which is deep enough
that waves rarely affect bottom.
Beach – a deposit of the shore
area. Sediment deposit seaward of
the coastline through the surf
zone. Consists of waveworked
sediment and is the active area of
the coast.
4/23/18
2
Beach Terminology
Wave-cut bench – flat, wave
eroded surface that sediment
moves along.
Berm – dry gently sloping, slightly
elevated margin of the beach that
can be found at the foot of coastal
cliffs or sand dunes. This is where
you hang out when you go to the
beach!

Beachface – offshore of berm, it is
a wet, sloping surface that extends
from the bermto the shoreline. It
is more fully exposed during low
tide. Sand is more hard-packed so
good for runners!
Beach Terminology
Longshore bars – offshore of
beachface. They are sand bars
that are parallel to the coast. They
may become exposed during
certain times of the year when low
tide is extremely low.
Longshore trough – low area of
beach that separates beach face
from longshore bars.
Beach Composition
Beaches are composed of whatever material is
locally available.
• Nearby coastal cliffs or mountains→ coarse
texture.
• Rivers → fine texture.
• Fine clay particles → mudflats along shore.
• High biological component with little rock/sand
input→ beaches mostly composed of shell
fragments.
Beach Composition
Regardless of composition:
Ø Sediment on beach does not stay in one

place, but instead the waves that crash along
the shore are constantlymoving it.
Ø Beaches can be thought of as material in
transit along the shoreline.
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3
Movement of Sand on Beach
Transport of sand on the beach can happen in
two directions:
1. Perpendicular to the shoreline.
• Toward shore
• Away from shore
2. Parallelto the shoreline.
• Up coast
• Down coast
Movement Perpendicular to Shoreline
Swash – a thin layerof water that washes
up over exposed beach as waves break at
the shore.
Backwash – the flow of water down the
beachface toward the ocean from a
previously broken wave.

Some swash soaks into beach but most
drains awayas backwash.
When next wavebreaks on beach, it
sends its swash on tip of previous wave’s
backwash.
swash
backwash
Swash and backwash transport sand up and down
beachface perpendicular to the shore.
Whether swash or backwash dominates will determine if
sand is deposited on or eroded from beach.
Light waveactivity – characterized
by less energetic waves.
Ø Much swash soaks into beach, so
backwash is reduced.
Ø Swash dominates sand transport
so net movementsand up the
beachface toward berm.
Ø Creates well-developed berm.
Heavy waveactivity – characterized
by high energy waves.
Ø The beach is saturates by

previous waves, so little swash
gets soaked into beach
Ø Backwash dominates sand
transport so net transport of sand
down beachface.
Ø Erodes the berm.
Ø Where does sand go? Sand accumulates just beyond
where the waves break creating
longshore sand bars.
Ø Light and heavy waveactivity alternate seasonally
at most beaches.
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Summertime and Wintertime Beaches
Summertime beach – light waveactivity with
wide sandy bermand overall steepbeachface
with no longshore bars. (depositional beach)
Wintertime beach – heavy waveactivity
produces narrow rocky bermand overall
flattened beachface that builds prominent
longshore bars. (erosional beach)
• Within surf zone, waves refract (bend), causing
the

swash to move up the beach at a slight
angle.
• Then gravity pulls the backwash down the
beachface
perpendicular to the shore.
• Therfore water moves in a zigzag pattern
along the
shore.
Longshore current – the zigzagging movementof
water
along the shore.
Ø Can have speeds up to 4km/hr and speeds
increase
as:
1. Beach slopes increase
2. Angle on incoming waves increases
3. Wave height increases
4. Wave frequency increases
Longshore drift – or longshore transport is the
movementof sediment in a zigzagging pattern
caused
by the longshore current.
Both longshore currents and longshore drift only occur in
the surf zone.
Longshore Currents
Longshore currents can change

directions, but typically they flow
southwardalong both Atlantic and
Pacific coasts of US.
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5
Erosional and Depositional Shores
Although all shores exhibit someerosion
and somedeposition, most can be
identified as primarily one or the other.
Erosional shores – shores with well-
developed cliffs in areaswhere tectonic
uplift of the coastoccurs.
Ø Ex: Pacific Coast of US
Depositional shores – shores that have
sand deposits and offshore barrier
islands in areaswhere the shore is
gradually subsiding.
Ø Ex: US Southeastern Atlantic and Gulf
Coast
Headlands – a steep-faced irregularity
of the coastthat extends out into the
ocean.
Ø Wave refraction concentrates the
waveenergy on the headlands
causing the headlands to erode

more quickly.
Wave-cut cliffs – cliffs formed as
waves crash at the base of headlands,
undermining the upper portions
which eventually collapse.
Sea caves – waves eroding the base
of cliffs.
sea arches.
sea arches.
4/23/18
6

Marine terrace – gently sloping area
above sea level that is an uplifted or
elevated wavecut bench.
Terraces are especially seen in areas
with episodic uplift due to
earthquakes (like CA). In someplaces
you can observe multiple stacked
terraces in a progressive series.
Marine Terraces
Marine terrace – gently sloping area above
sea level that is an uplifted or elevated wave
cut bench.
Terraces are especially seen in areaswith episodic uplift
due to earthquakes (like CA). In someplaces
you can
observe multiple stacked terraces in a progressive
series.
Spit – a linear ridgeof sediment that extends in
the direction of longshore drift from land into the
deeper water near the mouth of the bay.
Bay barrier – or bay mouth bar - a buildup of
sand usually <1m above sea level that cuts off
the bay
from the open ocean.
Tombolo – a sand ridgethat connects an island or
sea stackto the mainland or two adjacent islands.

Formed in the wave-energy shadow behind islands.
4/23/18
7
Barrier island – extremely long offshore deposits of
sand that are parallel to the coast.
Ø Protects the shoreline against rising sea level
and high energy storms.
Ø Origin is complex but appear to be related to
sea level rise associatedwith melting glaciers from
last ice age ~18 kyr ago.
Ø ~300 barrier islands along Atlantic and Gulf
coasts.
Ø Length <100km.
Ø Separated from land by lagoon.
Barrier Islands
From ocean landward:
1. Ocean beach
2. Dunes
3. Barrier flat
4. High salt marsh/Low salt marsh
5. Lagoon

1. Ocean Beach
In summer → gentle waves carrysand to the
ocean beach, so it widens and becomes
steeper.
In winter → higher energy waves carrysand
offshore and produce a narrow, gently sloping
bench.
4/23/18
8
2. Dunes
Winds blow sand producing coastal dunes, which
are stabilized by
dune grasses.
3. Barrier flat
Barrier flat forms behind dunes from sands
that pass through dunes. Grasses colonize
flats which can
turn into woodlands and forests if flood
infrequently.

4. Salt Marsh (high and low)
Salt marshes typically lie inland of barrier flat
and are divided into low marsh and high marsh.
Ø Low marsh – mean sea level to high neap tide
line. Mostbiologically productive part of marsh.
Ø High marsh – high neap tide line to highest
spring tide line.
New marsh land forms as overwash carries
sediment into the lagoon.
Barrier Island Migration
A gradual rise in sea level can cause barrier
islands
to migrate landward.
This has been observed on the North Atlantic Coast
of US.
Island slowly rolls over itselfas it migrates towards
coast, leaving a trail of peat deposits (organic
remains from salt marshes).
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Deltas
Deltas – formed when rivers
carrying largesediment loads
outlet into the ocean.
The river is carrying more
sediment than the longshore
current can distribute so the river
deposits sediment at its mouth.
Delta formation begins when a
river has filled its mouth with
sediment.
Deltas
The delta grows through the formation
of distributary channels – branching
channels that deposit sediment as they
radiate out over the delta in finger like
extensions.
Over time thesechannels fill with
sediment and flood the entire delta.
New channels form and the process
repeats, growing the delta larger.
Beach Compartments
Beach compartment – a series of
rivers, beaches, and submarine
canyons involved in the movement
of sediment to the coast, along the
coast, and down a submarine
canyon.

Beach compartments consists of:
1. A series of rivers that supply
sand to a beach.
2. The beach itself.
3. Offshore submarinecanyons
where sand is drained away
from the beach.
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10
Beach Compartments
Beach compartments drainawaysand
from the beaches into the ocean where
they are lost from the beach forever.
To the south of beach compartments,
beaches are typically thin and rocky
with little sand.
The process begins all over again at the
upcoast end of the next beach
compartment where rivers add
sediment to the beach.
Farther downcoast beaches widen and
has abundance of sand until it is
diverted offshore to submarinecanyon.
Beach Compartments
Beach starvation – Caused by an

interruption of the sediment supply.
Occurs when sediment loads are
reduced in rivers delivering
sediment to beach compartments
(dams, flood control, etc).
The sediment is still being delivered
to submarinecanyons causing
beaches to narrow.
Sea Level Change
In addition, to a shoreline being described as
erosional or depositional, shoreline can also be
classified based on their position to relative sea
level.
Sea level changes through time due to:
1. Level of land changes (uplift or subsidence)
2. Level of sea changes (rising or lowering water
levels)
3. Combinationof both
Emerging Shorelines – shorelines that are rising above
sea-level.
Submerging Shoreline – shoreline that are sinking
below sea level.
Features of Emerging Shorelines
Marine terraces – flat platforms
backed by cliffs, which form when
a wave-cut beach is exposed above
sea level.
Stranded beach deposits – ancient

beach deposit found above
present sea level.
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Features of Submerging Shorelines
Drowned beaches – an ancient
beach now beneath the coastal
ocean because of rising sea level or
subsidence of the coast.
Submerged dune topography –
ancient coastal dune deposits
found submerged beneath the
present shoreline because of a rise
in sea level or submergence of the
coast.
Drowned river valley – the lower
part of a river valley that has been
submerged by rising sea level.
Changes is Sea Level
Two ways to change sea level:
1. Raising and lowering of land.
2. Worldwide changes in the amount of water in
ocean.
Sea Level Change Due to Movement
of Earth’s Crust

This change is sea level is called a “relative
change in sea level”
because it is the land that is changing not the
sea.
Tectonic movement – changes in land level sue to
uplift and
subsidence of the Earth’s crust usually happeningat
plate
boundaries.
Isostatic Adjustment – The Earth’s crust sinksunder
the
accumulation of heavy loads of ice, vast piles of
sediment, or
outpourings of lava, and it rises when theseloads
are removed.
Ex: ice caps/ice sheets/glaciers during last ice age
were heavy loads
on crust. There are still areastoday that
are rebounding from the
last ice age 18kyr ago.
Worldwide Eustatic Changes in Sea Level
Eustatic sea level change –
changes in sea level that are
experienced worldwide due
to changes in sea water
volume or ocean basin
capacity.
Examples include:
• Formation and
destruction of largelakes

• Seafloor spreading rates
and the size of the ocean
basins.
• Ice Ages when water is
tied up in glaciers
lowering sea level, but
also thermal contraction
of water.
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Estuaries
Estuary – partially enclosed coastal body of
water in which freshwater runoff from a
river
dilutes inputof salty ocean water. Ex: river
mouth, bays, inlet, gulfs, sounds.
There are 4 major types based on their
geological origin:
1. Coastal plainestuary
2. Fjord
3. Bar-built estuary
4. Tectonic estuary
Estuaries

Coastal PlainEstuary – forms as sea level rises and
floods existing river valley. Also called
drowned river
valleys.
EX: Chesapeake Bay, VA/MD
Estuaries
Fjord – Forms as se level rises and floods a
glaciated
valley. They are u-shaped valleys with steepwalls.
EX: Norway, Alaska, Canada
Estuaries
Bar-build estuary – shallow estuary that is
separated from the open ocean by sand
bars that are deposited parallel to the coast
by waveaction. Lagoons that separate
barrier islands from the mainland.
EX: Laguna Madre, TX
4/23/18
13
Estuaries
Tectonic estuary – Forms when faulting or
folding of rocks creates restricted down-
dropped area into which sea has flooded.
EX: San Francisco Bay, CA

Less dense freshwater from rivers mixes with
dense salty sea water in
estuaries.
Estuaries are classified bases on how water mixes
within them:
1. Vertically mixed estuary
2. Slightly stratified estuary
3. Highly stratified estuary
4. Salt-wedge estuary
Vertically mixed estuary – very
shallow estuaries such as
lagoons in which freshwater
and sea water are totally mixed
from top to bottom so that the
salinity at the surface and he
bottom is the same in most
places.
Slightly stratified estuary – an
estuary of moderate depth in
which sea water invades
beneath the freshwater runoff.
The two water masses mix so
that the bottom water is
slightly saltier than the surface

water in most places.
Estuarine circulation pattern –
a flow pattern in an estuary
characterized by a net surface
flow of low salinity water
toward the ocean and an
opposite net subsurface flow of
seawater toward the head of
estuary.
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Highly stratified estuary – a
relatively deep estuary in
which a significant volume of
sea water enters as a
subsurface flow. A large
volume of freshwater runoff
produces a widespread low
surface salinity condition that
produces a well-developed
halocline throughout most of
estuary. Pronounced
circulation pattern.
Salt wedge estuary – a very
deep river mouth with a very

largevolume of freshwater
beneath which a wedge of
saltwater from the ocean
invades.
Ex: Mississippi River
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