2. INTRODUCTION
ā¢ Geriatics term of greek origin
`gerras` --- old age
`iatros` --- healer or physician
ā¢ Branch of medicine that deals with the
problems and diseases of old age and aging
people
7. Programmed death
ā¢ The first evolutionary theory of aging was
proposed by Weissman in 1882.
ā¢ This theory states that aging and death are
programmed and have evolved to remove
older animals from the population so that
environmental resources such as food and
water are freed up for younger members of
the species.
8. Mutation accumulation
ā¢ This theory was proposed by Medawar in 1952.
ā¢ Natural selection is most powerful for those
traits that influence reproduction in early life, and
therefore, the ability of evolution to shape our
biology declines with age.
ā¢ Germline mutations that are deleterious in later
life can accumulate simply because natural
selection cannot act to prevent them.
9. Antagonistic pleiotropy
ā¢ George C. Williams extended Medawarās theory
when he proposed that evolution can allow for
the selection of genes that are pleiotropic, i.e.,
beneficial for survival and reproduction in early
life, but harmful in old age.
ā¢ For example, genes for sex hormones are
necessary for reproduction in early life but
contribute to the risk of cancer in old age.
10. Life history theory
ā¢ Evolution is influenced by the way that limited
resources are allocated to all aspects of life
including development, sexual maturation,
reproduction, number of offspring, and
senescence and death. Therefore, ātrade-offsā
occur between these phases of life.
11. Disposable soma theory
ā¢ Kirkwood and Holliday in 1979
ā¢ There are finite resources available for the
maintenance and repair of both germ and soma cells,
so there must be a trade-off between germ cells (i.e.,
reproduction) and soma cells (i.e., longevity and aging).
ā¢ The soma cells accumulate damage that causes aging
while resources are preferentially diverted to the
maintenance and repair of the germ cells.
ā¢ For example, the longevity of the nematode worm,
Caenorhabditis elegans, is increased when its germ
cells are ablated early in life.
12. Grandmother hypothesis
ā¢ Hamilton in 1966
ā¢ In this situation, the presence of a long-lived
grandmother who shares in the care of her
grandchildren can have a major impact on
their survival.
ā¢ These children share some of the genes of
their grandmother including those that
promoted their grandmotherās longevity.
13. Motherās curse
ā¢ Mitochondrial dysfunction is a key component of
the aging process.
ā¢ Mitochondria contain their own DNA and are
only passed on from mother to child .
ā¢ Therefore, natural selection can only act on the
evolution of mitochondrial DNA in females. The
āmotherās curseā of the maternal inheritance of
mitochondrial DNA might explain why females
live longer and age more slowly than males.
14. Adaptive senectitude
ā¢ Many traits that are harmful in younger humans
such as obesity, hypertension, and oxidative
stress paradoxically appear to be associated with
greater survival and function in very old people.
ā¢ Perhaps driven by the grandmother effect, this
might represent āadaptive senectitudeā or
āreverse antagonistic pleiotropy,ā whereby some
traits that are harmful in young people become
beneficial in older people.
15.
16. SYSTEMIC EFFECTS OF AGING
ā¢ Body composition
ā¢ Balance between energy availability & energy
demand
ā¢ Signalling networks that maintain homeostasis
ā¢ Neurodegeneration
17. BODY COMPOSITION
ā¢ Weight declines in men between 65 & 70
years and later in women
ā¢ Lean body mass(muscle,visceral organs)
decreases after 3rd decade
ā¢ Atrophy greater in fast twitch fibres
ā¢ Fibroconnective tissue tends to increase in
many organ systems-----muscle quality &
function affected
ā¢ Progressive demineralisation
18. BALANCE BETWEEN ENERGY
AVAILABILITY & ENERGY DEMAND
ā¢ Older age,pathology & physical impairment
increase the energy cost of motor acivities
ā¢ Low energy levels
ā¢ Require more energy both at rest and during
physical activity
21. NEURODEGENERATION
ā¢ Brain atrophy occurs after 60yrs age- decline
in cognitive & motor function
ā¢ Spinal cordāreduced number of motor
neurons, damage to myelin, increased
branching complexity, serving larger motor
units
23. ļ¼The muscles used in breathing, such as the diaphragm, tend to
weaken.
ļ¼The number of alveoli and capillaries in the lungs
decreases. Thus oxygen absorbed is less from air breathed in.
ļ¼ The lungs become less elastic.
ļ¼ Effectiveness of cough mechanism lessens
ļ¼ Increased airway resistance,dead space,energy of breathing
ļ¼ Interstitial fibrosis, emphysema
RESPIRATORY CHANGES
24. ļ¼The heart and blood vessels become stiffer. The heart fills
with blood more slowly.
ļ¼Atherosclerosis
ļ¼Arteriosclerosis--blood pressure tends to increase.
ļ¼Heart rate slows
ļ¼Decreased blood flow to all organs
ļ¼Baroreceptor sensitivity decreasesāorthostatic
hypotension
CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES
25. GASTROINTESTINAL CHANGES
ļ¼As people age, the taste buds on the tongue decrease in
sensitivity. This change affects mostly tasting sweet and salt
more than bitter and sour.
ļ¼Decreased salivationādifficulty in swallowing
ļ¼Periodontal disease rate increases
26. ā¢ GI motility decreases-- constipation
ā¢ Stomach pH increases
ā¢ Intestinal absorption decreases
ā¢ LIVER -- decreased blood flow
altered clearance of drugs
metabolizes less efficiently
reduced regenerative capacity
27. Women :
ļ¼ In women, most of these effects are related to menopause due to
decreased estrogen production
ļ¼ Ovaries and uterus to shrink, breast tissue diminishes,atrophic
vaginitis
ļ¼Supportive musculature of reproductive organs weakens---uterine
prolapse
ļ¼Endometrial atrohy,hyperplasia,carcinoma
ļ¼Uterine leiomyomas
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM CHANGES
28. Men :
ļ¼ In men, changes in sex hormone levels are less sudden.
ļ¼ Levels of male hormone testosterone decreases, resulting in
lesser sperm production,testicular atrophy
ļ¼ BPH, adenocarcinoma of prostrate
29. ļ¼ The cells of the immune system act more slowly.
This slowdown of immune system causes:
1. Cancer is more common among older people.
2. Vaccines tend to be less protective in older people.
3. Infections such as pneumonia and influenza, are more common
among older people and result in death more often.
4. Allergy symptoms may become less severe.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
31. MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
ā¢ Sarcopenia
ā¢ Fatty infiltration of muscles
ā¢The amount of muscle tissue and muscle
strength tend to decrease as age increases.
Muscles cannot contract quickly.
ā¢ Osteoarthritis
ā¢ Osteoporosis, pathological fractures
ā¢ By 80yrs of age 2inches of height lost
32. ļ¼The skin tends to be thinner, less elastic, drier and finely wrinkled.
ļ¼With aging the body produces less collagen and elastin. so, the
skin tears more easily.
ļ¼The fat layer under the skin thins, this causes wrinkles to appear,
and tolerance to cold decreases.
ļ¼The number of sweat glands and blood vessels decreases, and
blood flow to deep layer of skin decreases.
SKIN
33. ļ¼The number of pigment-producing cells (melanocytes) decreases.
As a result, the skin has less protection against ultraviolet
radiation causes large, brown spots appear on skin.
ļ¼The skin is less able to form vitamin D when it is exposed to
sunlight. Thus, the risk of vitamin D deficiency increases.
34. RENAL SYSTEM
ā¢ Size & number of nephrons decreases
ā¢ Filtration & reabsorption reduced
ā¢ Reduced hormonal response to vasopressin
ā¢ Bladder mucle weakens,decreased bladder
capacity leading to increase in residual urine
and frequency-----UTI, incontinence
35. URINE INCONTINENCE
ā¢ DETRUSOR OVERACTIVITY (URGE
INCONTINENCE)āDetrusor overactivity refers
to uninhibited bladder contractions that cause
leakage.
ā¢ It is the most common cause of established
geriatric incontinence, accounting for two-
thirds of cases, and is usually idiopathic.
36. ā¢ detrusor overactivity also may be due to
bladder stones or tumor, the abrupt onset of
otherwise unexplained urge incontinenceā
especially if accompanied by perineal or
suprapubic discomfort or sterile hematuriaā
should be investigated by cystoscopy and
cytologic examination of a urine specimen.
38. URETHRAL INCOMPETENCE (STRESS
INCONTINENCE)ā
ā¢ Urethral incompetence is the second most
common cause of established urinary
incontinence in older women.
ā¢ Stress incontinence is most commonly seen in
men after radical prostatectomy.
ā¢ Stress incontinence is characterized by
instantaneous leakage of urine in response to a
stress maneuver.
39. ā¢ URETHRAL OBSTRUCTIONāurethral obstruction
(due to prostatic enlargement, urethral stricture,
bladder neck contracture,or prostatic cancer) is a
common cause of established incontinence in
older men but is rare in older women.
ā¢ Surgical decompression is the most effective
treatment for obstruction, especially in the
setting of urinary retention due to benign
prostatic hyperplasia.
40. ā¢ DETRUSOR UNDERACTIVITY (OVERFLOW
INCONTINENCE)ā
ā¢ Detrusor underactivity is the least common cause of
incontinence.
ā¢ It may be idiopathic or due to sacral lower motor nerve
dysfunction.
ā¢ When it causes incontinence, detrusor underactivity is
associated with urinary frequency, nocturia, and frequent
leakage of small amounts.
ā¢ Augmented voiding techniques (eg,double voiding,
suprapubic pressure) can prove effective. If further
emptying is needed, intermittent or indwelling
catheterization is the only option.
41. NERVOUS SYSTEM
ļ¼ The number of nerve cells in the brain typically decreases.
ļ¼ However, the brain compensates it by as cells are lost, new
connections are made between the remaining nerve cells.The brain
has more cells than it needs to do most activities - a characteristic
called redundancy.
ļ¼ Blood flow to the brain decreases.
42. ļ¼Some mental functionsāsuch as vocabulary, short-term memory,
the ability to learn new material, and the ability to recall wordsā
may be subtly reduced after age 70.
ļ¼Therefore, in older people with damaged nerves, sensation and
strength may be decreased.
43. DEMENTIA
ā¢ an acquired, persistent, and progressive
impairment in intellectual function, with
compromise of memory and at least one
other cognitive domain, most commonly
aphasia, apraxia, agnosia and impaired
executive function
44. TREATMENT
ā¢ Acetylcholinesterase inhibitorsāa trial of
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (eg,
donepezil,galantamine, rivastigmine) in most
patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer
disease.
ā¢ Memantine (5 mg orally daily to 10 mg twice
daily), an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)
antagonist, with or without concomitant use of
an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.
45. DEPRESSION
ļ¼Depression occurs 16-65% of elders living in
the community.
ļ¼Depression including: sleep disturbance, lack
of interest, feelings of guilt, lack of energy,
decreased concentration and, loss of appetite.
ļ¼Losses can lead to depression.
46. TREATMENT
ā¢ Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs),
particularly sertraline, are often used as first-line
agents because of their relatively benign side-effect
profile
ā¢ Mirtazapine is often used for patients with weight loss,
anorexia, or insomnia.
ā¢ Duloxetine is useful in patients who also have
neuropathic pain and is better tolerated than
venlafaxine among older adults.
ā¢ Adding methylphenidate to an SSRI appears to enhance
clinical response rates
47. DELIRIUM
ā¢ Delirium is an acute, fluctuating disturbance
of consciousness, associated with a change in
cognition or development of perceptual
disturbances
48. Evaluation of most patients should include
ā¢ complete blood cell count;
ā¢ blood urea nitrogen (BUN);
ā¢ serum electrolycreatinine,
ā¢ glucose, calcium, albumin, and liver tests;
ā¢ urinalysis; and ECG.
49. ā¢ In selected cases, serum
magnesium,medication levels, arterial blood
gas measurements,blood cultures, chest
radiography, urinary toxin screen,and lumbar
puncture may be helpful.
ā¢ When delirium develops during a
hospitalization in the absence of trauma or
new localizing neurologic signs, a head CT is
rarely revealing.
50. ā¢ Antipsychotic agents (such as haloperidol,0.5ā
1 mg orally, or quetiapine, 25 mg orally, at
bedtime or twice daily) are considered the
medications of choice.
51. As people age increases this occurs,
ļ¼ The lens stiffens, making focusing on close objects harder.
ļ¼ The lens becomes denser, making seeing in dim light harder.
ļ¼ The pupil reacts more slowly to changes in light.
ļ¼ The lens yellows, changing the way colors are perceived.
ļ¼ The number of nerve cells decrease, impairing depth perception.
ļ¼ The lacrimal gland produce less fluid, making them feel dry.
EYES
52. A change in vision is the first undeniable sign of aging.
Changes in lenses of the eyes can cause the following.
1. Loss of near vision.
2. Need for brighter light.
3. Changes in color perception.
53. Appearance of eyes changes in several ways:
1.The whites (sclera) of the eyes may turn slightly yellow or brown.
2. ARCUS SENILIS gray-white ring may appear on the surface of
the eye. The ring is made of calcium and cholesterol salts.
3.The lower eyelid may hang away from the eyeball because the
muscles around the eye weaken and the tendons stretch.
4.The eye may appear to sink into the head because the amount of
fat around the eye decreases
54. ļ¼As people age, hearing high-pitched sounds becomes more
difficult. This change is considered age-associated hearing loss
(presbycusis). These changes tend to speed up after age 55.
ļ¼Gradually, hearing lower pitches also becomes more difficult.
ļ¼Membrane becomes less flexible, middle ear ossicles stiffens ---
reducing hearing sensitivity
ļ¼Vestibular apparatus degenerates-- dizziness
EARS
55. ļ¼The ability to taste and smell gradually diminish.
ļ¼As people age, the taste buds on the tongue decrease in sensitivity.
This change affects mostly tasting sweet and salt more than bitter
and sour.
ļ¼The ability to smell diminishes because the lining of nose
becomes thinner and drier and the nerve ending in the nose
detoriate.
TASTE AND SMELL
59. INVOLUNTARY WEIGHT LOSS
ā¢ Most studies of involuntary weight loss in
older adults define it as loss of 5% of body
weight in 6 months or 10% of body weight in 1
year
ā¢ The causes of involuntary weight loss are
many but generally break down along medical
(60ā70%) and psychiatric (10ā20%) causes,
while up to 25% of the time a cause will not
be identified.
60. ā¢ Social factors such as access to food and
dental health should also be explored.
61. NUTRITION
ā¢ Fruits,vegetables,whole grain
ā¢ Good hydration 1oooml
ā¢ Fish once a week
ā¢ Calorie intake BMI 20-27, IF BMI> 27 5-10%
calorie restriction
ā¢ Salt <6g/day
ā¢ Vitamin D fortified foods, supplements
62. RECOMMENDED NUTRIENT INTAKE
FOR OLDER PERSONS BY WHO
Carbohydrates : 60%
Protein : 0.91 g/kg/ day.
Fat : 30%E for sedentary older persons
35% E for active older persons.
Saturated fat should not exceed 8% of E
Calcium : 800- 1200 mg /day
Iron : 10mg/day
Selenium : 50-70 microgram/ day
Zinc : Men - 7 mg/day , women ā 4.9 mg/day.
Riboflavin : Men ā 1.3 mg , Women ā 1.1 mg
66. Major changes can be scary and may lead to feelings of insecurity
and/or loss of self-worth.
ļ¼ Age related changes.
ļ¼ losses that occur with aging
ļ¼ Chronic diseases.
ļ¼ Increased dependency..
ļ¼ Function impairment.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES
ā¢
67. ā¢ Memory loss is one of the most common psychological effects of
aging.
ļ¼ Remembering everyday things become more difficult.
ļ¼ Memory loss affects short-term memory more than long-term.
ā¢ Absent mindedness is also a characteristic psychological effect of
aging.
ļ¼ Clear, lucid thoughts become increasingly difficult.
ļ¼ Older people may repeat themselves in conversation.
68. Breavement
ļ¼Bereavement is a natural response to death of a loved one. It
makes a older person to crying and sorrow, anxiety and
agitation, sleep problems and eating problems.
69.
70. EXERCISE
ā¢ Exercise is the only treatment that can prevent
or even reverse sarcopenia (age-related
muscle wasting).
ā¢ 150min/week moderate intensity aerobic
activity ( brisk walk)
ā¢ Muscle strengthening activities on 2 or more
days a week
71. PERIODIC FASTING
ā¢ Alternate-day fasting diet, the āfive:twoā
intermittent fasting diet, and a 48-h fast once
or twice each month.
ā¢ For example improved morbidity and
longevity were observed among Spanish home
nursing residents who underwent alternate-
day fasting
72. PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTION
ā¢ Resveratrol, an agonist of SIRT1, is a
polyphenol that is found in grapes and in red
wine. The potential of resveratrol to promote
lifespan was first identified in yeast
73. PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTION
contd...
ā¢ Rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR, was originally
discovered on Easter Island (Rapa Nui; hence its
name) as a bacterial secretion with antibiotic
properties.
ā¢ Immunosuppressant and cancer
chemotherapeutic in humans.
ā¢ Extends lifespan in all organisms tested so far,
including yeast, flies, worms, and mice.
ā¢ Limited by adverse effects related to
immunosuppression, wound healing, proteinuria,
and hypercholesterolemia,
74. PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTION
contd...
ā¢ Spermidine is a physiologic polyamine that
induces autophagy-mediated lifespan extension
in yeast, flies, and worms.
ā¢ Spermidine levels decrease during the life of
virtually all organisms including humans, with the
stunning exception of centenarians.
ā¢ Oral administration of spermidine and
upregulation of bacterial polyamine production in
the gut both lead to lifespan extension in short-
lived mouse models.
75. PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTION
contd...
ā¢ Metformin has other actions including inhibition
of mTOR and mitochondrial complex I and
activation of the transcription factor SKN-1/Nrf2.
ā¢ Metformin increases lifespan in different mouse
strains
ā¢ At a biochemical level, metformin
supplementation is associated with reduced
oxidative damage and inflammation and mimics
some of the gene expression changes seen with
caloric restriction.
76. HORMESIS
ā¢ The term hormesis describes the, at first sight
paradoxic, protective effects conferred by the
exposure to low doses of stressors or toxins
ā¢ Adaptive stress responses elicited by noxious
agents (chemical, thermal, or radioactive)
precondition an organism, rendering it resistant
to subsequent higher and otherwise lethal doses
of the same trigger.
ā¢ The lifelong and periodic exposure to various
stressors can inhibit or retard the aging process.
78. NATIONAL PROGRAMMES
ā¢ NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR HEALTH CARE
FOR ELDERLY
ā¢ OLD AGE SOCIAL & INCOME SECURITY`
ā¢ INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OLD AGE PENSION
SCHEME
ā¢ PROGRAMME OF ALL INCLUSIVE CARE FOR
ELDERLY
79. NGO
ā¢ Help age india
ā¢ Age well foundation
ā¢ Age care india
ā¢ Elder home society
ā¢ Age care centre for retired personnel
80. REFERENCES
ā¢ HARRISONS PRINCIPLES OF INTERNAL
MEDICINE 18TH,19TH EDITION
ā¢ CMDT 2018
ā¢ PARKS COMMUNITY MEDICINE
ā¢ BROCKLEHARTS GERIATIC MEDICINE &
GERONTOLOGY
Editor's Notes
For example, in a hostile environment, survival is highest for those species that have large numbers of offspring and short lifespan, whereas in a safe and abundant environment, survival is highest for those species that invest resources in a smaller number of offspring and a longer life.
sperm cells containalmost no mitochondria
The stiffer arteries are less able to expand when more blood is pumped through them.
Pacemaker of heart loose celss and develop fibrous tissue,fat deposits
Heightācompression vertebrea,change in posture,increased curvature of hips knees
These changes reduce abilty to filter and concentrate urine and clear drugs
Impaired ability to conserve salt-dehydration risk
(typically, word-finding difficulty)
(inability to perform motor tasks, such as cutting a loaf of bread, despite intact motor function)
(inability to recognize objects), (poor abstraction, mental flexibility, planning, and judgment).
Sufficient intake of omega -3 fatty acids helps in visual acuity, Hair loss, tissue inflammation, improper digestion, poor kidney function and mental depression.
Considered to be a type of hormetic stress that results in the activation of antistress transcription factors (Rim15, Gis1, and Msn2/Msn4 in yeast and FOXO in mammals) that enhance the expression of free radicalāscavenging factors