1. Intelligence consists of the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from
everyday experiences. •Sir Frances Galton is the father of mental tests. Alfred
Binet developed the first intelligence test and created the concept of mental age.
William Stern developed the concept of IQ for use with Binet test. A good test of
intelligence meets three criteria: validity, reliability, and standardization. •Early
intelligence tests favored White, middle-socioeconomic-status urban individuals.
When used by a judicious examiner, tests can be valuable tools for determining
individual differences in intelligence. •Factor analysis is a statistical procedure that
compares various items or measures and identifies factors that are correlated with
each other. Gardner believes there are eight types of intelligence: verbal, skills,
mathematical skills, spatial skills, bodily-kinesthetic skills, musical skills,
interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, and naturalist skills Sternberg’s triarchic
theory states that there are three main types of intelligence: analytical, creative,
and practical. •Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and
others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the
information to guide one’s thinking and action The multiple-intelligences
approaches have broadened the definition of intelligence and motivated educators
to develop programs that instruct students in different domains. •A number of
experts on intelligence believe that children have a general intelligence as well as
specific intellectual abilities Intelligence tests designed to assess infant intelligence
are often called developmental scales, the most widely-used being the Bayley
scales. •Many children’s scores on intelligence tests fluctuate considerably
Develop mentalists have found that infant information-processing tasks that
involve attention—especially habituation and dis habituation—are related to
standardized intelligence test scores in childhood Mental retardation is a condition
of limited mental ability in which the individual has low IQ, usually below 70, has
difficulty adapting to everyday life, and has an onset of these characteristics
during the so-called developmental period. Children who are gifted have high
intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something.
•Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and
come up with unique solutions to problems Genetic similarity might explain why
identical twins show stronger correlations on intelligence tests than fraternal twins
do Environmental influences on intelligence have been demonstrated in studies of
the effects of parenting, intervention programs for children at risk for having low
IQs or dropping our of school, and sociohistorical changes. Among the ways that
group influences can be linked with intelligence include comparisons of cultures,
ethnic groups, and males and females Language is a form of communication,
whether spontaneous, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols.
•Phonology is a language’s sound system.
•In evolution, language clearly gave humans an enormous edge over other animals
and increased their chance of survival The behavioral view—that language
reinforcement and imitation are the factors in language acquisition—has not been
supported. •One interactionist view is that both Chomsky’s LAD and Bruner’s

2. LASS are involved in language acquisition Two basic and separate issues are
these: (1) Is cognition necessary for language? (2) Is language necessary for
cognition? •There is increasing evidence that language and thought are not part of
a single, automated cognitive system, but rather evolved as a separate, modular,
biological prepared components of the mind Among the milestones in infant language
development are crying (birth), cooing (1 to 2 months), specializing in the speech sounds of
one’s native language (6 months), using gestures (8 to 12 months), comprehension of words
(8 to 12 months), first word spoken (10 to 15 months), vocabulary spurt (18 months), rapid
expansion of understanding words (18 to 24 months), and two-word utterances (18 to 24
months). Advances in phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics
continue in early childhood. •In the middle and late childhood, children become
more analytical and logical in their approach to words and grammar. Bilingual
education aims to teach academic subjects to immigrant children in their native
languages (most often in Spanish) while gradually adding English instruction.
Emotion can be defined as feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological
arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression. •The functionalist view
of emotion states that emotions are linked to contexts, often interpersonal ones
The relation aspects of emotion involve parent-child relationships and peer
relations.
• The ability to regulate emotions is increasingly recognizes as a key aspect
of development.
• Becoming emotionally competent involves developing a number of skills,
such as becoming aware of one’s emotions.
Two broad types of emotions are primary emotions (surprise, interest, joy, anger,
sadness, fear, and disgust, which appear in the first six to eight months of life) and
self-conscious emotions (empathy, jealousy, and embarrassment, which appear at
about 1 1/2 years of age). Preschoolers become more adept at talking about their
own and others’ emotions. •In middle and late childhood, children increasingly
understand such complex emotions as pride and shame and that more than one
emotion can be expressed in a particular situation. Early adolescence is a time
when emotional highs and lows increase. •Depression more likely to occur in
adolescence than in childhood and in girls more than in boys. •Suicide is the third
leading cause of death in U.S. 13- to 19-year-olds. Lazarus believes that children’s
stress depends on how they cognitively appraise and interpret events. •Seligman
argues that an important aspect of coping with stress is whether the child is
optimistic or pessimistic. Temperament is an individual’s behavioral style and
characteristic way of emotionally responding. •Goodness of fit refers to the match
between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must
cope with. Activity level in early childhood is linked with being an outgoing
young adult. •In one study, mothers were more responsive to the cries of irritable
girls than those of irritable boys. Although research evidence is sketchy, some
general recommendations are that caregivers should (1) be sensitive to the
individual characteristics of the child, (2) be flexible in responding to these

3. characteristics, and (3) avoid negative labeling of the child. Attachment is a close
emotional bond between the infant and caregiver.
• Securely attached babies use the caregiver, usually the mother, as a secure
base from which to explore the environment.
• Caregivers of secure babies are sensitive to the babies’ signals and are
consistently available to meet their needs.
Some critics argue that attachment theorists have not given adequate attention to
genetics and temperament.
• Fathers have increased their interaction with children, but they still lag far
behind mothers, even when mothers are employed.
• Child care has become a basic need of the American family.
Children socialize parents just as parents socialize children. •The developmental
construction views share the belief that as individuals grow up they acquire modes
of relating to others Parents need to adapt their parenting as children grow older,
using less physical manipulation and more reasoning in the process. •Changes in
families may be due to great upheavals, such as war, or more subtle changes, such
as television and the mobility of families The role of cognition includes parent’s
cognitions, beliefs, and values about their parental role, as well as the way they
perceive, organize, and understand their children’s behaviors and beliefs. •For
some, the pAn increased trend is to conceptualize parents as managers of
children’s lives. •Authoritarian, authoritative, neglectful, and indulgent are the
four main categories of parenting styles parental role is well planned and
coordinated. For others, there is surprise. There are a number of reasons not to use
physical punishment in disciplining children, and in some countries physical
punishment of children has been outlawed. •Child maltreatment is an increasing
problem in the United States and is a multifaceted problem. Siblings interact with
each other in more negative and less varied ways than parents and children
interact. •Birth order is related in certain ways to child characteristics, but some
critics believe it has been overemphasized as a predictor of child behavior. Many
parents have a difficult time handling the adolescent’s push for autonomy.
•Conflict with parents often increases in early adolescence, but this conflict is
often moderate rather than severe. In general, in most studies, the mother’s
working outside the home has not had an adverse effect on children’s
development. •Children in divorced families show more adjustment problems than
Approximately 20 percent of lesbians and 10 percent of gay men are parents.
Researchers have found few differences between children growing up in gay or
Cultures vary on a number of issues regarding families. •Most people associate
motherhood with a number of positive images, but the reality is that motherhood is
accorded a relatively low status in our society.lesbian families and children
growing up in heterosexual families.their counterparts in nondivorced families.
Like in divorced families, children in stepfamilies have more problems than their
counterparts in nondivorced families.