Glossary of Terms Glossary of Terms Term Meaning action research model collecting information, feeding back information to the client system, developing and implementing action programs to improve system performance agenda-setting interventions a type of process consultation intervention that sets aside time when process issues will be specifically discussed apart from content issues; agenda-setting interventions do not include determining the task items to be discussed analytical model analysis used for basis of change; it is useful in diagnosing interdepartmental issues as this model examines departmental structure, time orientation, members' orientations to others, and members' orientations to goals analyzer style consultant high on effectiveness, low on morale apathetic mode follows established routine and avoids responsibility autonomy one of the five core job dimensions in the job characteristics model; the degree to which the job provides independence to the individual in scheduling the work and determining procedures avoiding style a style of managing conflict that avoids conflict by withdrawing behavioral strategies places emphasis on the use of human resources boundaryless a term that refers to reducing conflict between divisions and departments career life planning matching career and life goals cause maps this model uses mathematical representations of perceived causal relationships among variables; the results are incorporated into a matrix of relationships change leader a person responsible for change in an organization changing the corporate culture difficult to do because the culture is based on past successes; firms can decline, stagnate, or be destroyed if culture cannot change; there are five reasons that justify large-scale cultural changes: (1) values that do not fit the changing environment; (2) competitive industry that rapidly changes; (3) mediocre company; (4) firm joins ranks or large companies; and (5) small firm that is growing rapidly charismatic mode relies on leaders to determine if change is desirable cheerleader style consultant high on morale, low on effectiveness client sponsor person or group within the organization that has requested the consultant's help and who interfaces with the consultant client systems an organization employing a consultant to assist them in planning change clique when three or more persons within a larger group select one another as a subgroup closed questions specific questions that can normally be answered either yes or no closed systems exists only in theory; is self-contained and isolated from its environment closure tendency to fill in missing information to complete a perception complementary transaction occurs when a message sent from one ego state receives an expected response from the other person's appropriate ego state compromising style a style of managing co.

1. Glossary of Terms
Glossary of Terms
Term Meaning
action research model collecting information, feeding back
information to the
client system, developing and implementing action
programs to improve system performance
agenda-setting interventions a type of process consultation
intervention that sets aside
time when process issues will be specifically discussed
apart from content issues; agenda-setting interventions do
not include determining the task items to be discussed
analytical model analysis used for basis of change; it is useful
in diagnosing
interdepartmental issues as this model examines
departmental structure, time orientation, members'
orientations to others, and members' orientations to goals
analyzer style consultant high on effectiveness, low on morale

2. apathetic mode follows established routine and avoids
responsibility
autonomy one of the five core job dimensions in the job
characteristics model; the degree to which the job
provides independence to the individual in scheduling the
work and determining procedures
avoiding style a style of managing conflict that avoids conflict
by
withdrawing
behavioral strategies places emphasis on the use of human
resources
boundaryless a term that refers to reducing conflict between
divisions
and departments
career life planning matching career and life goals
cause maps this model uses mathematical representations of
perceived
causal relationships among variables; the results are
incorporated into a matrix of relationships
change leader a person responsible for change in an
organization

3. changing the corporate culture difficult to do because the
culture is based on past
successes; firms can decline, stagnate, or be destroyed if
culture cannot change; there are five reasons that justify
large-scale cultural changes: (1) values that do not fit the
changing environment; (2) competitive industry that
rapidly changes; (3) mediocre company; (4) firm joins
ranks or large companies; and (5) small firm that is
growing rapidly
charismatic mode relies on leaders to determine if change is
desirable
cheerleader style consultant high on morale, low on
effectiveness
client sponsor person or group within the organization that has
requested
the consultant's help and who interfaces with the
consultant
client systems an organization employing a consultant to assist
them in

4. planning change
clique when three or more persons within a larger group select
one another as a subgroup
closed questions specific questions that can normally be
answered either
yes or no
closed systems exists only in theory; is self-contained and
isolated from
its environment
closure tendency to fill in missing information to complete a
perception
complementary transaction occurs when a message sent from
one ego state receives
an expected response from the other person's appropriate
ego state
compromising style a style of managing conflict that tends to
seek out
compromise between conflicting parties
confidentiality information of a private nature that is not known
by the
public; privileged communications between the client and

5. the consultant that should not be divulged
confrontation the process in which parties directly engage each
other
and focus on the conflict between them
congruent (authentic) change agent should act in accordance
with the values he
or she is attempting to impose upon client's value system
consensus mode decisions are made through the sharing of
viewpoints
content task of the group
contingency approach attempt to determine through "if-then"
research the proper
management technique to employ
coordinator a term used in self-managed work teams that refers
to the
external leader of a team; the coordinator provides
encouragement to the team, is an energizer, and serves as
a teacher and facilitator for the team
corporate culture a system of shared values and beliefs that
interact with
people, structure, and systems of an organization to

6. produce norms; reflects organization's past and is rooted
in firm's history and mythology; it influences how
managers approach problems, react to competition, and
implement new strategies
creative individualism questioning of peripheral norms,
accepting of pivotal
norms
crooked stroke has a double meaning similar to the ulterior
transaction; it
transmits a message different from the words that a person
uses
crossed transaction occurs when a message from one ego state
receives a
response from another unexpected or inappropriate ego
state
cultural strength measures the intensity by which members hold
cultural
values and how widely they are shared in the
organization; does not necessarily guarantee corporate

7. effectiveness
data unstructured, unformed facts
diagnosis analysis of problem(s)
dilemma interactions occur in assessment stage of intervention
and result from
questions from consultant regarding the client's problem
definition, awareness of need for change, reduction of
overexpectations, client's misuse of power, and value
differences
directed interview interview in which only specific information
is sought
disclosure used in Johari Window model to enlarge public area
vertically; the process of communicating one's feelings,
thoughts, and candid feedback to others
dominating style a style of managing conflict that attempts to
attain
personal objectives and often ignores the needs of others
driving forces opposite forces to restraining forces; driving
forces put
pressure on the organization to change

8. dynamic equilibrium steady state, reacting with environment
ego states the three separate sources of behavior used in
Transactional Analysis used to describe parent, adult, and
child feelings, attitudes, and behaviors
emergent-group behavior model based on the work of George
Homans; this model is used
to gather observations and information on activities,
interactions, sentiments, and norms and uses these data to
diagnose problems among or within teams
empathy a process consultation intervention where the listener
tries
to see the world from the speaker's point of view
employee stock ownership plan uses various types of formulas
to grant stock or stock
options to a broad section of employees
empowerment the process of giving employees the power to
make
decisions about their work
entropy movement toward disorder and eventual termination of
function

9. excellence firms with excellence have a corporate culture that
allows
them to change rapidly
external consultant a person from outside the organization who
serves as a
resource for change
fade out occurs in laboratory learning programs when
participants
return to their work organizations; back at work, support if
often lacking for participants' new ways of behaving
feedback results, reaction from behavior
force-field analysis model originated by Kurt Lewin, this model
weights the forces
for and against change; restraining forces keep the
organization stable and driving forces put pressure on the
organization to change
future shock inability to cope with rapid change
gain sharing a reward system used as a basis for calculating pay
that

10. recognizes the value of a specific group based on
measurable characteristics
gamesmanship mode sees life as if playing a game and the main
goal is to be a
winner
goal acceptance the commitment to the accomplishment of a
goal
goal commitment acceptance of goals through rewards and trust
goal setting a process intended to increase efficiency and
effectiveness
by specifying desired outcomes toward which individuals,
teams, and the organization should work
grid OD defines problem areas for OD by going through a series
of
phases designed to pursue a systematic change approach
group cohesiveness the attractiveness a group has for its
members
group consensus a decision made by a group that all members
can support
group process how the group goes about accomplishing its task
group task functions member behaviors that directly help the
group solve its

11. task
group-building and maintenance
functions
behaviors of group members that help the group grow and
improve its member's interpersonal relationships
groupthink describes the problems of group cohesiveness; refers
to a
mode of thinking that people engage in when they are
deeply involved in a cohesive in-group and when the
members striving for unanimity override their motivation
to realistically appraise alternative courses of action
Hawthorne effect the effect of the observer on the subject; the
act of
investigating or observing may influence the behavior of
those observed
high performing systems organizations that perform excellently
and are defined as
an excellent human system; criteria and characteristics
have been identified

12. horizontal corporation flattening the hierarchical organizational
charts; reduction
in the layers of management
hyperturbulent environment rapid change
ideal strategic model phase 4 of the grid OD program;
management decides
what an excellent organization would be and then a model
is developed to achieve that excellence
incremental approach refers to long-term planned change that
relies on
collaboration and participation from organization
members
individual functions behaviors of group members that satisfy
individual needs
and are inconsequential to the group's task and
maintenance
information data that has form and structure
information overload the increasing volume of information with
which a
professional finds impossible to keep current

13. integrating style a conflict style where there is high concern for
self and
others; this style is concerned with problem solving, uses
openness, sharing of information and the examination of
differences to reach a consensus solution
interdependence situations where one person's performance is
contingent
on how someone else performs
interfaces meeting point between groups
intergroup competition a condition causing intergroup problems
that involves
groups with conflicting purposes or objectives; this
condition emerges when a group desires or pursues one
goal while directly opposing values that exist in another
group
intergroup interventions OD interventions that attempt to
increase cooperation
among organization subsystems
intergroup teambuilding an OD intervention technique where
key members of

14. conflicting groups meet to work on issues or interface
internal consultant an internal resource for change, such as a
manager or
other member of the organization
internal team leader acts to make sure equipment and supplies
are available,
helps the team organize itself, and serves as an additional
team member who is doing work similar to other
members; also serves as encourager and facilitator
interpretation communication responses used by a consultant to
explain
the meaning of something in terms the client can
understand
intervention refers to the entrance into the client system and
includes a
variety of roles and activities
isolates individuals within a group who are only rarely chosen
by
others
job burnout emotional exhaustion and reduced accomplishment
that

15. can occur among individuals who do people work of some
kind; a response to the chronic emotional strain of dealing
extensively with other human beings who are troubled or
having problems
job characteristics model a model that attempts to measure
objective attributes of
job characteristics that can directly affect employee
attitudes and work behaviors
job design the way a job is structured
job enrichment theory a method that builds in satisfaction to a
job; includes
changing a job to have increasing levels of achievement,
recognition, and responsibility
job feedback the degree to which carrying out work activities
required
by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and
clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance
Johari Window model a model for identifying communication

16. style where four
areas of knowledge about the self are identified; public,
blind, closed, and unknown
knowledge-based pay a reward system based on the knowledge
or skills a
worker has; sometimes called skill-based pay
laboratory learning simulated situations allowing for evaluation
and reactions
to others; uses a group as a laboratory for experimenting,
learning, and discovering cause-and-effect relations in
interpersonal communication
learning organization an organization that has developed a
continuing capacity
to adapt and change
management by objectives (MBO) a specific technique used by
organizations for setting
goals; it is a system of management set up to help in
planning organizing, problem solving, motivating, and
other important management activities
managerial effectiveness ability to accomplish specific
organizational goals or

17. objectives: "doing the right thing"
managerial efficiency the ratio of output (results) to input
(resources) or "doing
the right thing"
managerial grid a tool used in phase 1 of the grid OD program;
allows
managers to determine their management style
member roles functions that individual members play in a
group; these
roles can be broadly categorized as task, maintenance, and
individual
meta goals the superordinate organization goals
motivating potential score (MPS) a measurement of job's ability
to produce increased
personal and work outcomes
motivational climate employee attitudes and morals that
influence the
performance level
mutual choice when certain individuals within a larger group
choose one
another

18. natural work team people coming together because of the
related jobs or the
structure of the organization design
negative stroke the reverse of a positive stroke, resulting in an
unexpected, unreassuring response with a "you're not ok"
feeling
nondirected interview the interview direction is chosen by the
respondent; there
is little direction by the interviewer
norms the organized and shared ideas regarding what members
should do and feel, how this behavior should be regulated,
and what sanctions should be applied
obliging style a style of managing conflict that is concerned
with people
satisfactions and smoothing over conflicts
OD consultant change agent or person helping client to adapt
and plan
change
OD intervention the range of actions designed to improve the

19. health or
functioning of the client system in an OD program
OD strategy a plan for change using structural, technical, and
behavioral methods
one-way choice when an individual in a group chooses another
but is not
chosen in return
open book management teach employees to understand
accounting and financial
statements and to use the knowledge in their work and
planning
open loop elements of an organization such as departments
operating
without feedback; there is no mechanism for corrective
action to take place
open system is interrelated and acts with its environment
open-ended questions this type of question allows the
respondent to be free and
unrestrained and to direct the interview
operating ground rules can include point of contact,
confidentiality of

20. information, requirements from the organization, process
role, and other items
organization culture a system of shared meanings, including
dress, language,
values, norms, and attitudes of an organization
organization development (OD) planned strategy to bring about
change
organization diagnosis a systematic approach to understanding
and describing the
present state of an organization
organization mirror a technique designed to give work units
feedback on how
other elements of the organization view them; this
intervention is designed to improve relationships between
groups and increase effectiveness
organization renewal ongoing process of building innovation
and adaptation
into an organization
organization transformation (OT) process of coping with
unplanned change by changing
organization form or framework (revolution); drastic,

21. abrupt change to total structures, management processes,
and corporate cultures
outdoor experiential laboratory
training
takes a group of people who work together, places them in
an outdoor setting, and allows them to experiment and
discuss leadership styles and teamwork
Parkinson's Laws summarizes the problems of inefficient
practices in
organizations: (1) the law of multiplication of
subordinates; and (2) the law of multiplication of work
pathfinder style consultant high on effectiveness, high on
morale
perception process that individuals use to give meaning to their
environment by interpreting and organizing sensory
impressions
performance gap this is the difference between the desired and
the actual

22. performance of an organization
peripheral norms norms that support and contribute to the
pivotal norms but
that are not essential to the organization's objectives
persuader style consultant moderate emphasis on both morale
and effectiveness
pivotal norms norms essential to an organization's objectives
positive stroke transactions that provide an expected response
and
reassure a person's worth, esteem, or competency
power strategies a technique for lessening resistance to change
that uses the
power structure in an organization to convince its
members of the worthiness of the program
power tools information, support, and resources
process observation technique used in examining groups that
identifies
separate dimensions
process quality management a goal-setting approach that uses
teams, relies heavily on
goals established by team consensus decision making; the

23. team approach continues through a follow-up procedure to
decide how well goals were met
professionalism internalization of value system that is part of
the concept
of the profession
profit sharing uses the performance of the business to calculate
employee pay
psychological contract expectations between an individual and
an organization
psychological positions feelings based on one's previous
experiences lead to
positions toward oneself and others
psychosocial system includes the network of social relationships
and
behavioral patterns of members, such as norms, roles, and
communication
questionnaires this method of gathering data is normally used
for a large
number of responses; although this method is impersonal
it lends itself to quantitative analysis
reactive management waiting until something becomes a

24. problem before
reacting
renewing/transformational
management
plans for change; makes contingency plans
resistance blocking of goal acceptance
restraining forces those forces that act to keep an organization
stable
role ambiguity the role incumbent's being unaware of or lacking
sufficient knowledge of the expectations of others
role analysis technique a team development method for
clarifying role
expectations; role analysis is used to clarify such role
discrepancies, leading to improved group cohesiveness
and functioning
role conflict discrepancy between role conception and others'
expectations
role negotiation an OD team-building technique that is directed
at the

25. work relationships among group members; the technique
involves a series of controlled negotiations between
participants and during the role negotiation, managers
discuss what they want from each other and explain why
satisficing management does only what is necessary to get by;
management that is
adequate and average
second-order consequences indirect consequences that result
from a change action
selective perception selectivity of information that is perceived;
people tend to
ignore information that they do not want to hear and
accept information that is in agreement with their values
self-managed work teams an autonomous group whose members
decide how to
handle their task; the task of the team is an identifiable
task, service, or product
skill variety the degree to which the job requires a variety of
activities
that involve the use of different skills and talents

26. sluggish management style of management based on low risk,
formalized
procedures, and high degree of structure and control
social network analysis model this analysis uses a mathematical
representation of
relationships between individuals or groups and reveals
important interdependencies
socialization process of an individual adjusting to an
organization's
culture and norms
sociogram a diagram of relationships and interactions
sociotechnical system an organization with an open system of
coordinated
human and technical activities with five major subsystems
sociotechnical systems model an organization has two systems
that are interrelated - the
social system and the technological system; this model
determines how these systems interrelate and the feedback
(or lack of it) between the subsystems
stabilizer style consultant low on effectiveness; low on morale
strategic change management this model focuses on an

27. alignment between an
organization's strategy, structure, and human resources
systems and a fit between them and the environment
strategy refers to a course of action used to achieve major
objectives, concerned with relating the resources of the
organization to opportunities in the larger environment
strategy-culture matrix a model that can be used to assess the
readiness of a
corporate culture for strategic changes; provides four
basic strategies for implementing change within a culture
stream analysis a method useful in planning the changes that
plots the
interventions over a period of time
stress management interventions methods such as biofeedback,
wellness, career counseling
to help an individual deal with personal and work-related
stress
stressors events that create a state of disequilibrium within an
individual

28. stroking concept in transactional analysis theory referring to a
form
of recognition, including physical, verbal, or visual
recognition of one person by another
strong culture characterized by the organization's basic values
being both
intensely held and widely shared; strong cultures have
greater impact on behavior and are related to reduced
turnover
structural analysis used to understand the three ego states;
parent, child, and
adult
structural strategies alters the framework that relates elements
of the
organization to one another
suboptimization when the goals of operating divisions are
interdependent,
optimization by one group may result in decreased goal
attainment for other groups and the organization; occurs
when a group organizes its own subgoals, but loses sight

29. of the larger organizational goals
support team a term used in self-managed work teams that
refers to
team of top management responsible for general planning,
making broad goals, and dealing with outside parties
system set of interrelated elements unified to achieve a goal or
purpose
system 4 model a continuum developed by Likert from system 1
to system
4, with 4 being the ideal that firms attempt to achieve
systems approach looks at organization as unified systems of
interrelated
units; this allows manager to balance needs of each unit as
well as organizational goals
task activities what the group does
task identity the degree to which the job requires completion of
a
whole and identifiable piece of work
task significance the degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the
lives of other people, whether in the same organization or

30. in the external environment
team development also called team building; a databased
intervention where
a work group examines such things as their goals,
structure, procedures, culture, norms, and interpersonal
relationships to improve their ability to work together
effectively and efficiently
team process how the group works and the relationships among
team
members
technical change approach changes in machinery, methods,
automation, and job
design
technical, political, and cultural
systems
organizational systems of the strategic change
management model
third-party intervention method of increasing communication
and initiating

31. intergroup problem solving through the use of a third
party, usually an outside consultant; in this process the
parties directly engage each other and focus on the
conflict between them
third-wave organizations firms that have used flexibility,
creativity, and innovations
to be successful in an information age
total quality management (TQM) an organization strategy of
commitment to improving
customer satisfaction by developing techniques to
carefully manage output quality
transaction an interaction between people involving a
communication
between their ego states; the basic unit of communication
is classified as complementary, crossed, and ulterior
transactional analysis (TA); in interpersonal relationship model
that OD
practitioners apply in organization change programs as a
way for people to understand themselves better
transformative change refers to immediate drastic change

32. accomplished by
directive methods
trust relationship openness and honesty between OD consultant
and client
ulterior transaction involves two ego states simultaneously: the
literal words
of the transaction, which may mean one thing, and the
underlying intent, which may mean something entirely
different
vision mental image of a possible and desirable future state of
the organization
weak culture commitment to cultural values is not widely held
in the
organization; characterized by relatively young companies
or those that high turnover of executives and employees
wellness program stress reduction programs initially associated
with
physical fitness, nutrition counseling, and smoking
cessation

33. FAQ: Issues in Organizational Change
1
Question 1: Why do some people resist change?
Answer 1: It is important to listen to the person who is resistant
to the
change. Listen for the facts, beliefs, feelings, or values that the
person is
conveying. Resistance may stem from a single fact, belief,
feeling, or value.
As a consultant, it is important to ask nonthreatening questions
to discern the
source of the resistance (Huffman, 1995), such as the following:
• Some questions to ask about facts are as follows:
o What information are you basing that on?
o How do you know that is true? What evidence do you have?
o How did you reach that conclusion?
• To understand the beliefs that influence a person’s resistance,
ask the
following:
o What is your opinion of this change?
o What problems do you see with this change?

34. o Why else should this change not be made?
• To understand feelings, ask the following:
o How does that make you feel?
o What are your concerns about this?
• To understand values, ask the following:
o What is important to you about how this is handled?
o What outcomes do you want to see from this change?
o What is the bottom line for you?
In general, overcoming resistance is a 4-step process: verify the
facts,
challenge erroneous beliefs, acknowledge feelings, and relate
the change to
people’s values.
Question 2: What are the pros and cons of external and internal
consultants,
and why is the team approach a viable alternative?
Answer 2: External consultants may be more objective, but they
also have
less understanding of the organization. Internal consultants
may, on the
other hand, be afraid of losing their jobs and are too close to the
situation,
but they are more aware of problems and familiar with the
organization
(structure, power networks, nature of business, etc.). The team
approach
allows for the benefits of each, and may help eliminate the
negatives.

35. FAQ: Issues in Organizational Change
2
Additionally, the approach permits sharing of different points of
view, and
may alleviate the possibility of groupthink or dysfunctional
decision-making
processes.
Question 3: What are diagnostic models and why are they
important?
Answer 3: Diagnostic models are systems that help an
organizational
development practitioner assess an organization. As such,
models play a
critical role in an organizational development program. Several
diagnostic
models are currently in use, but some of the more common are
the systems
model, the analytical model, the emergent-group behavior
model, the
management consulting model, the sociotechnical systems
model, cause
maps and social network analysis model, and the force-field
analysis model.
Each model is described as follows:

36. • Systems model: The systems model views the organization as
a
unified system of interrelated units. This gives managers a way
of
looking at the organization as a whole and as part of a larger
external
environment. Additionally, the notion of system
interdependency is
critical because a change in one part of the organization has
consequences in other parts of the organization. All open
systems also
have boundaries, but these boundaries are permeable. In other
words,
external changes also impact and can alter the organizational
system.
• Analytical model: The analytical model, sometimes referred to
as the
difference integration model, stresses the importance of a sound
analytical diagnosis as the basis for planned change in
organizations.
The model was developed to study and understand
interdepartmental
issues by conducting a careful diagnosis of the organization’s
problem
areas.
• Emergent-group behavior model: The emergent-group
behavior
model is based primarily on the work of George Homans and
provides
a conceptual scheme for analyzing behavior in work groups,
particularly the interdependence of groups. Group behavior,
from this
perspective, emerges as social activity that may or may not

37. assist the
group in the performance of its duties.
• Management consulting model: Terry Armstrong and Walter
Wheatley developed a diagnostic model for use in management
consulting that analyzes six basic factors: planning, general
business
practices, finance, advertising and promotion, market research,
and
personnel. Armstrong and Wheatley suggest that it is possible to
obtain a few basic responses in each area to gain an indication
of
where the client’s problems may be located.
FAQ: Issues in Organizational Change
3
• Sociotechnical systems model: The sociotechnical systems
model,
developed from the work of Eric Trist and others at the
Tavistock
Institute, is used to analyze the organization as a sociotechnical
system interacting with its external environment. From this
perspective there are two systems—the social system and the
technological system—that are interrelated and interdependent,
The
diagnosis determines how these systems interrelate, and
specifically,

38. the type of feedback or lack of feedback between the various
subsystems that may be the source of organizational problems.
• Cause maps and social network analysis model: Reed E.
Nelson
and K. Michael Mathews have suggested the use of cause maps
and
social network analysis in diagnosis. Cause maps are
mathematical
representations of perceived causal relationships among
variables. By
analyzing the causal makeup of the organization and
information
about specific interdepartmental relationships, knowledge is
gained of
important interdependencies.
• Force-field analysis model: The force-field analysis model,
originated by Kurt Lewin, is a diagnostic technique that views
organizational behavior as a balance of forces that push for and
restrain change. Restraining forces act on the organization to
keep it
stable, and driving forces put pressure on the organization to
change.
If the forces for change and the forces against change are equal,
the
result is organizational equilibrium. Change takes place when
the
organization is experiencing imbalance, which can be planned
and
specifically brought into being by decreasing the strength of any
one
of the forces, introducing a new force, decreasing the strength
of any
one of the forces, or by a combination of these methods.

39. Question 4: What are major forces in the change process?
Answer 4: Forces can be either driving or restraining. Driving
forces are
anything that increases the inclination of the client system to
implement the
proposed change program. Alternatively, restraining forces
hinder the
development of the change program.
Question 5: What strategies might be used in gaining acceptance
for an
organizational development program?
Answer 5: Initially, two things in reducing resistance should be
recognized.
First, resistance to change can be predicted, and second,
resistance cannot
be repressed effectively in the long run. In short, resistance to
change of
some type is inevitable. The task of the manager or the
organizational
FAQ: Issues in Organizational Change
4
development practitioner is to make conflict resulting from the
resistance a

40. creative force for the organization’s greater good and a strategy
for gradually
gaining acceptance of change initiatives. These strategies may
include a
systematic plan, inclusion of members, education and
communication of
proposed changes, managers creating a vision of the
organization,
recognition of resistance to change, providing support and a
reward system
for those involved, leadership of key managers, negotiation,
explicit and
implicit coercion, and the use of power.
Reference
Huffman, K. (October, 1995). Scaling the wall of resistance.
Training and
Development, 49(10) 15.
Organization Development
Organization or Organizational Development is a body of
knowledge derived from
many disciplines focused on helping practitioners (including
leaders and managers of
organizations) improve the performance of their organizations,
teams, and individual

41. employees. Organization Development provides practitioners
with models and tools to
measure, assess, design, structure, reengineer, lead, and manage
“work” at individual,
group, function, and cross-functional levels.
Performance is not only related to the tangible, quantifiable
objectives of the
organization. OD expanded the understanding of “effective”
work to include the
quality of life of the members involved in producing results.
Aligning individual needs
to those of the organization (and its “stakeholders”) is a critical
component of most
efforts. Many academics and consultants also see strong ethical
considerations that
drive the discipline.
Planned Change and Learning
Defining what is wrong and what is working well, then planning
actions that make it
better is, in essence, OD. Systematically creating quantitative
and qualitative change is
one aim of OD practice. Another is moving individuals, teams,
and the total system

42. toward “conscious” competence where their capacity for
identifying needed changes
and implementing change is improved.
OD approaches organizations as dynamic, “living” entities.
Systems use inputs (such
as people, ideas, and resources) to create outputs (specific
products or services).
Turning inputs into outputs is the throughput of the system.
Combining right inputs
with healthy (that is, effective and efficient) processes or
throughput allows a company
or organization to create outputs that help it survive.
There are many models for planned change. At its simplest, it is
a process of
unfreezing, changing, and refreezing the actions of an
individual, a group in an
organization, or the whole organization itself. It is an attempt to
direct how change
happens controlling the effort and resources used, creating
positive results efficiently
and effectively. It helps the organization at all levels “do what
really matters” or what
really makes a difference, and it helps make sure “it is done
well” or done in a quality

43. fashion as best as it possibly can be done. Not only is it doing
things right, it is doing
the right things.
The Practice of Organization Development
While the “profession” of organization development is in its
early stages, its practice
has a long history. Change agents and consulting have been
around for many years.
Just as leadership is, in some ways, a young science, it has been
occurring in real life
throughout human history. Managers can be OD practitioners as
easily as internal or
external OD consultants. Just as any person on a team has an
impact on the team’s
effectiveness and can be a leader of the team—at least
informally—so too any person
working to create change in the organization can be an OD
practitioner. With this said,
it is usually those individuals who hold formal roles for
managing change or who lead
the consulting process who are identified as OD practitioners.
The focus of this course

44. is on these more formal roles.
Change happens all the time. OD practitioners can start a
relationship at many points of
a change process. They can be the catalyst creating the
conditions for change by raising
awareness of the needs for change. More often, they start at the
point when an
individual or organization identifies a problem or opportunity
and requests help or
assistance in figuring out what to do. Many OD interventions
and relationships start
because a change occurs and the organization has not responded
or adapted well.
Whenever there is a presenting problem and a request for help
occurs, the consultant
enters and the engagement begins.
Diagnosing Organizations
Diagnosis covers the collection, analysis, and feedback of
information. These steps in

45. the consulting process are a type of OD intervention. Any action
or change affects the
company, its groups, and the individuals in it. This is especially
true when the purpose
of action is to generate a picture of reality. Diagnosis is used to
assess where an
organization is currently and where it needs or wants to go.
Planned change addresses
this gap between the actual and the ideal.
Models and Normative Approaches
One outcome of OD is increased learning or capacity of the
organization to do for
itself. Understanding how to measure both quantitatively and
qualitatively its "health"
is essential to that goal. One method of diagnosis is to use
models to describe
"effectiveness." Competitive analysis approaches to diagnosis
compare firms to others
in their industry (or to one they aspire to imitate). Another
popular approach is to
describe the idealized organization, undertaking a comparison
between that and its
current state. All approaches spotlight or identify "performance
gaps" as a prerequisite

46. for creating planned change.
Collaboration in Diagnosis
When diagnosis is a collaborative process, it supports the aims
of OD and establishes
learning as a key value. Deciding what to measure; who will be
involved; and how to
collect, analyze, and report on the information should be a
collaborative process
between the consultant or practitioner and the organization.
Understanding how the
organization approaches these tasks helps build a picture of how
problems are
managed. It also helps define what problems exist. Not only
does the problem need to
be addressed but the entity (whether a person, group, or total
system) also needs to
learn how to prevent or avoid this situation in the future. In
reality, progress is made
even when the same problem is repeated but is resolved more
quickly and efficiently.
Diagnosis is no guarantee of change. Sometimes "fixes" are too
costly or impossible—
then palliative measures may be chosen as the best course of
action. At other times, the

47. system or people may choose not to proceed from diagnosis to
an action stage,
allowing "natural evolution" to unfold.
Promoting Positive Change
Principles of valid information, non-judgmental discussion of
the information, and
allowing free choice to reinforce the positive values of OD are
at the core of "action"
learning, and they establish conditions that promote effective
change. Organizations at
all levels exhibit resistance to change. Even when problems
arise and are recognized,
action is not always taken. Assessing the likelihood of
compliance (the willingness and
capability to change), therefore, is critical. Involvement by
stakeholders during
diagnosis helps reduce resistance and provides more
information about how to
implement change. This participation is critical to clarity,
commitment, and effective
execution of the change plan. It is one mechanism OD
consultants use to help
organizations, groups, and individuals learn how to build
mutually beneficial

48. relationships. These four factors—clarity, commitment,
execution, and mutually
beneficial relationships—form the basis for learning, growth,
organizational
effectiveness, and increased capacity to manage change.
Generating valid information, presenting it in a non-judgmental
or non-evaluative
manner, and allowing people in the organization the freedom of
choice also promote
positive change and are critical to upholding inherent OD
values. Participation should
promote these aims. Planned change can happen without
participation, but it will not
meet the values of OD and will create ethical concerns.
Background
You were asked by Dr. Babcock to meet with his direct staff
and give an overview of OD
and what has been discussed by the executive team so far. You
were immediately swept

49. up in the group’s excitement about the idea of improving the
organization and became
involved in talking through what made them most successful.
These thoughts were
summarized as the key values of the function. (See the list
below for further details.)
Creating increased involvement at all levels was one change the
R&D management felt
was mandatory. They convinced you that the people in the
organization really did want
this to happen, but no one was sure how to go about it. They
asked you if it is possible to
reinforce this change by how a diagnosis and analysis is
conducted.
Based on your capacity as an expert in OD, you were asked to
draft a questionnaire to
assess where the function is now and where it should be. Being
researchers, they
understood the need for information and thought the
questionnaire approach was a fast
way to proceed. You know you need help to generate definitions
that could be used to

50. make the questionnaire meaningful and understandable. They
agreed that their
organization needs to be involved, but they want a working
document to discuss to save
time. Once they have a means (the questionnaire) and plan for
collecting information,
they can then use it to set priorities and begin discussions on
what to change and how to
go about it.
They want open discussions involving all members of the
organization at every stage.
One idea was to use staff meetings—the intent being to use
some mechanism, such as
force field analyses, to generate information and consolidate it
across all areas as a
starting point.
You want to talk with your consulting company to see if this
might be a good way to
involve the organization in creating the questionnaire. You have
put the following
question on the agenda for the next review meeting.

51. Is this a good way to generate the types of information that
could create the
behavioral endpoints for a questionnaire?
Another suggestion was to start with the higher priorities and
form taskforces or
multifunctional teams to generate the information and
communicate the work with the
general community to get reactions before working on the
change plan. Eventually, they
will work down the whole list according to priority, need, and
the resources needed. Time
being one of the scarce resources, this method was seen as a
way to focus any effort on
the most important items: those with the highest return to the
organization.
You know there are many ways to have large groups set
priorities you want to
discuss this with your colleagues also. What methods could they
suggest, and is it
a good idea?
Toward the end of the meeting, there was a movement to hold a
general or total

52. community event to build the function; it would be a meeting,
organized in some way to
get all the force fields done. It is key, in its view, to have input
and communication across
Background
all levels and from all functions for each category. If time is
critical, why not do it all at
once? Complete the survey, score it, review it, and set priorities
as a group. Then, in
smaller groups (meeting at the same time and in parallel), come
up with the force field
analyses. These then could be presented to the community as a
whole, and one or two key
actions, for each category, could be identified for
implementation and next steps.