2. Archaeology versus Architectural
History?
• 19th century: evidence of form and style
(Fergusson); text-aided archaeology
(Cunningham).
• 20th century & writing of socio-economic history:
temple providing legitimisation to the state.
• Temple reinforced social demarcation &
hegemonies.
• Claims of the nation-state : art history bearer of
the nation’s unique artistic self!
3. Objectives of presentation
• Querying the structure of new disciplines
that emerged in 19th century India.
• To shift focus from dichotomies between
art history and archaeology to
understanding of religious structures.
• To highlight changing perceptions of
religious identity with reference to a study
of architecture in ancient period.
4. J. Fergusson, & J. Burgess, Cave
Temples of India, London 1880
• Written record in India imperfect and
cannot be relied upon for study of the past,
hence importance of architectural history.
• Cyclical notion of time inconsistent with
historical reasoning: emphasis on
chronology.
• Monuments located within religious-racial
framework, e.g. Dravidian architecture.
5. J. Fergusson, & J. Burgess, Cave
Temples of India, London 1880
• The Western Deccan caves … show how
Buddhist religion rose and spread, and its
form afterwards became corrupt and
idolatrous.
• They explain how it consequently came to
be superseded by the nearly cognate form of
Jainism and the antagonistic development of
the revived religion of the Brahmins.
6. 19th century framework
• Documentation the basis of Architectural
History.
• Histories of monuments governed by linear
time.
• Plans indicators of religious affiliation.
• Changes in legislation relating to
conservation introduce new methods of
control.
7. Durga temple at Aihole
• 19th century photographs by Colonel Biggs show it as
Siva temple.
• James Fergusson: apsidal form was Buddhist in origin –
subsequent Brahmanical take-over of the temple.
• 20th century writings by several Indian scholars: Durga
temple at Aihole, apsidal shrines at Ter and Chezerla -
structural versions of Buddhist caitya, later converted.
• M. Rama Rao & K.V. Soundara Rajan questioned this
identification based on Agamas, inscriptions, imagery.
10. Diverse religious development at
Aihole (6th – 12th century AD)
• Megalithic structures on Meguti hill.
• Buddhist and Jain caves on Meguti hill.
• Jain temples in close proximity to Hindu shrines.
• Location of shrines near water-bodies.
• Inscriptions on temples refer to religious
festivities.
• Range of donors and patrons.
• 1914-8: shift from temples to ‘66 protected
monuments.’
13. Archaeology of a temple:
Parasuramesvara temple, Gudimallam,
Chittoor district
• 2nd century BC: setting up of the Siva linga.
• 1st-3rd centuries AD: apsidal brick temple raised
around it.
• 9th century: elaborate arrangements for ritual.
• AD 845 to 989: inscriptions record donations and
gifts to the temple.
• AD 1127: construction of the temple in stone.
15. Narayanaswami temple at
Melkote near Mysore
• Most sacred Vaisnava temple.
• Puranas trace origins to Brahma who procured
the image from lord Narayana.
• 13th century texts: Ramanujacarya came from
Tamilnadu and recovered the image.
• 1117 and 1128 AD: renovation of temple by
Hoysala generals.
• 15th-16th centuries: donations by Vijayanagara
rulers.
16. Ethno-historic research
• Crucial role of ascetics and charismatic
renouncers in starting worship in temples.
• Complex relationship between the shrine and the
ruling polity.
• No ready attribution of caste or community
patronage.
• Temple of Kesariyaji south of Udaipur: Jains
worship image as Jina Adinath, while local Bhils,
identify the image as Kalaji or Karia.
• Regional histories, social time, cultural memory.
17. Inter-dependence of the arts, i.e.
architecture, sculpture, performing arts
• While each art has autonomy, this autonomy is
only relative; no form is seen in isolation.
• Attributes of architect: sakala-guna-āśraya
(abode of virtuous qualities) sarvasiddhi-ācārya;
aneka pura vāstu Pitamahan (the creator of
many cities and houses).
• Ācārya or architect: averted excommunication
(balligavarte) of the skilful people of this
district.
19. Archaeological insights
• Continuity of settlement from prehistoric
period onwards, though marked by shifts
and changes.
• Diversity in the nature of worship with
rock-shelters coexisting with shrine
complexes.
• Religious identity within expanding
cultural frontiers- pan-Indian/ Asian.
20. Nagarjunakonda valley:
100 sites in 15 sq. kms.
• Neolithic (3rd millennium BC) to 16th century.
• Megalithic stone circles.
• 30 Buddhist establishments; 19 Hindu brick
temples; medieval Jain shrines.
• Asvamedha tank; memorial pillars
• Citadel, residential space, ghats
• Complex patterning of secular & religious
space.
22. Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda):
Pattern of Patronage
• Located within fertile Krishna valley, but also
within larger maritime network.
• Buddhist monasteries: grants from queens,
upasikas, setthis, etc.
• 19 temples: only three with royal records.
• Elite association with memorial pillars; setting up
of lajja-gauri images.
23. The Asian Milieu
• Language as indicator of cultural identity
across Asia, e.g. Sanskrit/ Tamil/ Pali.
• Architectural manifestations and
transformations in South and Southeast
Asia.
• Recitation from sacred texts, such as the
Epics.
• Commonality of motifs, forms and
symbolism.
25. Emerging trends
• Locating monuments within social time.
• Interdependence of the arts.
• Relationship with texts and ritual
requirements.
• Use of inscriptions in understanding
community networks, rather than chronology.
• Asian context of early religious architecture in
India.
