Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and .docx

Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance
and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 30
Leadership Styles of Effective Project Managers: Techniques
and Traits to Lead High
Performance Teams
Melissa DuBois, John Hanlon, Jodi Koch, Betty Nyatuga,
Nathan Kerr
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Project management is a growing practice and is being utilized
in an increasing number of
facilities. The project manager is at the head of this project
process, and has an important role of
overseeing the project and project team, and ultimately ensuring
the project ends in success.
Analyzing critical qualities of leadership and determining their

positive impact can benefit
project managers in any industry and therefore promote project
success. A few of these
leadership styles include: team building, establishing clear
relations and roles between project
members, openness, self-confidence, organization, and clearly
defining project successes,
reevaluating when necessary. These leadership styles and traits
were researched and analyzed to
determine the extent they contribute to the construction,
execution, and closure of the project. By
adopting these qualities, the project’s stakeholders such as
investors, clients, or patients are more
likely to feel the positive impact of a successful project.
Projects can also move more smoothly
and efficiently, receiving positive results in less time. This is
beneficial not only to the
stakeholders, but to all members involved: the organization, the
project manager, executive staff,
team members, and outsourced facilities. It is not enough to
possess one of these crucial traits.
As seen in literature and historical examples, a combination is
necessary to create balance and
develop into a leader that can produce an efficient team and

satisfactory end results.
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Introduction
In today’s increasingly complex global economy and shrinking
geography, corporations,
governments, and other organizations are turning to a project
management model to facilitate
successful endeavors that enhance their products, services,
policies, and procedures. Project
management has proven to be a vehicle to oversee these short-
term but strategic ventures. More
than ever, these organizations are recognizing that these
projects require not just a project
manager, but a project leader. According to Pandya (2014),
project leaders are accountable for
the day-to-day oversight of the project, the triple constraint of
time, budget, and quality as any

manager is. However, they also need to manage change, assure
resource availability, address
behavioral and emotional flares with internal and external
stakeholders, and build relationships
that help create a high performance team. Leaders have vision,
honesty and integrity. Leaders
also capably move, motivate and inspire their team and
stakeholders to embrace change and the
strategies, tactics and tasks necessary to accomplish the goals at
hand (Prabhakar, 2005).
But are these the leadership traits that ensure project
management success? Are there
leadership styles and traits that ensure that a leader is effective?
Do successful project managers
exhibit these certain styles and traits? In the following paper,
current literature was reviewed and
synthesized. The relationship of leadership styles and traits to
project success was
identified. Desirable leadership styles and specific traits may
enhance project success regardless
of the industry, budget, culture, or geography (Prabhakar,
2005). This is knowledge that will be
beneficial for organizations and sponsors as they identify
project leaders to move their strategic

endeavors forward.
Literature Review
Acquiring a leadership position and becoming a leader are quite
different. Time,
experience, mentorship, mistakes and successes all equally
contribute to the process of
developing great leaders. Leadership is not measured by titles,
roles, or authority. Management
is about processes and systems. Leadership is about providing
guidance and direction for a
group. In leadership, it is important to not only achieve good
business results, but to also create
a culture where people are empowered and inspired by a
common purpose.
Leaders play a key role in building effective teams, creating a
framework to steer their
activities and motivating them to stay focused. Team-building is
an ongoing activity that is one

of the manager’s primary responsibilities and should be
incorporated into day-to-day activities.
The leader is the instrumental link to the organizational mission
and goals and frontline
teamwork.
Situational leadership emphasizes that a leader must adapt
his/her style according to the
situation of the leader’s team or organization. An analysis of the
team or organization’s
competence, motivation and skills is completed to determine the
“situation” the leader will need
to work with in order to provide effective leadership. Based on
the analysis of the situation, the
leader determines the style that must be adopted to be congruent
with the developmental level of
the team or organization. This approach is different than other
leadership styles because it
stresses that a leader has to change his/her style as opposed to
having a fixed, dominant style.
The motive of a situational leader is not self-serving, but rather,
the development and
effectiveness of the team and organization (Riaz & Haider,
2010).

There are three key concepts of situational leadership- task
behavior, the amount of
direction and guidance the leader provides the group; and
relationship behavior, the amount of
emotional and social support provided; and follower
development, the maturity and skill level of
followers (Waller, Smith, & Warnock, 1989). The situational
leadership style enables a leader to
identify tasks, set goals, determine the skill level and maturity
of the individual or group, select
an appropriate leadership approach, and modify the approach as
change evolves (Hersey, et. al.,
2008). A potential benefit of situational leadership is the
capability of the leader to deal with a
broad range of situations and people, and in turn create a more
individualized and innovative
approach.
Transactional leadership views the relationship between the
leader and subordinate as one
based upon exchanges, or “transactions”. The focus is on tactics

such as rewards and
punishments conditional on the performance of the subordinate.
Followers receive praise and
recognition if they comply with the directions of the leader and
meet objectives; they receive
negative, punitive when performance does not meet expectations
(Boseman, 2008).
The theory assumes that the performance of followers is
optimized when the chain of
command is clearly defined (Waller et al., 1989). The primary
goal of the follower is to follow
the instructions and directions of the leader. Decisions are
derived from hard data and focus on
the short term. Policies, and defined rules and standards are all
emphasized in the leader-follower
relationship. The drawback to this style is the stifling of
creativity and innovation; individuality
is frowned upon and conformity is expected. Results, efficiency,
short term profitability and the
bottom-line are the priority. Studies have demonstrated that
transactional leadership can have a
positive impact on the ability to attain goals and “get the job
done”, but may negatively impact
employee morale and motivation (Boseman, 2008). Some critics

of this leadership style attribute
the notable decrease in morale to the preoccupation with power,
position and politics (Boseman,
2008).
While some styles are concerned with stability and control
through systems and
procedures, transformational leadership thrives on change,
exercises “control” through a worthy
and inspiring vision of what might be and understand the value
of staff empowerment (Kouzes
and Posner, p. 12). A transformational leader is one that
"transforms" the workplace by inspiring
and developing others, and motivating teams and individuals to
achieve high levels of
performance. In order to gain the respect and trust of followers,
a leader must always be a role
model and "walk the walk", even in the most testing of
circumstances. Transformational leaders
display integrity and high values.

The ability to clearly communicate a vision and create a
common sense of purpose
among teams is another characteristic of this leadership style.
There is a focus on long-term goals
without compromising individuality, values and principles. The
transformational leader also
values intellectual stimulation, creativity and innovation
(Grossman & Valiga, 2009). This type
of leader is able to design jobs and projects that are meaningful
and challenging for followers.
Followers are encouraged to critically think and be involved in
problem-solving.
Transformational leaders are able to engage and positively
influence colleagues at all
levels, and build high-performing and satisfied teams. Vision
and common purpose will foster a
spirit of teamwork and cooperation that will be enablers for
meeting goals, and ultimately benefit
the organization (Garfield & Stanton, 2009).
Not only can the type of leadership provide influence, but also
the personality traits a
project manager possesses impacts the project. In the study by
Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh
(2008) the project managers’ personalities which directly

influenced their leadership and
decisions of projects was examined. For this paper, the
personality traits were viewed as
leadership styles, which ranged from: secure/self-confidence,
entrepreneurial/enterprising,
managerial, intuition/investigative, openness to experience,
extroversion, and avoidant. Muller,
Geraldi, & Turner (2012) use a framework of managerial and
leadership qualities that are
recognized as important to project management. This
framework includes competencies of
intellect, managerial, and emotional. The competencies are
explained as follows: Project
managers critically evaluate plans and actions, and provide
direction the competency of intellect,
at the same time they build and maintain relationships with
those being led which are managerial
competencies, and the competency of emotion is the demand for
emotional resilience to respond
to unexpected events and stress often present in projects

(Muller, Geraldi, & Turner, 2012).
Typically project success is defined as meeting the triple
constraints of time, cost and
scope (Meredith, & Mantel, 2012), whereas Malach-Pines and
Muller define project success on
much broader terms. Success must include multiple criteria
because of the complex nature of
projects and the various parties involved in projects. Muller,
Geraldi, and Turner (2012) include
the triple constraint in their criteria, they also include the
various stakeholders and end user
perspectives: end-user satisfaction, supplier satisfaction, team
satisfaction, customer satisfaction,
meeting user requirements, project achieves its purpose, and
business success. A four
dimensional model is used (Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh, 2008)
to define project success
including: Efficiency (did the project meet schedule and
budget); Impact on customers (benefit
to the customers in terms of end products); Business success
(benefit, and organizational goals
obtained); and preparing for the future (creating new technology
and operational infrastructure as
well as new markets).

In relation to project management, leadership is important
through all phases of the
project life cycle. Various theories defining leadership styles
have been discussed, and these
leadership styles should be used for each situation and with
different teams to inspire them for
project success (PMI, 2013). This suggests that the situational
leadership style is best for project
management, in order to choose the most appropriate action
based on the
circumstances. Previously mentioned, this paper will examine
various leadership traits reflected
in leadership styles and the impact they have on project success.
Methodology
The methods for locating and identifying resources, for this
project, involved accessing
electronic databases provided by the libraries at Drexel
University. Each team member
conducted a literature search individually with the goal of

identifying two contemporary peer
reviewed articles or studies. The following databases were
utilized: Google Scholar, ProQuest,
and CINAHL. Several keyword descriptors were used,
including leadership, leader, team,
success, style, project, performance, and project management.
The basic Boolean search
operator “AND” was utilized to narrow the search. The search
was limited to those articles in
the English language and was further limited by a restriction on
date of publication. It was
decided that articles older than 10 years would be disregarded.
In addition, several applicable
resources were identified from previous coursework. Each team
member selected two resources
for the project based on the applicability as described in the
abstract.
Description and Analysis of Project
Organized leadership is a very powerful trait for a project
manager to possess. For a
company to operate at optimal levels concerning speed, quality,
and quantity, an organized
leader is a requirement (Dickerson, 2010). Imagine the chaos
that stems from disorganization,

and how detrimental those barriers can be to the success of the
project. The project plan begins
with a detailed scope, work breakdown, budget, and a timeline
of critical milestones. Without
that initial organization - the project would be doomed.
Organization is not just crucial for the project plan and the
beginning of project
execution. It must be maintained through the entire duration of
the project. With organization
and proper leadership traits in power, other members of the
team are given confidence, creating a
sense of purpose and credibility (Dickerson, 2010). “A strong
leader does not build an
organization upon his shoulders. It is crafted in the hearts and
through the hands of his dedicated
team” (Dickerson, 2010). The team members chosen to carry-
out the project are more productive
when a consistently organized leader is present.
A great example of an organized leader who sought success is

Harold S. Geneen. As
CEO of International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation
(ITT), he increased sales profits
from $760 million dollars to over $17 billion in a mere
seventeen years (ITT, 2010). He did this
by acquiring over 350 companies, several of which we large and
renown, Sheraton and
Continental Baking being a few (ITT, 2010). Geneen attributed
his accomplishments to a few
qualities, writing, “The five entrepreneurial skills for success
(are): Concentration,
Discrimination, Organization, Innovation, and Communication”
(Brainy Quote, 2014). This is
evidence of how being an organized leader, with the
combination of other proactive qualities,
can significantly impact the outcome of an endeavor.
Other studies have examined the relationships of leaders’
personality traits as applied to
project management (Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh, 2008;
Muller, Geraldi, & Turner,
2012). Both of these studies examined various traits of project
managers, and the association of
these traits toward the success of projects that ranged in various
levels of complexity. Data was

collected through surveys from several hundred project
managers creating a robust sample for
analysis.
Muller, Geraldi, and Turner (2012) have applied a
framework of leadership competencies
such as intellectual, managerial, and emotional to analyze
project managers, and how
competency in this framework affects project outcomes. The
study also examined the effects of
project complexity and its relationship to the leadership
framework and project outcomes. The
researchers define complexity as a “multidimensional construct,
stemming from the trust in the
ability to produce the projects outcome, the amount of
information to be processed, dynamic and
uncertainty engrained in projects, and the interaction of the
actors involved, including both
personal and political layers” (Muller, Geraldi, & Turner,
2012).”

The results from Muller, Geraldi, and Turner (2012) indicate
that emotional and
managerial competencies are potential predictors for project
success. Both seem to have an
impact on the complexity of projects that have the greatest
uncertainty and subject to frequent
change. These types of projects also involve a high level of
interaction and information
transparency. Projects with these characteristics are best suited
for leaders with strong emotional
and managerial competencies to improve on project success
(Muller, Geraldi, & Turner,
2012). The quality of intellect did not show any significant
impact on project success. The
researchers point out that the competencies of intellect are
essential in decision making that
involve vision, critical analysis, and understanding the broader
implications of decisions (Muller,
Geraldi, & Turner, 2012). The results were unexpected where it
was believed that intellect
would have played a larger role in dealing with highly complex
projects.
In summary project managers that are able to build and
maintain a good relationship with

the team members; and those who can emotionally support the
team to help guide them through
times of stress and uncertainty; make the greatest impact on
project success. Some of the data
implies that project managers are not playing a strategic role in
projects because vision,
judgment, and understanding the implications of decisions do
not appear relevant. Project
managers are reporting “narrow-minded self-defined success
criteria,” such as time, budget and
quality, organizational skills and compliance with legislation
(Muller, Geraldi, & Turner, 2012).
Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh (2008) researched the project
manager personalities, the
project managers fit to the project type and how it related to
project success. The study
hypothesized that project managers will be more successful
managing projects that fit their
personality, and certain personality traits are better suited for
certain projects leading to project

success. The study extended the Person-Organization fit theory
to projects, where it viewed
projects as temporary organizations.
Projects are classified into varying degrees of intricacy.
Malach-Pines, Dvir, and Sadeh
(2008) use four dimensions for classification: complexity, pace,
technology and novelty. Within
these dimensions are varying levels of sophistication. The
study analyzed how personality traits
would match with the different classifications of projects, and
how this association affects the
project’s outcome at meeting the success criteria.
The study did support the theory that projects managed by
project managers whose
personalities matched their project’s type were more successful
(Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh,
2008). This was particularly evident with respect to the impact
on customers and business
success. The project managers whose traits closely represented
openness to experiences, risk
taking, investigative and enterprising were more successful
toward impact on customers and
business success especially in highly complex and novel
technological projects.

In smaller less complex projects, the project managers that
possess the traits of openness
to experiences, risk taking, investigative and enterprising had a
much smaller effect on
success. As well these managers were worse at meeting
planning goals when compared to the
managers that were not strong with these traits (Malach-Pines,
Dvir, & Sadeh, 2008). These
types of managers probably took more risks, made more changes
to the project, and tried new
ideas to satisfy the customer, which was detrimental to the
projects efficiency.
According to the researchers the entrepreneurial personality
was the trait that contributed
positively to success in almost all types of projects especially
those of high innovation and
complexity (Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh (2008). This trait did
not demonstrate any success
with smaller less complex projects. In fact these managers may
even hurt the performance of

smaller more routine type projects by overextending the scope,
creating changes, and introducing
too much complexity.
Techniques for Project Success
The increasing pressure for project managers to manage
individuals and teams to produce
high performance project outcomes and positive business results
is more evident now than
before. With the stakes raised high, due to the economic
downturn, more projects managers are
expected to effectively manage resources, deliver on time and
produce the expected deliverables
(Rezark, 2009). Projects that are deemed to potentially fail in
meeting their anticipated objectives
are at a greater risk for getting postponed or cancelled
altogether. Project managers can employ a
number of techniques to manage individuals and teams to not
only meet the project objectives
but also supersede them. The two techniques that will be
discussed further are having
establishing effective communication methods, and inspiring
individuals and teams to meet

project objectives.
One method project managers can successfully manage
individuals and a team is by
having effective communication methods. In project
management, communication involves the
exchange of information among key stakeholders including the
project manager, the project
sponsor, the project team, and the end user. During the planning
phase of the project, it is
immensely essential for the project manager to detail the means
for communication, when
information will be exchanged, and who will be responsible for
communicating key information.
The crucial importance of effective communication methods
cannot be overstated. The research
study conducted by the Project Management Institute reveals
that the use of effective
communication methods resulted in 80% project success rate,
with regard to delivering the
project on time, within budget and meeting the initial goals

(Project Management Institute,
2013). Imperatively, using advance communication methods is
necessitated to increase the odds
of having a successful project.
Another method the project manager can utilize to manage
individuals and a team to
achieve expected outcomes is by using strategic inspirational
methods. The project manager’s
role is not limited to managing the project, but also leading
people to get the work done. As
noted by Kouzes and Posner (2007), to be able to inspire
people, leaders need to be buoyantly
passionate about their work. They need to be able to influence
others to act individually and
collectively as a team to achieve the project goals. Furthermore,
inspiring individuals and teams
is not only necessary when the project is going according to
plan, but also when the project
experiences some challenges and setbacks. Considering that
most projects require some level of
teamwork, it is highly essential for project managers to inquire
skills on ways to inspire others.
After all, having the skills to inspire people may mean the
difference between a successful and a

failed project.
Summary
The literature indicates that certain leadership traits are more
positively associated with
project success. The traits of organization, managerial
competence, emotional competence,
openness to experiences, communication, inspiration,
investigative, enterprising and
entrepreneurialism, demonstrated the highest correlation with
project success, and this was most
evident in projects of high complexity (Dickerson, 2010;
Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh 2008;
Muller, Geraldi, & Turner, 2012; & Project Management
Institute, 2013). Dickerson (2010)
claims that competent, organized leadership builds great teams
by instilling confidence and a
greater sense of purpose within team members. The continued
presence of this trait elevates the

productivity of the team leading to successful outcomes. As
evidenced by Harold S. Geneen
CEO of International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation who
brought great success to ITT
with his continued organizational traits.
The ability to be open minded to new ideas, innovative, and
entrepreneurial proved very
successful for managers in complex novel type projects
(Malach-Pines, Dvir, & Sadeh
2008). The researchers claim these leaders were willing to take
risks and change the project
scope to please the customer and meet the end user needs, which
consequently impacted
customer satisfaction. Interestingly different then what is a
normally accepted practice of
keeping scope creep to a minimum (PMI, 2013).
Identified by PMI (2013) effective communication is an
attribute that has led to 80% of
project success. Clear, concise, and frequent communication
with all the stakeholders especially
customers and end-users is essential through the project life
cycle. The transformational leader
communicates the vision and creates a common sense of
purpose for the project stakeholders

promoting project success (Grossman & Valiga, 2009).
Managerial competency meaning the ability to build and
maintain good relationships, and
provide direction for the team was associated good project
outcomes (Muller, Geraldi, & Turner,
2012). Kwak and Anbari (2009), who have researched the
impact of the allied managerial
disciplines on project management, claim that today project
management is more about leading
individuals then task orientation. This is why managerial
competence is essential for successful
leadership. Situational leaders adapt their style depending upon
the teams’ dynamics and the
organizational goals this is where strong managerial competence
has an advantage. Situational
leadership style appears to relate very well with project
management where the leader develops
and enhances the effectiveness of the team by using keen
managerial skills (Riaz & Haider,

2010) in order to adapt to different type projects.
The emotionality to support the team through times of stress
and uncertainty (Muller,
Geraldi, & Turner, 2012) along with the capability to inspire the
team to work at top
performance (Kouzes & Posner, 2007) appear to be more stable
indicators for project
success. These three characteristics along with
entrepreneurialism and organization resonate
with transformational leadership (Garfield & Stanton, 2009;
Grossman & Valiga, 2009; Kouzes
& Posner, 1987), which appears to be the most competent style
in respect to impact on project
success. The transformational leader is innovative thriving on
change and inspiring through
vision (Garfield & Stanton, 2009). They have the
entrepreneurial spirit and strategy planning
enterprise to satisfy the stakeholders by taking risks and leading
platform projects. It is
conceived that these types of complex projects have a larger
impact on organizations because
they produce more innovative products (Malach-Pines, Dvir, &
Sadeh, 2008) potentially leading
to future sustainability by meeting strategic goals and creating

new markets.
Conclusion
While there are many different styles and traits of leadership
identified in the literature,
the ideal style is elusive, at least in the literature that has been
reviewed for this study. Yet it is
clear that in this day and age, the project leader needs not only
in depth technical knowledge, but
also should possess “positive values, highest levels of ethics,
morality, lead from the heart,
personal capabilities, out-of-the-box thinking, and interpersonal
skills” (Pandya, 2014, p.
40). According to Walker (2011), a new style of leadership is
necessary for the 21st century, one
that enjoys success against the expected delivery triangle of
time, budget, and quality, but also
positions the organization to be able to share and retain
knowledge, and contributes to
organizational sustainability. To be an effective project leader

requires a combination of
technical skills, and an ability to invoke the behavioral
competencies described by Muller
(2012). It also requires vision, ethics and morality and the
ability to lead change. Future projects
will be well served to select project managers who exhibit the
leadership skills and traits
necessary for project success and sustainability of the
organization.
A combination of leadership skills and styles are desired to be a
fitting project manager.
Organization provides a sense of community and establishes
purpose for the project team.
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Acknowledgment
We would like to thank Dr. Victor Sohmen (Project
Management Program, College of
Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA), for guiding,
reviewing and editing this work
for publication.

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Study Unit
Proposals and
Special Projects
By

Robert G. Turner Jr., Ph.D.
All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks
or serv-
ice marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in
this text
should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any
trademark or serv-
ice mark.
About the Author
Robert G. Turner Jr. holds a B.S. in business and an M.S. and a
Ph.D. in sociology. He has more than 20 years of teaching
experi-
ence, mainly at the college level, and is currently serving as an
adjunct professor at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg. Dr. Turner is
primarily employed as a professional freelance writer. His
literary
credits include two stage plays, two novels, and two nonfiction
works, along with an array of publications in academic and
educational venues.

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Printed in the United States of America
11/11/05

iii
This study unit begins with an exam-
ination of how to write a proposal. A
proposal is a report in which the
writer makes an offer to the reader
and tries to persuade the reader to
accept it. The proposal may be a sug-
gestion that an employee makes to
management, or it may be a bid to
an outside company or individual. In a sense, a proposal is
a type of sales letter. The writer is attempting to sell goods,
services, or ideas to someone else.
This unit also covers the procedures for developing descrip-
tions, instructions, and manuals. To properly describe an
object or a process, a writer must take great care to be
precise and include all the necessary details and steps.
Now that you know what you have in store for you in this
study unit, let’s get started!

P
r
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v
i
e
w
P
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v
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When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
• Identify the purpose of an informal proposal and know how
to prepare one
• Explain the nature of a formal proposal and how one
is organized

• Describe an object or a process and prepare a set
of instructions
• Describe the preparation and submission of professional
and technical articles
• Explain the use and preparation of technical and
procedural manuals
v
PROPOSALS 1
Proposal: A Definition 1
External Proposals 2
Internal Proposals 4
Proposals vs. Reports 5
Informal Proposals 8
Formal Proposals 16
DESCRIPTIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS 20
Describing an Object 20

Describing a Process 26
Writing Instructions 27
ARTICLES AND MANUALS 35
Professional and Technical Articles 35
Technical and Procedural Manuals 38
SELF-CHECK ANSWERS 47
EXAMINATION 51
C
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t
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1
PROPOSALS
Proposal: A Definition
A proposal may be one of the most important documents you
may be asked to write during your career—important because
proposals are often the major means of producing income in
some businesses. A proposal is a written document in which
an individual or a business makes an offer to another indi-
vidual or business and gives
reasons why the offer should
be accepted. The language of
a proposal, therefore, should
be factual, but persuasive
(Figure 1).
Briefly, a proposal offers

something of value and
expects something of value
(usually money) in return. In
addition, a proposal suggests
or requests that some kind of
action be taken to fill a need
or solve a problem. In that
context, it’s also a request for
authorization to pursue the
substance of the proposal.
In this study unit, you’re
going to examine external and
internal proposals as well as
formal and informal proposals.
Proposals and Special Projects
FIGURE 1—When developing a proposal, present the facts.
Don’t offer
more than you can deliver.

External Proposals
External proposals are directed to readers outside an organi-
zation’s environment. Most of these proposals are prepared
for potential clients. For example, a company might send a
proposal to a supplier or to a local, state, or federal regulatory
agency. More often, however, external proposals are aimed at
people who can provide business for the organization.
External proposals can be either solicited or unsolicited.
The main difference between the two is that the solicited
proposal is requested by someone outside a company, and
the unsolicited proposal is initiated by someone within a
company.
Solicited Proposals
Solicited proposals generally begin with a request for bid
(RFB). In other words, some company or government agency
may ask (request) businesses to provide proposals (bids) for
specific jobs they need to have completed. Building contrac-
tors, architectural firms, and any organization that provides
services on a time-defined contractual basis may be asked to
submit a bid.

As you may imagine, bids may involve immensely complex
projects, such as major construction projects, or they may
involve only brief, routine treatments, such as a bid for a
local plumbing project.
A request for bid might be published nationwide, or it might
be mailed to only a select group of organizations. When only
a small group of organizations is solicited, the person or
organization requesting the bid should carefully choose these
organizations. For example, only local contractors with a
good reputation are likely to be asked to bid on a contract
for building a public library or a new elementary school.
Only well-established firms with solid reputations may be
asked to bid on major government contracts.
2
Proposals and Special Projects 3
Bid requests may be solicited for any of the following items:
• Products, such as computers, office equipment, or water
coolers

• Services, such as machinery maintenance, telecommuni-
cations networking, or industrial engineering
• Investigative research, such as that provided by consult-
ing firms or market research specialists
Unsolicited Proposals
Unsolicited proposals are usually developed by companies or
businesses that hope to sell a product or a service to a client.
They are, in effect, a type of marketing tool. Therefore, unso-
licited proposals are often crucial elements for organizations
that are trying to expand their share in a competitive market.
There’s an old saying: “The squeaky wheel gets the oil.” In
the world of business, this can mean, “Companies that solicit
new business usually stay in business and grow.”
If your job ever requires you to write an unsolicited proposal,
remember your audience as well as your purpose. Make sure
you know as much as possible about your potential customer.
Use your proposal to demonstrate how that potential customer
will benefit from what you’re offering. Often, that may involve
calling attention to needs or potential needs that your audi-
ence or readers may not be focused on. For example, an

opening from an unsolicited proposal might go like this:
Notice that the writer starts out by mentioning the comforts
of modern buildings and then asks a question to get the
reader thinking. Finally, the writer provides some documen-
tation by referring to some current research that supports
the proposal to follow.
Modern buildings are sealed off from the discomforts of sum-
mer heat and winter cold. But what happens to productivity
and employee morale when the heating and air-conditioning
systems fail? Current research strongly supports the cost-
effectiveness of semiannual inspections and maintenance of
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems.
Internal Proposals
An internal proposal, as its name suggests, is intended for
distribution within an organization. Depending on the culture
of the organization, internal proposals may be solicited or
unsolicited. In organizations that emphasize employee par-
ticipation and de-emphasize the role of upper management,

internal proposals may be actively solicited. On the other
hand, some of the newer approaches to management also
encourage unsolicited proposals. The typical pattern in
organizations is for employees to generate unsolicited
proposals (Figure 2).
4
FIGURE 2—Employees are working
with procedures and processes
every day. Therefore, they’re famil-
iar with the problems and can
often come up with solutions.
That’s when an unsolicited pro-
posal is in order.
Whether solicited or unsolicited, an internal proposal may
cover a wide range of personnel, production, procedural, or
marketing issues. In general, such a proposal is aimed at
identifying a problem and proposing a solution. In organiza-
tions that employ highly trained specialists, such as engineers

or researchers, an internal proposal is often aimed at calling
attention to problems that supervisors should be aware of.
In such cases, the internal proposal represents professional
responsibility, courtesy, and a concern for the well-being of
the organization.
Proposals vs. Reports
On the surface, proposals resemble reports because they
often have a similar format. For example, external proposals
may take the form of a letter; internal proposals may take
the form of a memo. In some respects, too, a proposal is
similar to a feasibility report, because it researches a prob-
lem and presents a recommended action.
But the similarity ends there. Proposal writers have a very
different relationship to their material than report writers
do. You’ve already learned that effective reports require
objectivity. They’re not meant to persuade. Instead, report
writers investigate a problem thoroughly and objectively,
draw clear conclusions, and make logical recommendations
based on the data gathered in the investigation. The ideal
role for a report writer is that of an objective researcher.
By contrast, proposals are meant to persuade their readers.
However, proposal writers can’t simply abandon objectivity.

In fact, if they want their readers to be persuaded to do
something, proposal writers must present objective facts,
reasoned arguments, and logical assertions. All of these will
add to their credibility and support their proposal.
The difficulty with proposals is that they often ask readers
to focus on problems that may not be foremost in their
minds—problems they may not even be aware of. Also,
proposals often require their readers to invest time and/or
money in these problems. Therefore, almost any proposal,
any kind of effort to persuade someone to make a change,
tends to create some degree of resistance.
To persuade someone, writers generally try to approach
the topic from the reader’s point of view, then demonstrate
a benefit for the reader, and finally overcome the reader’s
resistance. That effort can be a challenge because a proposal
must also represent the writer’s point of view and the writer’s
self-interest—a point you’ll consider in more detail shortly.
Possibly the main difference between proposals and reports

lies in their starting points. Reports usually begin with a
known problem, and their primary purpose is to find a solu-
tion to that problem. Proposals, on the other hand, must first
convince the reader that a problem exists. If the reader isn’t
convinced, the proposal is useless. Once the reader is con-
vinced, however, the next job of a proposal is to convincingly
argue for the feasibility of a particular solution.
A report writer deals with a problem that has already been
identified. A proposal writer must often convince readers that
a problem exists. A report writer’s conclusion should flow
logically from the facts and figures presented in the report. A
proposal writer must try to persuade the reader that a solution
to the identified problem is available, feasible, and beneficial.
While you may often have to write a report because a super-
visor requires it, you generally write a proposal to express
your own concerns. You want the reader to recognize the prob-
lem, and you want the reader to be engaged by the potential
benefit of your proposed solution. Therefore, any proposal
sent to a client or a potential client outside your organization
reflects your self-interest. Its purpose is to generate business,
produce profitability, secure your place in the company, and
enhance the value of your retirement fund. For that matter,
even an internal proposal represents a type of self-interest by

the writer. Internal proposal writers are usually employees
who know that initiative is usually rewarded. People who
have good ideas are often promoted. Proposals then, unlike
reports, do something important for the writer—provided, of
course, that the proposals are accepted. And, for a proposal
to be accepted, it must be convincing.
Table 1 summarizes the similarities and differences between
reports and proposals.
6
Perhaps you noticed this process involves a paradox, the
“proposal paradox.” Proposals must represent the writer’s
self-interest fairly and reasonably while at the same time
engaging the self-interest of the reader.
The key to the paradox is a convincing presentation that
simmers and bubbles with the pleasing odor of a win-win
situation. To accomplish this goal, to resolve the “proposal
paradox” in your favor, you should carefully consider the

information you select for your proposal and the way you
organize that information.
Every piece of information in an effective proposal should be
aimed at persuading your reader that
• A specified problem exists
• The problem needs immediate attention
• You can provide and implement the solution
• Your efforts will provide a measurable benefit
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REPORT PROPOSAL
A paradox is something
that seems to be con-
tradictory but at the
same time is perfectly
true.
Most often, you can achieve these objectives by appealing to
your reader’s practical self-interest. Convince your reader, for
example, that the problem not only exists, but that it needs

immediate attention in order to reduce overhead, increase
productivity, enhance product quality, or improve the work
situation in some way. Next, you should attempt to prove
that you’re especially qualified to address and correct the
problem. It might be wise to add your credentials or, in some
other way, certify your ability to do the job that needs to be
done.
Informal Proposals
As is the case with formal and informal reports, formal and
informal proposals are distinguished by the same key factors:
• A formal proposal is generally longer than an informal
proposal.
• The subject matter of a formal proposal is generally more
complex than that of an informal proposal.
• The writer of a formal proposal isn’t usually as familiar
with his or her audience as the writer of an informal
proposal is.
• The language of a formal proposal is usually less casual
than that of an informal proposal.

An informal proposal intended for internal distribution may
be written in either letter form or memo form, but the far
more typical form is the letter proposal. A letter is usually
used for informal proposals to be submitted to people outside
the organization. Therefore, we’ll focus on the letter format in
this unit.
Figure 3 is an example of an informal proposal. Refer to it as
you read the following information.
8
JEMCO COMPANY
Plant 8
9167 Service Lane
Charlotte, NC 28202
Phone: (704) 555-1345
Fax: (704) 555-1291

September 7, 2005
Frank Reese
President
Jemco Company
2350 Industry Road
Roanoke, VA 24001
Dear Mr. Reese:
Until October 2004, Plant 8 epitomized our company’s
commitment to excellence through its team approach to
production.
Unfortunately, as the senior management team knows from the
biannual report of July 15, 2005, Plant 8’s work output has
since dropped a dramatic 20 percent. The number of failed
quality checks has increased an alarming 15 percent. In
response
to this dire situation, I present you and the team the following
proposal for returning Plant 8 to its former exemplary
position within Jemco.
Background
In September 2004, Plant 8 employed 41 people on three

production lines operating at 98 percent efficiency with 0.8
percent
failed quality checks, thus achieving the highest rating of
Jemco’s 12 plants. To discover the reason for Plant 8’s current
poor
performance, I spent five days at the plant observing the teams
at work on each of the production lines, meeting with the
team leaders and with the shop supervisor, Joseph Cairns, and
reviewing the weekly team reports from September 2, 2004,
through June 30, 2005. Through my investigation, I determined
that the change in output is due to the unexpected addition
of two production lines.
On September 20, 2005, Plant 8 was assigned overflow from
Plant 3, which had been irreparably damaged by Hurricane Ivan.
Enough of Plant 3’s manufacturing equipment was salvaged and
moved to Plant 8 to establish two production lines. The
division of space to accommodate these lines resulted in one
line being placed in the employee break room, blocking a fire
exit and making the restrooms difficult to access.
In addition, since only four employees from Plant 3 were
willing to relocate to Plant 8, Mr. Cairns had to hire 20
employees,
all of whom had little experience with our product line. He

therefore directed most of his attention toward training and
supervising these new employees. Despite Mr. Cairns’s close
attention and daily intervention, the work output and quality of
production from the two new teams increased only minimally in
the first six months of 2005. Moreover, Mr. Cairns was not
able to provide needed direction and oversight for the three
experienced teams. As a result, their production levels also fell.
According to Jemco’s own standards and to the regulations of
the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA),
Plant 8 should have no more than four regular production lines
and no more than 50 employees. Therefore, the current number
of 67 employees and the additional equipment exceed the levels
needed to maintain safety, efficiency, and quality.
Consequently, I am not surprised that Plant 8 now trails the
other plants. Nonetheless, I am convinced that Plant 8 can
return to its stellar position by achieving the following
objectives:
• Dismantle one production line to meet safety standards
• Add a second shift to accommodate increased output
demand and number of employees

• Restructure teams to balance experience level by team and
by shift
• Provide training for team leaders to assume a more
supervisory role and for all employee teams toward more
efficient,
quality production
FIGURE 3—Sample Informal Proposal in Letter Format
Proposals and Special Projects10
Reese—2
Proposal
To return Jemco Plant 8 to its former efficiency and quality
level as well as enhance production output, I propose the
following plan.
Dismantlement. Since the plant can safely accommodate only
four production lines, the line in the employee break room must
be dismantled. Any usable materials will be kept for

maintenance and repair of the other lines. Removal of this line
will elim-
inate the current safety hazards and restore that space to its
proper use. For safety purposes, the line immediately in front of
the break room should be halted. In this way, two teams can
dismantle the line in the break room during regular work hours.
Second shift. Adding another time shift with two of the five
teams is the most efficient way to resolve the safety and
production issues at Plant 8. The current shift for all employees
is 7:30 A.M. to 4:00 P.M. I propose the first shift be held
from 6:00 A.M. to 2:30 P.M. and the second from 3:30 P.M. to
12:00 midnight. The second shift will require 24 employees
for production, 2 team leaders, and an assistant shop supervisor.
By keeping four production lines instead of three and by
adding this second shift, Plant 8 will be able to plan for
additional production opportunities.
This change will result in some increased costs for shift-
differential pay for the second shift, for operation costs such as
heating and electrical, and for the addition of an assistant
supervisory position for the second shift. Nonetheless, these
costs will be more than compensated for with increased, higher-
quality production.

Team reorganization. Since the two new teams are clearly not
functioning to standard, the five teams must be reorganized
to integrate the more experienced employees with the less
experienced. To ensure employees feel they are treated fairly
and develop team unity, Mr. Cairns should work with a member
of Jemco’s Human Resources Department and the five
team leaders to establish the new teams.
Training. The necessary training must be a two-prong approach.
First, the five team leaders and assistant shop supervisor
should be trained in Jemco’s management approach, in
strategies for team leading, and in maintenance of the
production lines.
Second, each restructured team should be trained in operating
equipment properly and in establishing a cooperative spirit.
The leadership training, which must be accomplished first, will
require a total of four work days. The employee team train-
ing will require three work days. Per Jemco’s training
requirements, there will also be a follow-up on team building
for
both leaders and teams within 30 days of the last training
period.
Training Schedule

Dismantlement of line October
10 to October 21
Establishment of two shifts October
17 to October 31
Reorganization of teams October
17 to October 31
Management training
Supervisory procedures
November 1
Team leading
November 2 and 3
Line maintenance
November 7
Follow-up
December 2
Employee training
Team building
November 4
Production line operation
November 8 and 9
Follow-up
December 2

Staffing
The current shop supervisor, Joseph Cairns, has a total of nine
years’ experience at Plant 8: two years as quality controller,
five as production-line team leader, and two as shop supervisor.
His knowledge of production requirements and the employees
will provide valuable insight for the director of Human
Resources toward team restructuring.
Dillon Foster, Marion Conrad, and John Mandell are the
experienced team leaders, each with at least eight years of
experi-
ence with Jemco and two or more years experience as a team
leader. William Tonzent and Diane Lisko are the two newest
team leaders to Plant 8, both having recently relocated from
Plant 3, where each had three years of experience as team
leader. Since team leaders have firsthand knowledge of the
employees’ ability and personalities, they will also consult
on team restructuring.
FIGURE 3—Continued

Reese—3
As director of Human Resources for Jemco Company, Bernard
Standler will appoint someone from his department to oversee
the team restructuring as well as both the leadership and
employee training. Those appointees will work with Mr. Cairns
to
organize the actual training periods. In addition, Mr. Standler
will direct with Mr. Cairns the hiring efforts for an assistant
shop supervisor.
Budget
The following figures are estimates based on Jemco’s projected
salary schedule for 2006, Plant 8’s current operating costs
with one shift, and the Company’s 2005 travel allotments.
Assistant Shop Supervisor
Recruiting fees (maximum)
$ 2,000
Salary (including benefits package)
36,000

Shift Differential (added to regular salary)
Assistant shop supervisor (1)
7,500
Team leaders (2)
7,000
Employees (24)
60,000
Operating Costs
125,000
Training Costs (travel and materials)
12,500
Total costs
$ 250,000
Request for Authorization
High-quality products are what customers expect from Jemco
Company. Although Plant 8 has recently fallen far short of
standards as a result of an unexpected increase in project
assignments, the plant can recover once the management team
authorizes the proposed changes and budget. In fact, these
recommendations do not represent a new direction for Jemco
or Plant 8. Instead, they will merely restore to Plant 8 the

effectiveness of Jemco’s unique team production system, an
approach Plant 8 itself has previously shown effective in
increasing work output and decreasing failed quality checks.
The
management team’s approval of this plan will therefore
reinforce to both customers and employees Jemco’s commitment
to excellence.
I appreciate having the opportunity to investigate the problems
at Plant 8. I am confident that after the team reviews my
proposal, I can expect authorization at our next management
meeting on September 15.
Sincerely,
Franklin S. Delacroix
Franklin S. Delacroix
Vice President of Production
FSD:cms

In general, an informal proposal should have six fundamental
components:
1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Proposal
4. Staffing
5. Budget
6. Request for authorization
Introduction
An effective informal proposal usually
begins with a brief explanation of the
purpose of the document and a quick
overview of why the proposal writer is
qualified to make the proposal in the first
place. Remember that a proposal is an

instrument used to persuade your reader
of a serious problem affecting that reader and to demonstrate
that you have the correct answer to that problem. Therefore,
the crucial purpose of an introduction to a proposal is to
command the reader’s attention. As it turns out, there are
some guidelines for providing a “hook” in your introduction.
That is, there are some widely accepted ways to engage your
reader’s interest:
• A promise—or at least an implication—of extraordinary
and significant results or benefits to the client, which
will follow from committing to the proposal
• Disclosure of an independent source of support for your
proposal that will command attention—for example, criti-
cal market research that has just been published, a new
kind of computer software that does remarkable things,
or your personal access to an expert
• An up-front assertion about how the proposal aims at
reducing costs or markedly increasing productivity
• An offer of a benefit that’s crucial to the reader’s inter-
est, such as reducing equipment failures and downtime

12
Background
The background section of your proposal
should clearly identify the problem to be
addressed and lay out the goals or purposes
of the project. Even if you mentioned the
problem in your introduction, you should
elaborate on it in the background section.
Try to convince your reader that you have
a command of the problem and its particulars—in other
words, that you know what you’re talking about. To show
your command of the problem, you may often need to sketch
its history. For example, study the following paragraph from
the background section of a proposal:
Once you’ve laid out the background and clearly specified
the nature of the problem you’re addressing, you should

then establish specific goals. For a company to provide a new
retail inventory system, for example, it may need to consider
at least three goals: installation, training, and troubleshooting.
In this particular case, the purpose of the proposed system
would almost certainly be improved inventory control. The
purpose might be elaborated by indicating the lowered possi
bility of merchandise being unavailable to customers due to
a sluggish, outmoded, reordering system.
As you already know, the inventory system we’re currently
using is the one we chose
when we first started in business 10 years ago. At the time that
our business was new—
and for many years after that, that system was suitable for our
purposes. However, in the
past few years, our business has grown more than we ever
expected. Because of the
increase in the number of orders we’re receiving and because of
the larger number of
items we’re currently carrying in inventory, this old inventory
system is now inefficient.
Our orders are not delivered in a timely fashion, we are often
out of stock of key inven-
tory items, and we have been receiving many complaints from
customers. Replacing our

current system with a computerized inventory management
system will be highly cost
The Proposal
The proposal section is a call for action.
Once you’ve engaged the reader’s self-
interest, you should specify the problem
as urgent and let the reader know that
delay is costly and ill advised.
In this section, you should include an
outline of a plan for implementing your proposal, along with
a time schedule for the implementation. In effect, you’ll be
saying (1) we can solve your problem, (2) here’s how we’ll do
it, and (3) this is how long it will take.
Be cautious, however, in what you include in this section.
Make it clear that you know what you’re talking about, but
don’t provide so much information that you work yourself out
of a job. If you fully explain how to solve a problem, you may

simply send your potential client scurrying away to take care
of the problem with his or her available resources. Keep in
mind that a proposal, as an instrument of persuasion, is a
sales letter.
Staffing
In the staffing section of your proposal,
say positive things about the credentials
and expertise of the people who will exe-
cute the action specified in your proposal.
Make it clear that the project will be han-
dled in an efficient and professional way
by experienced people who know what
they’re doing. If specialized equipment is necessary for the
project, make it clear that the necessary equipment is in
place. If you think it’s necessary, include individual resumes
of key personnel in an appendix to the proposal.
14

Budget
An attention grabber in most proposals
is the proposed costs of the project.
Needless to say, those costs should be
in line with the client’s available resources
and the value of the actions being pro-
posed. In other words, make sure your
argument for change is strong and clear
enough to support the bottom line of what it will cost to
implement your changes. Depending on the proposal, you
may present your cost proposal in one of two ways. If the
proposal is for a simple, relatively inexpensive project, you
may present the figure very briefly as a total cost. If the proj-
ect is more complex, you may need to include an itemized list
of costs like that in the sample proposal in Figure 3.
Because the budget section represents a contract, you should
establish a time limit on the rates you offer and set a dead-
line for acceptance. To accept the contract, the client must
sign and return a duplicate copy of the letter proposal, along
with a deposit.

Authorization
In contractual terms, the authorization
section constitutes a formal offer. However,
this section is also the place to restate
and highlight your intention to provide a
benefit to the prospective client. To see
how that’s done, study the authorization
section of the sample proposal in Figure 3.
Sometimes proposals don’t include the terms of a contract.
In such cases, the formal elements in the budget and author-
ization sections of the sample proposal are omitted. Instead,
the actual contract is worked out between the client and
appropriate agents of the organization making the proposal.
However, in such situations, you might still consider a sum-
mary section in which you restate the general problem and
emphasize the overall benefits to be obtained from imple-
menting your proposal.
Table 2 presents a summary of the six parts of an informal
proposal.

Formal Proposals
Formal proposals should follow the same formatting rules
that were discussed for formal reports in the previous study
unit. They should have a title page, a letter or memo of
transmittal, and all of the other components you studied for
formal reports, incorporated with the parts of an informal
proposal given in Table 2. The only difference between a formal
report and a formal proposal is the approach the writer takes
to the subject. Remember: A report writer is an objective
reporter, and a proposal writer is a persuader.
In the next section of this study unit, you’re going to study
how to write descriptions and instructions. Before going on
to that material, please complete Self-Check 1.
16
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Self-Check 1

At the end of each section of Proposals and Special Projects,
you’ll be asked to pause and
check your understanding of what you’ve just read by
completing a “Self-Check” exercise.
Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve
studied so far. Please complete Self-
Check 1 now.
1. In order, list the six main components of an informal
proposal.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________

_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
2. Each of the following situations is an excerpt from a typical
report. Read each situa-
tion, keeping in mind the differences between reports and
proposals. Choose one of
the suggestions given and revise the information into proposal
form. Your answers may
vary from those given at the end of this study unit, but your
sentences should reflect
an understanding of proposal guidelines.
Situation A
Over the past two years, the size of our company has grown
30 percent. Because of
this growth, the effectiveness of the corporate bulletin board as

the sole means of
information exchange has decreased considerably, as evidenced
by results of a study
conducted to assess employee awareness and morale.
Employee awareness and morale may be improved by
implementing any of the following
methods:
• Install a bulletin board in each department.
• Supplement the corporate bulletin board with a monthly
newsletter.
• Institute semiannual corporate meetings and quarterly
department meetings.
(Continued)
Self-Check 1
Situation B

In tests conducted to determine the current-handling
capabilities of the RJ30 series-
pass transistor, three transistors burned up within a six-week
period. Changing the
series-pass transistor from the RJ30 to the RF90 did not remedy
the situation and, in
fact, resulted in another burn-up.
The burn-ups of the RJ30 and RF90 transistors may be
eliminated if the beryllium
oxide wafers used to mount the transistors to the heat sink are
replaced by one of the
following alternate thermal conductors:
• Filled silicon rubber pads
• Mica washers
• Thermal joint compounds
3. Assume that the following six excerpts have been taken from
a typical informal pro-
posal. Each excerpt corresponds to one of the parts of an
informal proposal, as

explained and described in this unit. Label each section; then
number them to show
the order in which they should occur in the proposal.
Suggestion: Read through all six items before you begin to
label them.
a. To solve this problem, we recommend a program aimed at
achieving the following
goals:
• Research the use of alternative thermal conductors used in
similar applica-
tions, and determine the cost-effectiveness of each
• Secure the selected thermal conductor
• Train technicians in special mounting procedures
Proposal section: ____________________ Sequence: _______
b. Other thermal conductors have been used successfully in the
research and develop-
ment division of Eaton Electronics. On testing the old RJ3
transistors, thermal joint

compounds were used with no complications, and testing
proceeded on schedule.
Thermal joint compounds are presently used in the production
of X2 amplifiers without
complication. Please sign the attached letter to give your
consent to this change.
(Continued)
Self-Check 1
c. I propose that the beryllium oxide wafers be replaced by an
alternative thermal
conductor in the testing of RJ30 power transistors.
d. Fred Garrett: B.S. (1989) in electrical engineering,
University of Maryland; five

years as an electrical engineer, RCA; two years as assistant
coordinator of
research and development, Eaton Electronics.
e. Since we began testing the new RJ30 power transistors six
weeks ago, three have
burned up. Transistors in normal use have an expected life of
five years. Because
the RJ30 is a new design, we thought the design might be
faulty; however, when
we mounted the old RJ3 model to the same heat sink, that
transistor also burned
up. We suspect that beryllium oxide wafers used to mount the
transistor to the
heat
sink are at fault.
The test, intended to reach completion by May 22, must be
postponed indefinitely.
Estimated losses for the transistors approach $10,000.

f. Thermal conductors Negligible
Test transistor $3,200
Total $3,200
4. Describe the main differences between reports and
proposals.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________

_____________________________________________________
_____________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________
Check your answers with those on page 47.
DESCRIPTIONS AND
INSTRUCTIONS
In business and technical writing, description means some-
thing quite different than it does in literature or journalism.
For example, consider this line from Robert Frost’s poem
“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”: “The woods are
lovely, dark, and deep.” In this line, the words lovely, dark,
and deep are intended to set a mood or arouse a feeling, not
to describe the appearance of a forest.

In a similar vein, news reporters may use descriptive words
to convey the “what, when, who, where, and why” of a situa-
tion, but reporters also try to engage their readers by evoking
feelings or sentiments. A reporter describing a murder scene,
for example, will attempt to mix drama with the known facts.
In addition, those who write newspaper editorials often use
emotional language to persuade their readers.
In business, on the other hand, the intent of descriptions of
products, procedures, or processes is generally to provide
information to assist management in making effective and
timely decisions. Descriptions may also be part of material
for employee training or orientation. In either case, descrip-
tions should be objective, impartial, and logically ordered.
They should provide needed information, not attitudes.
In the following sections, you’ll be introduced to the art of
effectively describing an object and a process.
Describing an Object
It’s not unusual for a business or technical writer to have to
describe an object. The object is often a new or redesigned
product, but it could be nearly any object that will be used in
an organizational environment. The object may be as simple
as a redesigned light fixture or as complex as a computer

hard drive.
A description should generally have three parts:
1. An introductory paragraph
2. A body of several paragraphs—one for each of the main
parts of the object being described
3. A conclusion—if a conclusion is necessary
20
Remember the differ-
ence. When you’re
writing a proposal,
you’re trying to per-
suade your audience
to make a needed
change. When you’re
writing a description
or a set of instruc-
tions, you’re relaying
information or perhaps
teaching facts or pro-

Introduction
The introduction for a description of an object should usually
be a short paragraph in which the writer
• Defines the object to be discussed
• Explains how it functions
• Describes the object’s general appearance
• Provides a list of the object’s main parts
Let’s say the object to be described is a personal or low-cost
copier being prepared for production. In your introduction,
you would give the name of the machine. You would then
explain its function in terms that distinguish it from other
kinds of copiers. Here’s what such an introductory paragraph
might look like:

If your reader isn’t familiar with the object you’re describing,
you may need to explain both the function of the object and
how it operates. Suppose the company you work for wants to
keep a gas chromatograph available for security purposes. If
you must describe this object for management, you should
include an explanation of how the instrument works:
The new CopyCat 200 is a low-cost, personal copy machine.
It maintains the basic functions of the 1000 models, but
uses a low-cost, lower-capacity toner cartridge designed for
easy installation. In addition, the overall weight of the
CopyCat is much less than that of the 1000 models.
The gas chromatograph separates chemical mixtures into
their component parts by means of a column packed with a
special solid material. As a mixture of gases passes though
the solid substance, the rate of flow of each component
chemical is retarded at a different rate, depending on the
chemical. The result is an identifiable separation of the gas
Writing a description
of an object may
require research. For
example, if you must
write a description of

an object with which
you’re not completely
familiar, you may
have to conduct
some research before
you begin your writ-
Within the introductory paragraph, you should also describe
the physical appearance of the object. Include information
such as
• Size
• Weight
• Shape
• General physical appearance in terms of such things as
color, texture, or consistency
Finally, the introduction should include a list of the main

parts of the object, listed in the order in which you’ll present
them in the body of your description. The list of parts may
follow your description of the physical appearance or some
functional sequence based on how the object performs. Either
approach is acceptable as long as it will be clear and logical
for the reader. As a rule of thumb, divide your object into at
least three parts, but no more than seven. For example, for
the CopyCat 200, you might break the main parts down into
chassis, paper feed mechanism, electronic controller, and
toner cartridge.
Body
Each of the middle paragraphs should elaborate on the main
parts of the object as you’ve listed them in your introduction.
Ideally, if you’ve listed five parts in the introduction, you
should have five middle paragraphs in your description—one
for each of the parts. For each part, you should
• Define the part
• Explain its function
• Describe its physical appearance

As you describe each part and the way in which it functions,
keep your audience in mind. Try to put yourself in their posi-
tion, and describe the object accordingly. For example, if the
object is rather complex, consider whether your readers are
familiar with the operation of such devices. Tailor your
description to the needs of your audience. Giving too much
explanation where it’s unnecessary may insult your readers.
Leaving out information that the readers may need will
confuse them.
22
To enhance your writ-
ten description of the
appearance of an
object, you may wish
to include an illustra-
tion of the object.
The illustration can
be a simple line draw-
ing or a scanned-in
photograph.

Also consider your audience as you explain the location of
each of the parts on the whole object. Use terms like above,
below, to the left, and so on to help readers visualize the
object. For complex devices, you might want to supplement
what you write with visual images, such as line illustrations.
Conclusion
Unless your description is quite simple, you’ll need a con-
clusion. How you write the conclusion depends first on the
object you’re describing and second on the needs of your
audience. For example, the conclusion might include a brief
description of how a machine runs through its cycle of opera-
tion. Or you may choose to emphasize a certain aspect of the
object, depending on the purpose for your description. What-
ever you put in your conclusion should address the knowledge
and perspective of your audience.
Figure 4 gives an example of a description of an object—the
Omni 85 Model G portable heater. As you read this descrip-
tion, notice the following points:
• The introductory paragraph names the object, gives

some particulars about the object, and then lists its five
main parts.
• The middle paragraphs describe the parts in the order in
which they’re mentioned in the introduction.
• The concluding paragraph adds a few more details and
then ends the way the description began.
Note: In the description in Figure 4, the writer assumes that
the readers are familiar with abbreviations such as sq. ft.
(square feet), Btu/hr. (British thermal units per hour), and
lbs. (pounds). If you think your readers are unfamiliar with
any abbreviations you use, explain them as we did in the
previous sentence.
Use comparison and
contrast to describe
parts with which your
reader may be unfa-
miliar. For example,
explain that a part
is shaped like an S,
an L, a rectangle, or
an inverted funnel.

The Omni 85 Model G Portable Heater
The Omni 85 Model G Portable Heater is designed to
consistently and economically heat
an area of approximately 440 to 615 sq. ft. Heater output of
12,300 Btu/hr. is generated
by a kerosene-fueled flame. Burn time per tank of fuel ranges
between 20 and 28 hours.
The heater weighs 22 lbs. (empty), stands 21 in. high, and has a
width of 171/2 in. It con-
sists of five main parts: outer cover, burner and automatic
extinguisher, igniter, fuel tank,
and drip tray.
The complete outer cover is designed to channel heat efficiently
and safely. It is a strong
metal cylinder 11 in. in diameter and 15 in. high. The cover is
centered on top of the fuel
tank. It resembles a cage with 24 thin metal bars placed 11/4 in.
apart. These bars serve

as a protective barrier. The other parts of the outer cover
include the top plate/spill ring,
carrying handle, mica windows, three thumbscrews, and an
access door.
The round metal top plate, located on top of the heater cover, is
9 in. in diameter. It has
12 vents designed to disperse heat efficiently. The heatproof,
arch-shaped carrying han-
dle is attached at either side of the top of the heater, directly
beneath the top plate. The
handle has a depth/length of 14 in. The mica windows at the
back and front of the outer
cover midway down the cylinder are 31/2 in. square. They allow
the operator to view the
height of the heater flame.
The three thumbscrews are equidistantly spaced at the base of
the heater cover. They
secure the cover to the fuel tank. The access door is 3 in. by
31/2 in. and is located
directly beneath the mica windows. It allows the operator access
to the heater ignition
mechanism.

The disc-shaped burner, which provides the heat, is centrally
located within the heater
cover and is visible through the mica windows. The complete
heat chamber is 7 in. in
diameter and 4 in. high. It is composed of a wick adjuster with a
knob located at the top
of the chamber. A wing nut, retainer, and flame regulator knob
with screw are located at
the middle. At the bottom of the chamber are a glass fiber wick
and rubber packing. By
using the knob to adjust the wick and regulate the flame, the
operator can alter the
amount of heat generated.
The disc-shaped automatic extinguisher is located directly
above the burner. The extin-
guisher is 7 in. in diameter and is attached, by a thumbscrew at
its base, to the burner
mechanism. It is operated by means of the flame regulator knob,
which the operator turns
to the extreme left, or “off,” position. This allows the automatic
extinguisher to fit
directly over the wick and extinguish the flame.
The igniter, which is used to light the heater flame, is located

directly beneath the burner
mechanism and directly behind the access door of the outer
cover. It is powered by D-
type, dry-cell batteries attached to the fuel tank. The igniter is
composed of an igniter
coil, igniter unit, spring slip, and screw, all assembled within a
cylindrical igniter cover.
The cover, the only visible part of the igniter mechanism, is
approximately 21/2 in. high.
The igniter is operated by means of a lighting lever located at
the base of the fuel tank,
FIGURE 4—Sample Description
Omni 85—2
The metal fuel tank is secured at the bottom of the outer cover.
A squat cylinder in
shape, it is 31/2 in. high and 15 in. wide, with a capacity of
1.99 U.S. gal. At the top of
the tank knob, centered directly beneath the access door, is the

flame regulator knob, a
functional part of the burner mechanism. A fuel gauge is located
at the top of the tank,
31/2 in. left of center, and a fuel filler cap with chain is 31/2 in.
right of center. A battery
holder with cover is attached 7 in. to the left rear of center.
A circular metal drip tray, 171/2 in. in diameter, is secured to
the base of the heater by
two thumbscrews. It is designed to catch any leakage during
fueling. It also provides a
wide base for balance and thus prevents accidental tipping of
the heater.
The Omni 85 Model G Portable Heater is designed to be fueled
only by clear white
kerosene. Heater surfaces can become very hot, so access
should be restricted around
children, pets, and crowds. The heater needs oxygen to operate
efficiently, so proper ven-
tilation is an important requirement. Its fuel economy,
portability, and easy maintenance
make this heater a practical alternative for heating rooms or
areas of 440 to 615 sq. ft.

Just for Fun
When people describe something—especially
something they’re very familiar with—they often
have a tendency to leave out important informa-
tion. For example, study the following brief
description. Without information on the size and
function of the object being described, the
description lacks clarity. The description may refer
to a spoon, or it may refer to a shovel.
This instrument is made of metal. It has a long, narrow handle.
At the end of the instru-
ment is an oblong, bowl-shaped tip that allows the user to scoop
up something.
Don’t let your descriptions be confusing like this one. Be sure
to include all the neces-
sary details so your readers know exactly what you mean.
Adding information on the
length of the handle, the size of the bowl, and the purpose of
the tool would improve this
description greatly.

Describing a Process
Suppose your company is considering a new way of doing
something—say, assembling voltmeters. Or perhaps your
company’s sales division is considering a new approach to
handling and processing customer orders. To determine
whether either of these options is feasible, the decision
makers may need a description of the process involved.
If you’re the one to write this description, you must again
consider your audience. For example, executives, managers,
and administrators may be mainly concerned with costs, effi-
ciency, and product quality. Line supervisors, on the other
hand, may be mainly concerned with the what and how of
the process. Find out whom the description is for and what
they’ll use it for before you begin your writing.
Like the description of an object, a process description
should include
1. An introductory paragraph

2. A body of at least three paragraphs
3. A conclusion
Introduction
A process description, like an object description, should tell
the readers only what they don’t (or are unlikely to) know. In
some cases, you may have to briefly explain the context of
the process and then outline the nature of the process. That
outline may summarize the high points of the process. If you
do outline the process in the introductory paragraph, make
sure the steps in the middle paragraphs follow the same
sequence.
Body
The middle paragraphs of your process description should
present the process in a step-by-step logical sequence, with
each paragraph describing a step. Add as much detail as
necessary to make each step crystal clear. Make sure that
both the function of a step and what it produces are clear.
Try to keep the reader focused on the overall process as you
move from step to step.

26
Conclusion
A conclusion in a simple process description may simply be
the last step in the process being described. In more complex
process descriptions, however, the conclusion may briefly
review the steps in the process, highlighting safety or other
kinds of information that seem relevant.
Figure 5 presents an example of a process description.
Writing Instructions
Technical instructions and process descriptions are similar
in that both explain a process or a procedure. The main dif-
ference between process descriptions and instructions is the
audience for which they’re written. Executives and managers
usually need process descriptions to make decisions. People
who are doing the actual work, however, need to know how
to perform a process and do their job. Instructions are typi-

cally written for individuals who carry out manufacturing
processes or use technical skills in a service or maintenance
capacity (Figure 6).
Operating Process of the United Tack Lasting Machine Model A
The United Tack Lasting Machine (Model A) is an air- and cam-
operated tack lasting
machine, which lasts the shanks of all sizes and types of flat-
lasted shoes. The machine
can also be used for counter-tacking on flat-lasted, Stickdown,
and Goodyear Welt shoes.
The lasting elements wipe and tension the shoe upper and
permanently fasten the upper
to the insole with tacks. The tacks are driven through the upper
and insole and clinched
against the metal last bottom.
After the ball has been pulled and the lining counter-drafted by
hand, the shoe is pre-
sented to the machine in contact with the adjustable shoe rest
and edge gauge. This
establishes the proper relationship of the shoe bottom to the
wiping plane and the angle

of tack drive.
Depressing the foot treadle starts the machine cycle. The shoe is
moved by hand past
the wiping and tacking mechanisms, and the machine wipes the
upper stock over and
drives the required number of tacks into the lasted-over margin.
Tacks from a double tack pot are gravity-fed down the raceways
and delivered by air to
FIGURE 5—Description of a Process
All instructions should have an introduction, usually similar
to that of a process description. The introduction may have
to include additional information explaining the process,
equipment needs, and skills needed. The main purpose in
writing instructions is to provide the reader with the neces-
sary information for actually doing something.
Obviously, instructions should be written in the order in

which they should be performed—first step, second step, and
so on. Also, it’s a good idea to number the steps to keep the
sequence clear. One of the best ways to write instructions is
to perform the task yourself and carefully write down every-
thing you do.
Figure 7 presents instructions for the process described in
Figure 5.
28
The lever is
pushed to
activate
the machine.
Push the
lever to
activate
the machine.
FIGURE 6—Process descriptions (left) are generally written for
executives and managers. Instructions (right) are

written for the people doing the work.
Process descriptions
often use the passive
voice. For example,
“The completed
object is delivered
to the warehouse.”
Instructions generally
use the active voice
or commands. For
example, “Deliver the
completed object to
the warehouse.”
Instructions for Operating the United Tack Lasting Machine
Model A
The United Tack Lasting Machine (Model A) is an air- and cam-
operated tack lasting
machine, which lasts the shanks of all sizes and types of flat-

lasted shoes. The machine
can also be used for counter-tacking on flat-lasted, Stickdown,
and Goodyear Welt shoes.
The machine should be placed with the right side to the wall
and the rack at your left.
Shoes should arrive sole side up and heel end toward you. You
should handle two shoes
at a time, both to and from the rack. Work from left to right on
each rack shelf.
The following procedure outlines the operation of the United
Tack Lasting Machine.
Notice that it emphasizes proper shoe handling and efficient
operation.
1. Take the first two shoes from the rack. Turn to the machine
and place the shoe in
your right hand on the shelf.
2. Position the shoe in your left hand on the spindle, while
getting pincers from the
shelf with your right hand.
3. With the pincers, pull the lining and upper on the first side of

the shoe. Hold the
upper in place with your left hand, and use your right hand to
replace the pincers on
the shelf. Use both hands to remove the shoe from the spindle.
4. Position the shoe in the machine. Treadle and tack-last the
first side of the shoe.
5. Replace the shoe on the spindle. Pull the lining and upper on
the second side of the
shoe as you did for the first side. Position the shoe on the
machine, and treadle and
tack-last the second side of the shoe.
6. Place the lasted shoe on the shelf with your right hand while
getting the next shoe
from the shelf with your left hand. Position this second shoe on
the spindle and use
your right hand to get the pincers from the shelf. Repeat steps 3,
4, and 5.
7. When you complete the lasting on the second shoe, remove
the shoe from the
machine with your left hand. At the same time, use your right
hand to get the

processed shoe from the shelf. Turn to the rack.
8. Return the two processed shoes to the rack and get the next
two shoes. Repeat
steps 1 through 7.
FIGURE 7—Sample Instructions
Illustrating Your Instructions
Illustrations are almost always useful in instructions. Have
you ever tried to read written instructions, only to wish you
had a visual aid that illustrates exactly what the writer is
saying? Whenever possible, use photographs or line drawings
to illustrate your instructions (Figure 8).
30
Instructions for Wrapping a Package
Note: These instructions assume that you’ve already cut the

wrapping paper to the cor-
rect size for the package.
¬ Lay the paper on a hard surface with the outside of the paper
facing down (Figure
A).
� Center the package on the paper with the top facing down
(Figure B).
® Pull up two opposite sides of the wrapping paper and lap
them over each other.
Make sure the paper is snug against the box; then tape the paper
in place (Figure
C).
FIGURE A
FIGURE B
FIGURE C
FIGURE 8—The illustrations in this set of instructions add
clarity to what the reader must do. Imagine what the
instructions would be without the figures.

¯ On one end of the box, press the open paper down over the
edge of the box and
crease out to the end (Figure D).
° Bring the bottom side of the paper up toward the top and
crease in the same way
(Figure E). (Note: The loose ends should be somewhat
triangular in shape.)
± Fold in the ends and crease them carefully. Tape them in
place (Figure F).
² Repeat steps 4–6 on the other side of the box.
³ Turn the box over and you have a neatly wrapped package
(Figure G).
FIGURE D
FIGURE E

FIGURE F
FIGURE G
Highlighting Important Points
In addition to illustrations, you can also help your instruc-
tions by highlighting certain information. For example, if you
need to provide warnings related to worker safety or damage
to the equipment, you can put the words in italics or bold-
face, or you can use symbols to send a variety of messages.
For example, Figure 9 illustrates just a few of the many types
of symbols available with most software programs. You can
use the numbers in circles Ê to number the steps. You can
use a pointing finger K to highlight important points. You
can use a clock · to indicate a step that must be performed
within a certain time frame. Look over the other symbols in
Figure 9 and see if you can come up with some other uses
for them. You may also want to examine the symbols that are

part of the word processing program you use. Maybe you’ll
find some others that you can use to clarify any instructions
you must write.
32
FIGURE 9—These are just some of the many symbols that come
with most word-
processing software. Use them to add interest and clarity to
your writing.
If you have several
warnings to list in a
set of instructions,
put them in order of
importance, with the
most important one
first.
Writing Style

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