MGMT455.1. According to the place-time mode of interaction, wh.docx

MGMT455.
1. According to the place-time mode of interaction, when people
are in the same place, but at different times, this is an example
of what type of communication?
a. Face-to-face
b. Video conference
c. Shift work
d. E-mail
1.
2. People are their most cooperative when interacting via this
form of communication: face-to-face.same time, different
place.different time, same place.different place, different time.
3. Which of the following communication situations has the
highest message “richness”, or potential information-carrying
capacity? a. Memo announcing new workplace policyb.
Spreadsheet of financial statisticsc. Video conference
interviewd. Face-to-face meeting with clients
4. Virtual distance is a term that refers to the:
a. feelings of separation engendered by communication via e-
mail, text, audio conferencing, and so on.
b. delay that people experience when sending electronic
messages through several gateways and spam filters.
c. fact that people behave differently on e-mail than they do
face-to-face.
d. tendency to engage in flaming and teasing behavior on the
Internet.

5. Although there are disadvantages to physically dispersed
teams, what advantage can physical distance provide for teams?
a. Informal modelingb. Awareness of new technologyc.
Increased conflictd. Team members feel compelled to prepare
for meetings and to address issues more efficiently.
6. Some types of teams become information-dependent upon
aspects of their physical environment in order to do their work.
This type of team situation is best termed as: a. place-time
model of social interaction.b. codified knowledge.c. location
dependent.d. different time, same place.
7. Regarding out-of-the-loop employees, which of the following
is one of Edmondson’s “Four Tactics for Reframing” that helps
people reframe their purpose on a team? a. Tell yourself that the
project is similar to other projects you’ve already done, and
bring your knowledge to the service of others on the team with
less project experience.b. See yourself as vitally important to a
successful outcome, and to achieve the goal, you need the
willing participation of others on your team.c. See others as less
important than yourself to the successful outcome of the
projects, and work to provide the critical pieces of the solution
to make up for the shortcomings of others.d. Be selective about
the information you share with others on the team.
8. Information technology has powerful effects on social
behavior. Which of the following issues should NOT be
expected when interacting with teammates via information
technology? a. Reduced/changed status differences between
team members.b. Increased inhibitions and a decreased
likelihood that all members will contribute to the discussion.c.
Increased time to make decisions.d. Lower frequency of
communication.

9. Information technology changes social behavior. Which of
the following behaviors is TRUE about information technology
as compared to traditional face-to-face interaction?
a. Participation in team and group settings becomes more
uneven and polarized.
b. Status differences among people and groups are magnified
and more salient.
c. Computer-mediated groups make decisions faster and reach
consensus earlier.
d. There is a lower frequency of communication in computer-
mediated groups.
10. With regard to risk-taking, compared to groups that make
decisions face-to-face, groups that make decisions via
electronic communication are:
a. risk-averse for gains and risk-seeking for losses.
b. prone to feel more responsible for project failures.
c. risk-seeking for gains, and for losses.
d. risk-averse for both gains and losses.
11. Virtual teams are best described as a:
a. group support system or electronic meeting system.
b. combination of technology, tools, and infrastructures that
allows scientists to work with one another on projects related to
the future of technology.
c. task-focused group that meets without all members
necessarily being physically present or even working at the
same time.
d. community composed of people who work for e-businesses.
12. Virtual teams need to consider several factors for their
ultimate success. First, the level of technical support they will
need, second their locations relative to one another, and third
the: a. best use of available computer equipment.b. emotional
cohesion of team.c. public speaking ability of each team
member.d. percentage of time they spend in face-to-face
meetings.

13. Two types of information knowledge exist in teams. The
first, ________ knowledge, is hard to articulate and acquired
through experience. The second, ________ knowledge, is
knowledge that is transmittable in formal or symbolic language.
a. codified; tacitb. rich; codifiedc. tacit; codifiedd. tacit; rich
14. Tools, documents, language and processes—these are
examples of boundary objects. Which of the following is the
best definition of the purpose of boundary objects?a. To mark
out the limitations of liability for teamsb. To establish team
project ownership and territoriesc. The documents, objects, and
shared vocabulary that allow people from different teams,
organizations, and cultures to build a shared understanding
across teams.d. A culture’s signature pattern of workplace
beliefs, mental models, and practices that embody the culture’s
ideas about what is good, true, and efficient within the domain
of work.
15. Unless people have had special training, they are likely to
commit blunders when communicating virtually. All of the
following are best practices of virtual communication etiquette
EXCEPT:
a. active listening.
b. establish one person as the speaker for the group and have all
other group members funnel their questions and comments
through that team member.
c. immediately establish the purpose of the team.
d. summarize often and confirm understanding.
16. All of the following are reasons why the spontaneous social
interaction called “schmoozing” is advantageous for virtual
teams EXCEPT:a. expedites the operation of virtual teams.b.
increases like and rapport.c. increases task focus.d. low cost and
efficiency.
17. One of the challenges of virtual teams is building reliability

capital. Which of the following tactics is a best practice when
building reliability capital in virtual teams? a. To build
cohesion and to encourage friendly team exchanges, consider
using sarcasm, joking and teasing in your distance
interactions.b. Follow up with team members as time and
schedule allows.c. Always be brutally honest about your
opinions to avoid possible groupthink.d. Be available to support
and respond to team members. When you are not available,
follow up as soon as possible.
18. Cultural intelligence is best described as:
a. the capability to adapt effectively to new cultural contexts.
b. reliability capital.
c. egalitarianism.
d. collectivism.
19. People from different cultures can differ in many ways. The
cultural value of egalitarianism refers to __________; the
cultural value of hierarchy refers to __________.
a. the pursuit of personal welfare and self-interest; the
maximization of the welfare of the group
b. the belief that status differences are permeable; the belief
that social order is not easily permeated
c. the use of explicit, direct information exchange; the use of
indirect, tacit messages
d. cognitive cultural intelligence; emotional and motivational
cultural intelligence
20. In regard to cultural values, in __________ cultures,
members of high- and low-status groups communicate
frequently, and do not go to great lengths to perpetuate
differences. In __________ cultures and organizations, status
differences are not easily permeated. a. individualized;

collectiveb. direct; indirectc. egalitarian; hierarchicald.
schmoozing; exclusive
21. The extent to which a person identifies with a group occurs
on three distinct identity levels. Individuals who are high in
__________ identity are likely to agree with the following
statements: “all members need to contribute to achieve the
group’s goals” and “this group accomplishes things that no
single member could achieve.”
a. emotional
b. behavioral
c. cognitive
d. relational
22. This self-concept is achieved by assimilating with
significant others, and is based on personalized bonds of
attachment. This is best termed as:
a. individual self.
b. relational self.
c. collective self.
d. cognitive identity.
23. The __________ self is realized by differentiating ourselves
from others; __________ self is achieved by assimilating with
significant others; __________ self is achieved by inclusion in
large, social groups.
a. relational; individual; collective
b. individual; relational; collective
c. me-centered; we-centered; mixed-motive
d. independent; interdependent; codependent
24. Exhibit 12-2 illustrates the progressively more inclusive
ways a person can identify himself or herself within an
organizational structure. At a basic level, a person might see
himself or herself as an individual, but at a wider view, a person
might see himself or herself as a member of a unit or a larger
organizational area. Group members identify and categorize
themselves in this same fashion; categorizing themselves and

others in terms of in-groups and out-groups. The more narrowly
a group defines itself, the more the group’s behavior becomes:
a. cohesive and differentiated.
b. inclusive and extraverted.
c. competitive and self-serving.
d. cooperative and self-sacrificing.
25. Optimal Distinctiveness Theory argues that people:
a. want to strive to be the most valued team member.
b. prefer to be accepted by others more than being correct,
accurate, or right.
c. want to neither be too different, nor too similar to others.
d. want to be the leader of their team.
26. One implication of the optimal distinctiveness model is that
to secure loyalty, teams must not only satisfy members’ needs
for affiliation and belonging within a group, but must also:
a. maintain high levels of cohesion.
b. establish a good record of performance.
c. contribute to the greater good of the team.
d. maintain clear boundaries that differentiate them from other
groups.
27. People who don’t feel respected by their team are
__________. Conversely, respected members of organizational
groups that have low status and prestige are the most likely to
__________.
a. high in social comparison; be self-serving and competitive
b. not as loyal or committed to their team; donate their time to
their team to improve its image
c. high in realistic conflict; be high in symbolic conflict
d. high in ethnocentrism; stereotype
28. Social comparison theory predicts when:
a. a comparable team in your organization performs similarly or
better than your team, and the identity of your team is

threatened.
b. teams will harm or discriminate against other teams when the
performance of the other team decreases.
c. teams will harm or discriminate against members of their own
team when the performance of their own team decreases.
d. a member outside of the team performs similarly or better
than your team, and the team will feel interdependent with that
person.
29. The team discontinuity effect is the fact that:
a. teams who perform particularly well are more likely to act in
a competitive fashion with other teams.
b. if the task holds constant, people in teams behave more
competitively toward one another as compared to individuals.
c. people in teams lose their self-identity the longer they have
been a member of the team.
d. teams often begin by cooperating with others, but eventually
start competing with others.
30. The leadership paradox is best stated as the fact that:
a. teams usually need leaders, but the very presence of a leader
threatens the autonomy of a team.
b. leaders often know what to do, but are reluctant to share that
knowledge with their team.
c. leaders must pay attention to cognition (rationality) and
emotion (intuition) when making decisions.
d. leaders often change their mind immediately after having
made a decision.
31. The theory that argues that leadership is largely an inborn
characteristic of a person, and is largely inflexible and not
easily developed, learned, or acquired is best termed:
a. incremental theory.
b. leadership paradox.
c. entity theory.
d. leader categorization theory.
32. The trait theory of leadership argues that leadership is

largely an inborn characteristic of a person. Which of the
following traits is attributed to people who are one of these
types of theoretical leaders?
a. Their leadership style encourages team freedom and
autonomy.
b. Their command is viewed as decentralized.
c. They have great humility and nobility.
d. They take and are given too little blame for corporate
failures.
33. The research on personality and leadership has found
evidence for all of the following EXCEPT:
a. intelligence, and in particular, GMA (General Mental Ability)
is linked to career success.
b. narcissistic people are more likely to emerge as leaders in a
group, but they are no more skilled than others.
c. there is some indication from cross-sectional data that first-
born children may be more intelligent.
d. male leaders engage in more task-oriented behavior; female
leaders engage in more relational-oriented behaviors.
34. There is overwhelming evidence that environmental and
situational factors strongly affect leadership. Of the following,
which is the best example of one of those situational factors?
a. Positive personality
b. Pragmatism about solutions
c. Seating arrangements
d. Diversity of network contacts
35. In terms of leadership selection, an investigation of team
performance showed that teams with __________ leaders
performed better on all organizational decision-making tasks

than did teams whose leaders were __________.
a. quickly selected; slowly selected
b. passive; aggressive
c. randomly selected; systematically selected
d. team-selected; top-management selected
36. Which of the following behaviors is typical from leaders of
a transactional leadership style?
a. Develop employees that are adaptive and proactive in
response to change.
b. Have more satisfied subordinates.
c. Reward compliant behavior and punish employees if they fail
to complete tasks.
d. Create teams that are characterized by collective openness to
experience, agreeableness, extraversion, and greater
conscientiousness.
37. Teams that are underbounded have __________; in contrast,
teams that are overbounded have __________.
a. leaders that are present; leaders that are absent
b. leaders that are absent; leaders that are present
c. many external ties, but cannot bring its members together;
high loyalty but an inability to integrate with others
d. high internal loyalty, but cannot integrate with others outside
the team; many external ties, but cannot bring its members
together
38. Whether a deliberate choice by a leader, or ostracized by the
organization, __________ are sequestered from the rest of the
company, often for security or intellectual reasons.
a. surveying teams (example--a company that takes customer
votes on which products to be offered at retail)
b. broadcasting teams (example--an internal affairs department)
c. x-teams – (example--two market competitors teaming up to
achieve a shared goal)
d. insulating teams – (example--the scientific team that

developed the atomic bomb)
39. What is a common operational characteristic of marketing
teams?
a. They concentrate on their internal processes, and simply
inform others of what they are doing.
b. They have little outside contact, and make decisions about
how to serve its customers from within.
c. They are tasked with letting others outside the team know
what they are doing after they have made decisions.
d. They actively tailor their communications to suit the needs,
interests, and objectives of the organization.
40. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of
organizational founding teams?
a. They influence organizational development.
b. They create new organizational communities and populations.
c. They are sequestered from the general organizational
environment.
d. When they disband, they can create a large amount of
employment volatility.
41. __________ are highly externally oriented; their members
forge dense networks across the organization, enable rapid
execution of ideas, and may sometimes find they have to cross
competitive, organizational borders to achieve a shared goal.
a. Broadcasting teams
b. Marketing teams
c. X-teams
d. Surveying teams
42. X-teams are highly externally oriented. The typical cycle of
an x-team involves which order of these processes?
a. Exploration, exploitation, exportation
b. Exportation, exploration, exploitation

c. Exploitation, exploration, exportation
d. Exploration, exportation, exploitation
43. In regard to common roles in workgroups, the person who
provides meanings about what the team is doing, how successful
it is to people outside of the team, and the interpretation of
what the team is perceived to be doing is best termed a(n):
a. advisor.
b. gatekeeper.
c. interpreter.
d. lobbyist.
44. According to Finke’s Four Factors model of creativity, ideas
that work with existing products and services are high in
__________.
a. creative realism
b. innovation
c. structural connectedness
d. fluency
45. Finke’s model of creativity specifies two dimensions by
which creative ideas may be evaluated (one dimension being
conservatism–creativity, and another dimension being realistic–
idealistic). According to Finke, the most desirable ideas fall
into which quadrant?
a. Conservative realism
b. Conservative idealism
c. Creative realism
d. Creative idealism
46. One quadrant in Finke’s Four Factor model of creativity is
__________, and represents ideas that are highly traditional and
highly connected to current knowledge and practices.
a. creative idealism
b. creative realism
c. conservative realism

d. conservative idealism
47. Guilford’s model of creativity focuses on fluency,
flexibility, and originality. Fluency refers to __________;
flexibility refers to __________; originality refers to
__________.
a. the number of ideas; how many different types of ideas; the
uniqueness of ideas
b. how many different types of ideas; the number of ideas; the
uniqueness of ideas
c. language; accommodation; uniqueness
d. language; conflict management; uniqueness
48. In regard to the three indices that measure the creativity of
an idea, which is the most important according to Guilford?
a. Fluency
b. Flexibility
c. Originality
d. Apprehension
49. What type of conflict stimulates divergent thinking in
teams?
a. Relationship
b. Process
c. Task
d. Perceptual
50. According to the empirical research on convergent and
divergent thinking, which statement is true:

a. groups are better than individuals at convergent and divergent
thinking.
b. individuals are better than groups at convergent and
divergent thinking.
c. groups are better than individuals at convergent thinking;
individuals are better at divergent thinking.
d. groups are better than individuals at divergent thinking;
individuals are better at convergent thinking.
51. Janusian thinking refers to the ability to cope with, and even
welcome, conflicting ideas, paradoxes, ambiguity, and doubt.
Which of the following techniques is a way to stimulate this
type of thinking?
a. Quickly judging ideas upon their creation.
b. Asking questions with definitive answers.
c. Asking open-ended questions.
d. Thinking of ideas that are possible to execute.
52. Companies that engage in more exploration rather than
exploitation may:
a. suffer the costs of experimentation without gaining any of its
benefits.
b. exhibit fewer underdeveloped ideas.
c. gain distinctive marketplace competencies.
d. lead to strengthening their skills in idea editing and
refinement.
53. Leaders who provide their teams with a great deal of
__________ and __________ provide an environment that
fosters creativity.
a. dependence; cohesion
b. detachment; Janusian thinking
c. rationality; logic
d. autonomy; freedom
54. Relationship conflict is best described as conflict about:
a. tasks and the work to be done.

b. procedures, processes, and how the work should be done.
c. personalities, often involving anger and ego clashes.
d. ideology, philosophy, and fundamental belief systems.
55. Task conflict is best described as:
a. tasks and the work to be done.
b. procedures, processes, and how the work should be done.
c. personalities, often involving anger and ego clashes.
d. ideology, philosophy, and fundamental belief systems.
56. Team members high in motivation to acquire relationship-
threatening information, or “MARTI”:
a. make more sinister attributions about their coworkers
behaviors and intentions.
b. are more likely to include prospective group members in
joining their group.
c. plan to accept newcomers to their group.
d. have lower levels of relationship conflict.
57. __________ centers on disagreements that team members
have about how to approach a task and who should do what.
a. Proportional conflict
b. Task conflict
c. Perceptual conflict
d. Process conflict
58. Greater amounts of relationship conflict in a team are
associated with lower levels of __________, and negatively
associated with __________.
a. social loafing; team power
b. performance; team effectiveness
c. education; cognitive functioning
d. compliance; financial stability

59. Tom and Tim are in a five-person team. Tim perceives that
the team’s recent arguments pertain to team tasks. Tom does not
detect such overtones of conflict in task discussions. The fact
that they don’t see conflict in the same way is an example of
__________ conflict.
a. perceptual
b. process
c. task
d. proportional
60. A team that has a large representational gap has:
a. success in enticing other team members to adopt their
position.
b. a majority of members who privately agree with the minority.
c. disagreements about how to approach a task and who should
do what.
d. inconsistent views and mental models about the definitions of
the team’s problem or task.
61. Of the two ways which majorities and minorities influence
their teams, which of the following is the best example of
indirect influence?
a. Sarah convinces Holly and Sue to adopt her position on their
team project.
b. Holly changes her behavior due to Sarah’s influence.
c. Even though Sarah has convinced two members of the team to
agree with her views, seven of the ten team members privately
agree with Bob’s minority viewpoint.
d. Sarah talks to Carl to try and convince him to understand and
agree with her viewpoints on the project. Carl doesn’t agree
right away, but after thinking about it for a week, he decides
that Sarah’s view is best.
62. When people change their attitudes as a result of direct
influence or pressure, this is referred to as:
a. the sleeper effect.
b. team power.

c. conversion.
d. compliance.
63. __________ is the term used to describe a person’s change
in attitude and behavior as a result of their own thinking about a
subject, and is more stable than an attitude change induced by
peer pressure.
a. Direct influence
b. Interest-based approach
c. Compliance
d. Conversion
64. The framing bias makes specific predictions about how
people will behave when faced with a sure course of action
versus a gamble. Which of the following best describes the
effects of the framing bias?
a. People are risk-averse (i.e., preferring a sure thing) for both
gains and losses.
b. People are risk-seeking (i.e., preferring a gamble) when
choosing among gains and losses.
c. People tend to be risk-averse when choosing among gains, but
risk-seeking when choosing among losses.
d. People tend to be risk-seeking when choosing among gains,
but risk-averse when choosing among losses.
65. An example of the overconfidence bias is:
a. Bill’s tendency to consider evidence that supports his
position on illegal immigration, but disregards evidence that
refutes his beliefs.
b. Carol and her team have been working on a new product for
several years and one expensive prototype has become their
main focus. When evaluating the choices for launch, the group
judges the top prototype as the best one for launch over less
expensive options.
c. Joe makes a stock price prediction and believes that there is
only a 5% chance that his estimate is wrong; overlooking recent
articles about the bad financial health of the business.
d. a judge in a criminal court hears over 80 cases a day. The

defendants whose cases are heard late in the day were given
harsher sentences.
66. The confirmation bias is best described as the tendency for
people to:
a. seek and consider evidence that supports their preferred
hypothesis, and discount or ignore information that refutes their
beliefs.
b. want others to agree with them because of their need to be
liked.
c. not want to act as a devil’s advocate in a group, even though
it would help the group.
d. put unwarranted confidence in their decisions.
67. Which of the following is NOT a behavioral consequence of
decision fatigue:
a. spending more money.
b. making more accurate decisions.
c. making harsh decisions.
d. avoiding decision-making altogether.
68. Related to the confirmation bias, an example of “tunnel
vision” would be:
a. In advance of the board meeting regarding the company’s
decision to move their offices, Ken has made up his mind to
move the office to Wisconsin. He spends a lot of time finding
information on the tax benefits of doing business in Wisconsin
and overlooks similar tax benefits in Indiana.
b. Carl hasn’t made up his mind about moving the company to a
new location. He spends most of his time researching the lowest
tax rates nationwide, and looking into what states are the least
restrictive in terms of environmental compliance.
c. Mary feels secure in her viewpoint to move the company
headquarters to Wisconsin, but also spends time researching
cities such as Kansas City, Minneapolis, and Columbus, to
inform herself of the quality of life and opportunities for
business growth in these locations.

d. Kim feels pressured by the group to conform to the majority
viewpoint of where to move the company headquarters. She
limits her group input, and instead focuses on improving the
company’s product prototype.
69. A demonstrable task is a task that:
a. can be demonstrated to a group.
b. demonstrates the skill of the person who completes it.
c. has an obvious, correct answer.
d. demonstrates the cohesion of a group.
70. Groups perform better than individuals on a wide range of
demonstrable tasks. What is a key reason why groups
outperform individuals faced with the same task?
a. Groups are much more overconfident than individuals,
regardless of their actual accuracy.
b. Groups are more likely to exacerbate some of the
shortcomings displayed by individuals.
c. Groups outperform individuals due to a process in which
group members become more accurate during the group
interaction.
d. Groups are more likely to neglect case-specific information
and ignore base-rate information.
71. Groupthink occurs when team members place the goal of
__________ above all other decision priorities.
a. good judgment
b. ethical decisions
c. efficiency
d. consensus
72. Key symptoms of groupthink take root and blossom in
groups that succumb to the pressures of reaching unanimity.
Which of the following is one of those symptoms?
a. Members of the group regard themselves as invulnerable,
morally correct, and exempt from organizational standards.
b. The group’s process of creating ideas and reaching decisions
is balanced, and out-group member opinions are respected.
c. There is a diversity of opinions within the group.

d. Group members constantly discuss their reservations about
the group’s controversial viewpoint.
73. Regarding ways to avoid groupthink, what is the goal of
using the risk technique?
a. It allows groups to adopt different perspectives in order to
create a mechanism that will instigate thinking more carefully
about problems.
b. It creates an atmosphere in which team members can express
doubts and raise criticisms without fear of rejection or team
hostility.
c. It allows team members to assume the perspective of other
constituencies with a stake in the decision.
d. It gives teams an opportunity to identify a second solution as
an alternative to their first choice.
74. The mood contagion model argues that:
a. leaders transmit their own moods to team members, and
this affects their behavior.
b. a leader who is experiencing negative affects (emotions)
also displays negative behaviors.
c. leaders need to balance negative mood states with positive
mood states.
d. leaders and team members are unaware of their own
moods, but infer them based upon the behaviors of others.
75. In regard to leader mood, the effects of a leader’s anger on
teamwork are all of the following EXCEPT:
a. boosts idealism.
b. lowers performance.
c. a decline in positive mood.
d. decreased motivation.
76. Environmental conditions, such as change, uncertainty, and
risk, affect how people perceive leaders. Under conditions of
uncertainty, people with high and stable self-esteem show a
stronger preference for __________ leadership, but people with

low and unstable self-esteem prefer __________ leadership.
a. task-oriented; relationship-oriented
b. extrinsically-motivated; intrinsically-motivated
c. democratic; autocratic
d. directive style of; participative style of
77. Traits such as being authoritative, having an impressive
appearance, and exhibiting kindness are characteristics and
skills desirable in __________ leaders.
a. elected
b. appointed
c. randomly selected
d. systematically selected
78. The following are key determinants that can lead to the
growth of close, trusting relationships between leaders and their
teams EXCEPT:
a. a subordinates’ similarity to the leader.
b. demonstrated competence and performance.
c. team member extraversion.
d. diversity of team members.
79. According to the LMX (Leader-Member-Exchange) model,
which of the following statements is true about how the theory
operates?
a. Leaders give different team members differential amounts of
attention and treatment, and develop different relationships with
different team members.
b. Teams need to rotate leadership among different members of
the team so as to involve all of the members.
c. Leaders need to use both reward and punishment to motivate
team members to perform tasks in addition to providing regular
feedback to team members.
d. Leaders need to offer resources, such as coaching and
expertise to team members, who need to reciprocate by
competent tasks and assignments.

80. What is one way to enhance the quality of Leader-Member
Exchanges (LMX) between leaders and their employees?
a. A manager invests in their employees’ skills, and empowers
them to grow and learn.
b. Leader keeps out of his or her employees’ way, and focuses
on tracking the financial gains of the team’s performance.
c. Unethical leadership practices.
d. Leader invests in building their external network of business
contacts.
Journal of Psychology and Theology
2005, Vol. 33, No. 2, 113-121
Copyright 2005 by Rosemead School of Psychology
Biola University, 0091-6471/410-730
113
For the word of God is living and active and
sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing
as far as the division of soul and spirit, of both
joints and marrow, and able to judge the
thoughts and intentions of the heart. Heb. 4:12
(NASB)
He sent forth his word and healed them… Ps.
107:20 (NIV)
. . . in humility receive the word implanted, which
is able to save your souls. James 1:21b (NASB)

T
he Bible, as seen from the passages above,
makes no apologies for the potency of its
message to heal. Accordingly, whatever our
approaches to Christian therapy, we are challenged
to discern how the Bible’s message applies to our
work. Christian counseling is a tremendously diverse
profession (Johnson & Jones, 2000; McMinn &
Phillips, 2001). Within this diversity exists a wide
variety of perspectives on if, when, and how to use
S c r i p t u r e i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t . S o
m e
approaches might eschew overt strategies incorpo-
rating Scripture in treatment, others mandate such
usage as the only true way to do Christian therapy
(e.g., Adams, 1970), while others take a situation-
specific, client-specific stance.
This article uses the case of George (a fictional
amalgam composed from several different clients) to
provide examples of various intervention strategies.
The article is not an exhaustive literature review of
all interventions that might incorporate Scripture as
a resource; rather, the aim is twofold: first, to
increase Christian therapists’ awareness of the vari-
ety of types of Scripture interventions available, and,
second, to stimulate “divinely inspired creativity” in
the further development of strategies to incorporate
the living Word of God in Christian psychotherapy.
THE CASE OF GEORGE
George is a 30-year old single Caucasian male

construction worker who presented for psychothera-
py with chief concerns of depressed mood, low self
esteem, suicidal thoughts, and trouble sleeping. He
describes these symptoms as occurring “on and off”
over the last 10 years. George has no plans or inten-
tions of acting on his suicidal thoughts and agreed to
a contract with me to monitor these thoughts. He
commonly makes statements like “I’ll never amount
to anything “ and “I’m a loser.” He also displays a
constricted expression of affect.
Currently, George is most depressed about his
lack of progress in any career. He’s been working
construction or other odd jobs since he graduated
from high school twelve years ago. George would
really like to be a pilot, but he has not taken any
steps in that direction. “They’d see right through
me,” he laments. He also has a tendency to take on
too many overtime projects, leading to another
comment, “I get anxious when I think about saying
‘no’ to offered work.”
Prior to his current treatment, George has never
seen a therapist. He reports suicidal thoughts as an
adolescent but reports never making an attempt. “I
came close a couple of times, but never did any-
thing” he notes.
INTERVENTIONS THAT APPLY SCRIPTURE
IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
FERNANDO GARZON
Regent University
Christian therapists are sometimes challenged in
their work with appropriately religious clients to

develop treatment components that incorporate the
Bible. Utilizing a case study format, this article
describes various intervention strategies available for
the clinician to consider. Psychodynamic, psychoedu-
cational, theoeducational, cognitive, behavioral, and
affective experiential therapeutic examples are pre-
sented. As long as sound ethical and religio-cultural
assessment guidelines are followed, Scripture
remains a rich resource for clinicians in their work.
A version of this article was presented for the Scripture and the
Disciplines Conference, Wheaton College, May 25th, 2004.
Cor-
respondence concerning this article may be sent to Fernando
Garzon, PsyD, Center for Counseling and Family Studies,
Liberty
University, 1971 University Blvd, Lynchburg, VA 24502.
Email:
[email protected] (effective August 7, 2005)
114 SCRIPTURE INTERVENTIONS
George says his father periodically ended up in
alcohol treatment centers before dying 3 years ago
of cirrhosis of the liver. His mother suffered from
occasional bouts of depression and was periodically
on antidepressants. George didn’t know of any other
history of mental illness in his family, and no abnor-
malities were noted in George’s medical histor y.
Aside from typical childhood illnesses, no major
accidents or illnesses occurred. While he’s been in
occasional fights in his life, he does not recall any
head injuries that resulted in unconsciousness. His
developmental history also appeared normal.

Partly due to his father’s histor y, George has
avoided alcohol and drugs throughout his life. “I’ll
never do what he did to us [the family],” he reports.
His father worked as a plummer and his mother
was a nurse’s aid in a local hospital. A Vietnam war
veteran, George’s father had resorted to drinking to
cope with the scars of war. It didn’t work. Instead,
his father displaced his frustrations and anger onto
his wife and George when he was born. Verbal and
physical abuse were common for both George and
his mother. Indeed, it appeared the harsh comments
during the abuse were most stinging. “You’re a no
good &*[email protected]$ loser George. You stay in line or I’ll
send you back to your creator.”
George played a variety of sports growing up and
had some friends. However, these friendships were
not very deep and focused primarily on the common
sporting interactions. George started dating when he
was 16. Sadly, his relationships from then until now
have all been short-lived (1 week to 4 months at the
most). As George describes it, women have “felt
sorry for me . . . They date me to help cheer me up . . .
and then they leave when they see it hasn’t helped.”
George was sexually active until he became a Chris-
tian two years ago.
Growing up, George’s family rarely went to
c h u r c h . H e b e c a m e a C h r i s t i a n t w o y e a r s
a g o
through a construction worker friend who had got-
ten saved and took him to a revival meeting. Since
then, he’s attended a local Baptist church. He finds
support there, but also feels uncomfortable, believ-

ing that one day they’ll discover, like others in his
life, just what “a loser” he really is. “I know God loves
me, but I still feel good for nothing,” he laments.
George’s new found Christian faith has given him
added incentive to keep from making any suicide
attempts despite the recurrent depressions.
Diagnostically, George is experiencing a chronic
depression, apparently trauma-induced from a child-
hood relationship with an abusive alcoholic father
suffering from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
George has developed an underlying core belief
(schema) that he’s worthless, which helps maintain
his depression. It’s likely also that internalized anger
towards his father is also present. He is motivated
for therapy but also feeling hopeless that anything
can be done (Again, partly maintained by maladap-
tive worthlessness cognitions). It is encouraging that
he does have a goal (becoming a pilot). He longs for
the strength and courage it takes to “risk” enrolling
in pilot school.
As treatment begins, individual psychotherapy
will be implemented. If George’s symptoms contin-
ue at high levels after a month of treatment, a refer-
ral for antidepressant evaluation will also occur.
Finally, George’s religious resources will be explored
as potential assets in his treatment. George agreed
with this treatment plan.
ETHICAL, CULTURAL, & ASSESSMENT
ISSUES WHEN CONSIDERING SCRIPTURE
INTERVENTIONS
Much has been written on the ethical usage of

spiritual interventions in psychotherapy (Richards &
Bergin, 1997; McMinn, 1996; Anderson, Zuehlke, &
Zuehlke, 2000; Tan, 2003). Common ethical areas to
consider in this pertinent literature concern dual rela-
tionships (religious and professional), imposing reli-
g i o u s v a l u e s o n c l i e n t s , v i o l a t i n g w o r k - s
e t t i n g
(church-state) boundaries, informed consent issues,
and clinician competency issues. Clinical applications
of Scripture should therefore include good client reli-
gio-cultural assessment, a solid therapeutic alliance,
clear informed consent procedures, avoidance of the
imposition of religious values on the client, and the
maintenance of intervention flexibility versus rigidly
applying Scripture inter ventions to all Christian
clients (Tan, 2003; Richards & Bergin, 1997).
For the clinician, values often play a large part in
how overtly they utilize religious resources such as
t h e Wo r d o f G o d . R i c h a r d s & B e r g i n ( 19 9 7
)
describe three guiding values important when con-
sidering such religious interventions: (a) respect for
the client’s autonomy/freedom, (b) sensitivity to and
empathy for the client’s religious and spiritual
beliefs, and (c) flexibility and responsiveness to the
client’s religious and spiritual beliefs.
While most Christian therapists would agree in
principle to the above, a visceral reaction often takes
FERNANDO GARZON 115
place (positive or negative) when a discussion of

Scripture techniques occurs. This is informative as an
indicator of potential countertransference that can
block the effective adoption of the above values, par-
ticularly in the area of flexibility and responsiveness.
For example, those with a positive initial reaction
may be prone to incorporate overt interventions uti-
lizing Scripture while neglecting a client’s misgivings
about such interventions. Has George experienced a
legalistic and judgmental church environment for
the last two years and does he see the Bible as a book
full of condemning passages? If so, guilt and shame
might be his primary affects in reaction to an inter-
vention utilizing Scripture. Such interventions may
be contraindicated, at least early in treatment, until a
supportive therapeutic alliance has been developed
(and perhaps throughout). Negative countertransfer-
ences likewise can have perilous dangers in this
regards. George may be having a positive experience
in his church environment and look upon the Bible
as his sacred source of primary aid, but the therapist
might have had painful experiences in a church that
utilized Scripture in a heavy-handed legalistic or judg-
mental fashion. The therapist’s own emotional reac-
tions might be erroneously presumed to lie in the
client as well, preventing the ability to see the Bible
as a valuable coping resource for the client when it
actually is. Thus, both positive and negative Scripture
countertransference may lead to subtle or not-so-
subtle impasses in treatment.
In summary, clients will have a mixture of experi-
ences with the Bible based on their particular religio-
cultural background. This background needs to be
assessed carefully, and any Biblical inter ventions
incorporated into treatment should be done in a

highly ethical manner. In addition to considering the
ethical, cultural, and assessment issues involved in
incorporating Scripture in treatment, clarifying one’s
own countertransference reactions to the possibility
of utilizing Scripture will enhance the ability to accu-
rately assess an intervention’s appropriateness in the
individual client’s care.
POTENTIAL SCRIPTURE INTERVENTIONS
FOR GEORGE’S TREATMENT
Careful assessment of George revealed a man uti-
lizing his Christian faith as a main support in his life.
He was very open to discussing spiritual issues and
having spiritual techniques incorporated as a part of
his care. He had a positive view on the inclusion of
the Bible as a part of his treatment, so some interven-
tions applying this resource were used. Intervention
samples described in George’s care below came
from a variety of theoretical orientations. These
inter ventions ser ve only as samples that can be
found in a potentially broad literature.
Implicit Scripture Intervention
Psychodynamic and psychoanalytic Christian
therapists sometimes emphasize an incarnational
perspective on spiritual interventions such as utiliz-
ing the Bible in treatment (White, 1984; Benner,
1983). In George’s care, for example, they might
emphasize the therapist’s empathic stance towards
George as the key mode of integrating the Bible.
Such an empathic stance models the character of
Christ as seen in the Bible when He ministered to
wounded people. Quiet and non-overt strategies,

such as praying for George outside of sessions and
perhaps quietly during sessions, complement this
approach. Tan (1996a) describes these interventions
as types of implicit integration. Other aspects of
implicit integration include the personal spiritual life
and development of the counselor. Tan contrasts
such an approach with explicit integration, which
more systematically incorporates spiritual resources,
such as the Word of God, purposefully in treatment.
It is important to note that implicit and explicit Bibli-
cal strategies are not mutually exclusive and exist on
a continuum. Each client’s individual diagnosis,
symptom severity, and presenting problems can lead
to different levels of implicit/explicit integration.
Indeed, implicit and explicit integration strate-
gies are closely linked in client care. The therapist’s
own implicit spiritual growth, development, and
quiet prayer for George may still have a direct impact
on the quality of care and a client’s treatment out-
come, even with varying levels of explicit integration.
However, this linkage is not complete, as research
suggests that explicit spiritual interventions strate-
gies can sometimes be used by non-Christians with
C h r i s t i a n c l i e n t s t o g r e a t e f f e c t ( e . g . , P r
o p s t ,
Ostrom, Watkins, Dean, & Mashburn, 1992). This
perhaps surprising preliminary finding appears quite
consistent with Scripture (e.g., Matt. 7:22-23).
Psychoeducational
George may need education around the appropri-
ateness of experiencing his emotions, as well as a frame-
work for understanding the place of assertiveness and

limit-setting around declining requests to work
overtime. In discussing these areas with him, it
appeared he felt men should not have much affec-
tive awareness and that declining the extra work
would be unchristian. The Bible contains many per-
tinent passages that might be appropriate to discuss
with George in session and/or to assign to him as
homework.
For example, in regards to men and emotions,
many of the Psalms reflect great affective awareness
in David’s on-going conversation with God (e.g., Ps.
3, 4, 7, 23, 35, 139, etc.). Examining passages pertain-
ing to Jesus that are reflective of his emotional
awareness, such as His weeping over Jerusalem
(Luke 19:41-42), his anger in the temple (Matt. 21:12-
13), and his struggle in Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36-46)
might help George be more accepting of his emo-
tional side. For other clients who are defended
against their normal grief process, the book of Job
might also be very helpful.
George’s tendency to view all assertiveness nega-
tively reflects an inaccurate understanding of Biblical
principles of stewardship and calling. Several books
have been written amplifying on these Biblical
t h e m e s . Fo r e x a m p l e , Boundaries ( C l o u d &
Townsend, 1992) is a commonly recommended book
by many Christian professionals (Johnson & Johnson,
1998). This book and in-session discussion with
George might help him understand Biblical assertive-
ness and help him distinguish this from an unbiblical

self-sufficiency and disregard for others’ needs.
Theoeducational
Some of George’s comments during the early ses-
sions suggested that he may suffer from “worm the-
ology,” a view that overemphasizes one’s sinfulness,
the fallen nature, and God’s judgment while mini-
mizing God’s love, acceptance, and the reality of
George’s new position in Christ as a Christian.
Assessment of George’s condition suggested that
part of this theology may be based on his early expe-
riences with an abusive father. I also assessed the the-
ology promoted through George’s church, both in
conversations with him and in conversations with
other persons I knew who went to his church.
As work continued on his relationship with his
father, he became more open to input in regards to
his theological stance. Homework assignments
around passages of Scripture emphasizing God’s car-
ing nature and acceptance of George and bibliother-
apy (e.g., Anderson, 2000) were fruitful in readjust-
ing his perspective.
Behavioral
A s s e r t i v e n e s s w a s b r i e f l y a d d r e s s e d a b o
v e .
George also suffered from anxiety symptoms as seen
i n h i s d i f f i c u l t y f a l l i n g a s l e e p . B e n s o n (
19 9 6 )
described a deep-breathing relaxation technique
w h i c h h e a d a p t e d f o r r e l i g i o u s i n d i v i d u a
l s t o

increase compliance, motivation, and efficacy. In
applying this technique to George, I explained to
him the rationale behind deep breathing relaxation
and asked him if there were a Scripture or supportive
phrase he would like to use as he exhaled during
each repetition of the exercise. George readily
responded, “Psalm 23, ‘The Lord is my shepherd.’”
He was then trained to inhale deeply, holding to a
count of five, and to exhale slowly repeating this
comforting line of Scripture. After a few repetitions,
regular breathing followed, and then another set of
deep breathing. George felt this technique was help-
ful, so he was encouraged to try it as an aid in falling
asleep at night.
Cognitive
Much has been written on applying the Scriptures
from cognitive perspectives emphasizing Rational
Emotive Behavior Therapy styles (e.g., Nielsen, John-
son, & Ellis, 2001; Johnson, 2001; Backus, 1985;
Johnson, Devries, Ridley, Pettorini, & Peterson,
1994; Pecheur & Edwards, 1984), as well as styles
resembling the work of Aaron Beck (e.g., Propst,
1988; Hawkins, Tan, & Turk, 1999; Tan & Ortberg,
1995). The brevity of this article will lead to a focus
on one sample intervention from each major cogni-
tive therapy “camp.”
REBT utilizes reason and logic as primary tactics
to change core irrational beliefs (Ellis, 2000), while
cognitive therapy emphasizes idiosyncratic or indi-
vidualized dysfunctional perception styles and a
more experimental, empirical modality to alter these
misperceptions (Beck & Weishaar, 2000). George
experienced one episode during treatment that will

highlight the two strategies.
Around eight sessions of treatment, George
decided to apply to take flying lessons at a local
small airport. The pilot instructor said he would
review the application and get back to George within
two weeks. George hadn’t heard from him at this
time, so I encouraged him to call and ask what had
FERNANDO GARZON 117
happened. The instructor apologized and said he
hadn’t gotten around to it since he was very busy.
George felt discouraged and believed the instructor
was “stalling because he knows what a loser I am.”
Figure One highlights a common REBT written exer-
cise that might be helpful in addressing George’s
irrational belief. In the technique, he describes the
incident, his belief, and then disputes the belief.
Afterwards he rates his endorsement of the original
maladaptive thought. This activity often is done orig-
inally in-session with the therapist.
As can be implied from the above, the clinician
may need to educate George on promises found in
the Bible to counteract his negative belief if George
does not know these from his past two years as a
Christian. Many times, a more Beckian approach is
equally suitable to address what happened to George.
T h e S e v e n c o l u m n t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p e d b
y
Greenberger and Padesky (1995) reflects such a per-
spective. This technique applies an inductive, Socrat-

ic strategy for exploring the evidence both for and
against the key maladaptive cognitions George has in
a n e f f o r t t o h e l p h i m d e v e l o p m o r e b a l a n c
e d
thoughts. Care is taken to empathize with George’s
experience before asking him inductive questions to
find evidence against his belief. Figure Two depicts
the seven column technique altered to include ques-
tions in column five that facilitate the utilization of
Scripture in generating contradicting evidence.
Several thought records over several different situa-
t i o n s m a y b e n e e d e d t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u
c e
George’s belief in his maladaptive thought and
increase his belief in the more balanced thoughts.
Many other REBT and Beckian cognitive techniques
exist and can be adapted for addressing George’s
condition.
Affective Experiential
Affective experiential approaches normally seek
to activate the client's cognitive/emotional matrix
related to a core issue (like George’s belief that he is
a loser) and to bring these minimally processed or
“nonmetabolized” feelings into the here and now
with the clinician so that the emotions can be identi-
fied and processed (Magnavita & Carlson, 2003).
Strategies utilizing the Bible may have a similar goal,
except that the desire is to bring these core issues
and connected emotions “into the living presence of
God” for processing, as well as for processing with
the therapist. One biblical intervention seeking to
facilitate resolution of core affective issues is inner
healing prayer.

Inner healing prayer consists of “a range of ‘jour-
ney back’ methodologies that seek under the Holy
Spirit’s leading to uncover personal, familial, and
ancestral experiences that are thought to contribute
to the troubled present” (Hurding, 1995, p. 297).
Many of these approaches focus on helping the
Figure 1. Sample REBT Intervention
Activating Irrational Consequent Disputations of Ratings of
Event Belief Emotions belief original belief
following disputation
Pilot instructor “He knows what Discouragement, This
instructor has only 35% belief in
hadn’t reviewed a loser I am” [rated sadness, met me briefly &
hasn’t original thought.
application as 90% believed] depression talked with me for over
3 minutes. He couldn’t
possibly know me enough
to make a judgment!
God’s Word says “I can do
all things through Christ
who strengthens me”
(Phil. 4:13) and “Beloved,
now I am a child of God”
(I Jn 3:2), so I’m not a loser,
no matter what the instructor
might think anyway! I am
pleasing to God.

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FERNANDO GARZON 119

client process affectively painful memories through
vividly recalling them and asking for the healing pres-
ence of Christ to resolve the pain. This prayer form
was carefully used to help George process affectively
laden memories that reinforced his perception that
he was a loser (See Garzon & Burkett, 2002, for a
description of a variety of approaches).
In inner healing prayer, the counselor’s knowl-
edge of Scripture is used as the backdrop or grid
t h r o u g h w h i c h t o i n t e r p r e t w h a t o c c u r s a
s t h e
client’s describes the experience of inviting Christ to
come into the memory. Perceived occurrences out of
line with Jesus’ character are quickly addressed.
Sides (2002) recommends that appropriate Biblical
passages should be assigned following a successful
implementation of this prayer form to ground the
experience in the Word of God and continue the
healing process. Overt incorporation of the Word of
God following the prayer helps maintain a balance
between affective experience and continuing growth
from that experience through its interpretation via
the Bible. This was done in the case of George.
While some question the legal and ethical ability to
use some forms of inner healing prayer in psy-
chotherapy (e.g., Entwistle, 2004), others believe
they can be used in a clinically sensitive manner as a
part of treatment (Tan, 1996a; Garzon, in press).
The historical Christian contemplative prayer
tradition also contains affective experiential strate-
gies that utilize Scripture to seek spiritual resolution
of core emotional conflicts. The client’s awareness
of the pertinence of Scripture to his or her condi-

tion is deepened through the experiential impact of
God’s Living Word and through discussion of the
experience with the therapist. More than being just
projective or assessment measures, these interven-
tions seek to facilitate the treatment of core issues.
The ultimate goal is attaining more Christlikeness,
with increased emotional well-being often flowing
out of this improved relationship. As can be seen
from this description, the intersection between
C h r i s t i a n c o u n s e l i n g a n d s p i r i t u a l d i r e c
t i o n
becomes apparent. Current explorations of the
commonalities, differences, and the ethical applica-
tion of spiritual direction-like techniques are occur-
ring in the literature (Benner, 2002, 1998; Tan,
2003, 1996a, 1996b). The writings of Madame
Guyon (1975) and Saint Ignatius of Loyola provide
creative starting points for the application of these
rich historical resources. One example from this tra-
dition will be given.
St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Jesuit order
of Catholic priests in the 16th century, developed
the contemplative practice of “Living Scriptures” as
a component of his spiritual development practices
(Endean, 1990; Lonsdale, 1990). In the therapy con-
text, the strategy sometimes may be described as fol-
lows. The client and therapist together read through
a carefully selected Biblical passage (a story from
one of the Gospels, for example, or a parable). The
client is then asked to take the part of one of the
characters in the stor y, and with “the sanctified
imagination” (Foster, 1998, pp. 25-26) relive the
Gospel story with as much sensory experience as
possible. The client is encouraged to “imagine see-
ing, hearing, smelling, and physically feeling or

touching all that is going on in the Scriptural scene”
(Cook, 2004, p. 177).
Prayer is recommended at the beginning of the
exercise asking for the Lord’s covering and protec-
tion over the entire process. In the psychotherapy
context, the therapist sometimes facilitates Living
Scriptures through verbal descriptions of scenes in
the story. At the end of this “experiential Gospel
episode,” the client is asked to talk with the Lord
(silently or out loud) about what transpired and any-
thing discovered in the process. The therapist then
explores with the client the experience of the inter-
vention, connecting what happened with the client’s
treatment as appropriate.
In working with George, I selected Luke 13:10-17,
the story of the woman in the synagogue who was
“bent double and could not straighten up at all”
(Luke 13:11b, NASB). The purpose was to help
a d d r e s s h i s c o r e s c h e m a , “ I ’ m a l o s e r.” G i
v e n
George’s gender, we changed the main character of
the Gospel story to be a man with this condition.
George closed his eyes and I then used the following
dialogue, proceeding slowly and monitoring his non-
verbals, to facilitate George’s experience.
“It’s a hot desert day . . . the Sabbath. You are led
from the sandy street into the synagogue but imme-
diately pushed towards the back. You are unclean
with this heavy burden you carry, which slumps you
over, so you cannot come towards the front . . .
“You wait for the teaching to begin. The smell of
sweat fills the air, and your eyes can only see the dirt

floor, sand, and people’s feet . . . It’s the same as
always, your view for the last eighteen years of your
stooped-over-existence . . . You are a loser in the peo-
ple’s eyes, condemned to an existence of staring at
the desert ground . . .
“You hear a man start to teach. He’s different
than the other rabbis you’ve heard. His words are
like no other . . . He pauses in his sermon . . . ‘Why?’
You wonder . . .
“People are whispering. He speaks, ‘You, come
up here.’ He’s noticed you . . . He tells them to bring
you forward. A mass of feet now crowd around you.
You struggle to walk his way, trying to avoid the con-
verging mass of legs, dirt, and sand that stand in your
way . . .
“Finally, there is only one pair of sandy feet
before you . . .
“‘Son, you are freed from your sickness.’ The
weight of ‘I’m a loser’ falls off your back . . . He
stoops down and places His hands on you, helping
you straighten up. For the first time in many years,
you are standing straight up, seeing someone face-to-
face, your healer, Jesus.
“Others try to object to what has occurred, but He
is stern. ‘And this man, this son of Abraham, whom
Satan has bound for eighteen long years, should he
not have been released from this bondage on the Sab-

bath day?’ . . . He defends you. The entire crowd
rejoices at this great miracle. You are healed . . .”
Tears streaming down his face, George is clearly
moved by this experience. I invite him to have an inti-
m a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h J e s u s a b o u t w h a t
h a d
occurred, quietly in silence or out loud as he pre-
ferred. He whispers thanks and praise. He pours out
his heart and worships the King. After waiting for
this holy encounter to cease, I process with George
this exercise. He notes that he feels like the charge,
“I’m a loser,” had symbolically fallen off his back.
It should be noted that some Christians have
great concerns about using imagery in their experi-
ence of the Scripture. Foster (1998) notes
Jesus himself taught in this manner, making constant appeal to
the imagination . . . There is good reason for concern [about
using the imagination though], for the imagination, like all our
faculties, has participated in the Fall. But just as we can believe
that God can take our reason (fallen as it is) and sanctify it and
use it for his good purposes, so we believe he can sanctify the
imagination and use it for his good purposes. (pp. 25-26)
One might also point out the rich usages of imagery
seen in the psalms (Psalm 23, for example) and high-
light our regular usage of imagery in our daily func-
tioning. While some people don’t have the capacity
to imagine visual images, for most the skill is readily
apparent. When one thinks of a red car, for example,
a mental image often accompanies the words “red
car.” In another example, the command “don’t think
of a pink elephant” leads automatically to an image
of a pink elephant. Foster’s comment, the biblical

application of imagery in many passages, and our
daily experiences with imagery suggest an alternative
position to the “never use imagery” view, one empha-
sizing the importance of submitting this ability into
the hands of God for His guidance and control. As
always, the client ultimately chooses which view he
or she will ultimately adopt.
CONCLUSIONS
“Spirituality” has become a popular topic in both
secular and Christian environments. With appropri-
ately religious Christian clients who desire the inte-
gration of spiritual resources into their treatment,
therapists are sometimes challenged to find mean-
ingful ways to incorporate the Word of God effec-
tively into clinical care. George’s case highlights just
a few of the myriad ways Scripture can be used as an
i n t e r v e n t i o n . Pe r h a p s t h e s a m p l e t e c h n i q
u e s
described in his care have served as a catalyst to stim-
ulate deeper reflection about how the Bible can be
applied in typical therapeutic modalities. When
appropriate ethical and religio-cultural assessment
guidelines are followed, the Word of God demon-
strates itself a living, powerful resource to be humbly
handled by clinicians in their work.
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AUTHOR
GARZON, FERNANDO L.: Address: Center for Counseling and
Family Studies, Liberty University, 1971 University Blvd,
Lynch-
burg, VA 24502. Title: Associate Professor. Degrees: PsyD,
Fuller
Theological Seminary. Specializations: Religious
psychotherapy;

forgiveness; and multicultural counseling.

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