Bipedalism Research Paper

Bipedalism Research Paper
Bipedalism is one of the big six events that happened in the evolution of humans becoming what we are today. Bipedalism means standing, walking on
two feet rather than walking on four feet like the other apes our primate family tree. To understand why humans walk using bipedalism anthropologist
must look into the past. One of the most significant fossil evidence of bipedalism is a fossil named "Lucy". Lucy was found in East Africa. She is an
adult female that stood at about three and a half feet. Lucy is a significant find because she was the most complete fossil. Forty percent of her body
was found, making her the most complete fossil for bipedalism. It is accepted that there is a close relation to the environment for the reason to why there
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There is a statement where the authors state they are not in support of thermoregulation being part of the evolution to bipedalism (Ruxton, &
Wilkinson, 2011). Some anthropologist attempt to explain how hair lost is part thermoregulation and the reason hominins becoming bipedal. Wheeler
believed that thermoregulation causes the lost of body hair. He concluded that haired bipeds where favored in open habitat However, with all of
Wheeler's research the nakedness of the body possibly happened in a forested area and before or around the time organisms started walking on two
limbs, not after. The use of thermoregulation as a base of evolutionary change appears to be invalid according to the aouther. Thermoregulation changed
with bipedality it did not cause it. (do Amaral,
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Characteristics Of Chimpanzees
Chimpanzees, also known as Pan Troglodytes, are an African species of great ape which have a stronger degree of relation to us than to gorillas
(National Geographic, n.d.; Gebo, 2014). They move both on land and in trees, mainly eating and resting above ground. An opposable thumb and four
fingers provide the ability to cling to trees, and the strength for this comes from a variety of muscles such as the deltoid. The can move swiftly on land
due to no tail and a plump body. Quadrupedal locomotion is more likely to be executed on land, due to curvature of the spine, and their knuckles assist
them during this movement (Corporation, 2010; Fleagle, 2013). However, chimpanzees also demonstrate bipedal locomotion when required, for
example, to socialise using hand signals (Corporation, 2010). Whilst moving in trees, they adopt suspensory as well as quadrupedal movement (Fleagle,
2013).
Chimpanzees are cautious of leopards, but otherwise have no predators (Gebo, 2014). Chimpanzees are omnivores, as demonstrated by both Moore et
al., (2017); (Tennie et al., 2014), who found that they fed on meat, such as squirrel sized vertebrates, and Piel et al.,( 2017), who discovered
chimpanzees ate at least 69 species of plant (National Geographic, n.d.). Throughout a day chimpanzees trek long distances, with males travelling
4.9km, whilst females travel 3km (Gebo, 2014). Chimpanzees use a variety of different movements, however the main ones are torso–orthograde
suspensory movement, walking quadrupedally and climbing vertically. The locomotory movements displayed by chimpanzees depended on age;
infants used torso–orthograde suspensory locomotion more than they used quadrupedal walking, compared to juveniles, adolescents and adults.
Quadrupedal walking was used less in juveniles compared to adults and adolescents. Torso–orthograde suspensory movement during infancy decreased
with age, and was replaced by quadrupedal walking (Sarringhaus et al., 2014). This is partly due to the fact that infants travel on their mother's back,
clutching to her fur from birth to 2 years (National Geographic, n.d.). Infants also moved more compared to adults, and showed greater forelimb use,
whereas adults, adolescents and juveniles showed a

Bipedalism : What Is That All About?
Bipedalism: What is that all about?
The issue at hand in these articles is the evidence for the development of bipedalism in hominids. Bipedalism seems to be one of the most important
factors in the evolution of mankind and therefore the surrounding debate is rife with various hypotheses as to the background of this development in
hominid evolutionary history. Although each of the three articles reviewed in this essay make different arguments, each seem to be cogent in their
own way and do seem to complement each other. The first of which is C. Owen Lovejoy 's Human Origins. Much of Lovejoy 's discussion of the
development of bipedalism in hominids seems tangential at best, with lengthy forays into the different patterns of dentition ... Show more content on
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This seems to be the data from which he extrapolates his argument. Sockol et al argue that bipedalism evolved from a need to reduce the cost of
locomotion, in other words It was more efficient and conserved more energy allowing for a higher locomotor economy. Sockel et al also talks about
the involvement of " muscle forces generated to support bodyweight" (Sockol et al 2007) which is the main factor behind the cost of land movement
in the test subjects and therefore in locomotion costs (Sockol et al 2007).
This in turn means that the use of bipedal locomotion in gathering food, or caring for the young is also more efficient and allows for greater
reproductive success. Their argument is based on a study which they conducted which consisted of the training and observation of five Chimpanzees.
In this study pressure pads to calculate the "ground reaction force" (Sockol et al 2007) and high speed cameras were used to monitor the movements
of the Chimpanzees more accurately (Sockol et al 2007). For comparison they also employed four human subjects in their study. In the study by Hunt,
it is argued that the evolution of bipedalism was an adaptation by early hominids used in the gathering of food not only from otherwise hard to reach
arboreal sources but also from "terrestrial" sources as well (Hunt 1996). The use of bipedalism in the gathering of food allowed early hominids and
more modernly, though in

Baby Steps Learning To Walk The Hominid Way Analysis
I read the story whose title is "Baby steps: Learning to Walk, The Hominid Way". This story talks about how and when walking happens to our
ancestors. It also made a discussion about the reason of the occurrence of walking and the connection between walking and natural selection and the
connection between walking and body change. In a word, this story analyzed one of the most important characteristics of human, walking, which plays
a big role in the development of human evolution.
According to the description of this story, we can know that walking with two legs is a rare phenomenon among living things. Four legs are easier
and faster to cover the ground. No exception for our ancestors; they also use four legs to move in trees or to move around on the ground for a super
long period. Walking happens to our ancestors randomly but they did not become upright walkers quickly; there was a ... Show more content on
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However, there are something take place in their body that induces them to walk on two legs. Here we should connect the formation of walking to the
concept of natural selection. Natural connection is defined as the differential survival and reproduction of individuals because of differences in
phenotype. One important thing is that there is no intentional choice in natural selection. In other words, natural selection is a mechanical process
without foresight. This explains what the story tells us: novelties happen randomly. Our ancestors did not go to the ground to decide if it is better to
stand and move around on the ground, they did it just because it is the thing that came naturally first. Selection is one of the processes of
microevolution, which is the change in allele frequencies that takes place within a population. In the story, it talks about a kind of "walking" tool kit.
If it shown up a lot in our ancestors' fossil bones, it means this kind of allele frequency is high and walking is a natural

Cultural Development And Human Development
Evolutionary importance of Culture as a Hominin Adaptation Human beings have reached the epitome of civilization, technological advancement and
coexistence through cultural evolution. They have been able to learn new trades over time that have improved societies and sharpened skills that are
passed down from generation to generation. The abilities that humans utilize to improve their social lives have evolved from the very early times of the
hominids. Cultural behavior grew extensively from the era of the homo habilis and the homo rudolfensis. Hominids recognized the importance of
adaptation and organization as a means of survival. The skills and tools developed did not depend on intelligence but rather improved social
organization. Survival required a coordinated approach where information could be shared amongst hominids with a similar cultural behavior. They
required a means of being able to alter their environments rather than adjusting their bodily functions, which was provided by culture (Bruner 2004).
Culture was able to prove vital to hominin adaptation through gaining ability to plan, territorial organization and development of practices such as
monogamy that facilitated its existence. One way in which cultural importance aided hominids is through isolation from groups with different
behaviors like the Australopithecus and connecting with those that did. The early man had begun associating itself with groups that showed similarity
such as hunting style. Groups

Creation Myths And Its Impact On Society
As human beings, we have our own general understanding of how our world came to be. Whether we are in church, the synagogue, or the temple
humans have established ideologies. Humans use the creation myths to bring about some understanding as to how humans magically or purposely
inhabited the earth. However, even though myths satisfy this yearning for how and why, the scientific world revolted with the idea that creation
myths are no longer satisfactory. In unison paleoanthropologists and archeologists along with many other historians said that we as humans need a
scientific, concrete, and factual basis for our existence. As a result of many years of research and discovery the scientific world came to two
conclusions. Either "Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens in each region of migration (Spodek 16)" most notably known as Candelabra. Or the
"Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens only once– in Africa (Spodek 16)" most notably known as the Noah's Ark model. Through my journey of
understanding both schools of thought I began to rethink the basic sugar coated origins of humanity that teachers spoon feed in high school. Spodek
along with the associate authors shined a little light on the fact that Homo sapiens most likely stemmed directly from Africa and migrated to other
places in the world. Which leads me to my thesis: Homo erectus evolved into Homo sapiens only once in Africa, and then emigrated to the rest of the
world. Even though my thesis aligns with the Noah's Ark

Will the Earliest Hominid Please Standup?: Evoultion...
Will the Earliest Hominid Please Stand Up?
Evolution Exposed Evolution and religion has been a disputable discussion over the decades. Religious believers simply discarded the idea that humans
have came from swinging monkeys. Although it is a scientific theory, it is backed up by the heavy weight of scientific evidence. The first thing that
one might consider is that religion is composed by thousands of individual memes, which supports myths, moralities, and complex ideas or
memeplexes, which will never guarantee its authenticity. One can speculate over the idea of evolution and religious reasoning on how humans came
about, but might only develop shaky synthesis and finally conclude the problem insoluble. Besides, at one time the ... Show more content on
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Today, creationism is once again on the rise, as part of a revival of populism in the United States. Evolution is the change in the inherited characteristic
of biological populations over successive generations (Wikipedia). The most notable theory of evolution was Charles Darwin's speculation about
natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which nature rewards those individuals better adapted to their environments with survival and
reproductive success, defined by Ker Than, a Senior Editor in TechNewsDaily on livescience.com. Darwin published the first edition of "The
Origin of Species" in 1859, in which Darwin theorized how a bear can turn in to a whale by natural selection. "I can see no difficulty in a race of
bears being rendered, by natural selection, more aquatic in their structure and habits, with larger and larger mouths, till a creature was produced as
monstrous as a whale," Darwin speculated (Than). Over one hundred fifty years after Darwin's theory has been published, the evolution theory is still
highly controversial. The idea didn't go well with the public, Darwin was so embarrassed by the ridicule he received that the swimming–bear passage
was removed from later editions of the book (Than). Darwin's views brought him into fierce conflicts with others who continue to maintain that the
account of divine creation contacted within the Bible was correct. According to Than, Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is one of

Hominids
What evidence did you find that indicates relatedness between early and modern hominids? Our evidence of the relatedness between early and
modern hominids is the we have the same head features such as molars, canines, protrusion of the lower face, and the same orientation of where the
spine connects with the skull. The size of the these features range in size, for example the A. africanus lower jew had 2 molars that were 2 cm, each
one about 1 cm in size. Our Homo sapien skull had 3 molars (meaning it had a wisdom tooth) and measure of 3 cm, again each one being around 1
cm. All of the skulls had a protruding lower face and even through all of the skulls have the spines connect in the bottom centre of the skull, but they
still varying degrees... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Gorillas use canines for protection with in turns is used for attracting a mate, bigger canines means female gorillas are more likely to notice and think
that they can protect their future family. Likewise, hominids (humans at least) search for the same traits in their mating, but not just on their teeth.
Why do you think the face flattens over time in hominids? The faces of hominids flatten out because their brow ridge and canine teeth got smaller
and cranium got bigger. The Neanderthals have the largest brain case and was 55 cm, Homo sapiens the second largest with 48.5 cm and the flattest
face. The A. africanus was the most protruding face with 129В° and the brain case was 40 cm. How does the position of the foramen magnum relate to
the body posture and movement pattern of the animal? If hominid craniums connected to the spine through the back of the skull instead of the bottom
then they would not be able to walk up straight. Animals, such as dogs and horses, have to walk on all–fours because their skulls connect through the
back How would you explain the adaptive differences seen between these skulls on the basis of what you know about DNA, proteins and

Analysis Of The Article ' Why Hominids And Space Go...
Manned spaceflight is a crucial argument in society. Two writers, Seth Shostak and John Logsdon, both believe that America is making a mistake
by ending manned space exploration. Seth Shostak is the author of the article "Why Hominids and Space Go Together" in The New York Times
Room for Debate; his article is about how President Obama's new vision for the NASA program is not a good plan. John Logsdon also wrote an article
for The New York Times Room for Debate called "American Patrimony." His article is more focused on how it will be a loss of patriotism to end
manned spaceflight in the United States. Both Shostak and Logsdon agree that manned space travel should continue, but Shostak's rhetoric is more
effective because his argument is well organized and credible, he ties in his readers' emotions efficiently, and he logically explains his beliefs.
In Shostak's article he portrays himself as a credible source, which makes his ethos appeal successful. Shostak makes many attempts to make his article
trustworthy, some of which actually diminish his ethos. One way the writer seeks to obtain credibility is through the structure of the article. He
arranged his piece in a very organized way that states the points thoroughly and with confidence, which portrays him as a knowledgeable source.
Another way he gains credibility is through the language and dialect he incorporates. He includes words such as "autonomous rovers" and
"anachronism" which indicates his piece is aimed at an

The History of Hominid Evolution Essay
What evidence shows the changing from the early hominids to the modern humans? Throughout the human evolution body parts like legs and harms
have changed for the better. By the early hominids being biped, meaning they are able to stand and even walk on two feet, it helped them to be able to
do more things like getting around more and help with their tool making and hunting. A lot of the fossils discovered were found in the Great Rift
Valley in East Africa, which contained many different lakes and small rivers. For many years researchers have been finding new species. These species
have been named Australopithicus, robust australopithecines , Orrorin tugenensis, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, neanderthal, and Homo sapiens. These
early ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Orrorin tugenensis was found with thigh bones. And the Orrorin tugenensis had small teeth like the Australopithicus. The robust
australopithecines or paranthropines had a curved face with a arch for the cheek bones that are formed by connecting the zygomatic and the temporal
bones together. The robust australopithecines had a bone ridge on top of their skull called a sagittal crest, which is also attached to the jaw muscles.
They had a flexable base just above were their jaw bone connected to their cheek bone. With their really large back teeth (below the cheek bone) the
robust australopithecines fossils were known to the researchers as the "nutcracker man". They used these really large back teeth to eat tough foods and
nuts. And their teeth in the front were smaller. The Homo habilis was known as "the skilledhuman or handy man" (Standford 273). They got this name
because they made tools. Homo habilis have a brain size of aproxamiltly 509 cc to aproximitly 775 cc. They also have a encephalization quotient
(EQ) of about 2.73 to 3.38. Homo erectus was first found in Africa and the fossilized remains dated 1.8 and 1.0 million years old. The Homo erectus
traits are very similar toward the modern human traits. Homo erectus brain size was smaller than the Homo sapiens. Homo erectus had a brain size of
approximately 650 cc and Homo sapiens had a brain size of approximately 1251

Human Evolution Is The Process Of Change By Which People...
Hominid Skull Evolution Sharmili Lakshmanan Bio 1107
Introduction: Human evolution is the process of change by which people originate from apelike ancestor. Behavior traits and scientific evidence show
that people are originate from apelike ancestor. Humans first evolved in Africa, and much ofhuman evolution occurred on that continent. The process
of evolution involves a series of natural changes that cause species to arise, adapt to the environment, and become extinct. All African early
hominids–small australopithecines as well as the very tall Homo erectus have absolute body breadths within the modern human tropical–subtropical
range; variations in relative body linearity is due almost entirely to variations in stature (Ruff, 1991).All species have originated through the process of
biological evolution. Scientists classify each species with a scientific name. For modern humans, they are classified as Homo sapiens. Physical and
genetic similarities show that the modern human species, Homo sapiens, has a very close relationship with the apes. The one early hominid to show a
significant departure from this adaptive pattern toward later hominids–cranially, dentally, and postcranially–is H. habilis from East Africa ( Pilbeam et
gould , 1974). The early hominids heads were significantly different from modern human. Modern human has larger brain size than the early hominids.
Early hominids had

Stone Age Hominids Research Paper
The lifestyle of early humans in the Stone Age was different from human life now. The Stone Age hominids were very spiritualistic and practiced
animism, a belief system that states that everything has its own spirt including people, animals and all of nature. They believed that these spirits
affected the world and events. Certain individuals who were thought to have magical powers were called shamans or witchdoctors. They were
respected and feared by others due to their supposed power and control over events and the community. Because of these beliefs, they practiced war
dances, rain dances, hunting dances and other rituals to control the environment. Later they began to worship deities and practiced other religious
rituals, such as sacrificing to the gods. The... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They also used ochre in a purely decorative way. The iron ore makes a fine paint that can be easily used to paint walls or people with sometimes
abstract designs. The art represents the human transition to abstract thinking. It also implies the use of oral language because making and
understanding such art would be impossible without it. Previously scientists thought that oral language was only 30,000 years old but the art in the
cave was about 75,000 years old.
The hominids lived in small social groups that consisted of family units and kinship ties. Eventually neighboring groups combined and created band
and tribes. The group members worked together to hunt and forage what they needed from the natural environment. They hunted for birds and other
animals such as mammoths, bison, deer and rodents. They gathered roots and berries from the trees and bushes in the area. When the land's resources
were drained, the tribes moved on to a new area. Some of the tribes were self sufficient but others traded goods, people, and ideas. They also
developed cheese making during the Stone Age. It was critical to early agricultural society to be able to use

Homo Erectus Essay
Homo erectus, the "upright man", was one of the first human ancestors to posses human like body proportions. This hominid had long legs and shorter
arms, suggesting that this hominid was our first ancestor with the ability to run like Homo sapiens can today (Smithsonian). While it is clear that
Homo erectus is one of the earliest human ancestors to posses similar human features, it is unclear and a controversial topic to classify this early
hominid. One reason for this is that "...the cranium (skull minus lower jaw)–e.g., large teeth, sagittal keels (narrow areas of thickened bone extending
from just behind the brows to the back of the skull) and massiveness of the neurocranium (the part of the skull that covers and protects the brain) and
face–are found only in Asian H. erectus fossils" (Dorey). Some scientists assert skeletons found in Asia look very different from the skeletons found in
Africa, and therefore the Asian skeletons are an entirely different species than the African ones. Other scientists however assert that there is limited
variance between the Asian and AfricanHomo erectus forms. Turner and Chamberlain assert that the Asian and African fossils have to belong to one
species (Nowaczewska, 32). They make the argument that this variation is seen across many different hominids across a species, and therefore despite
the variation, they are the same species. Humans for example, have a large variance between us but we all classify ourselves as Homo sapiens.

The Hominid During The Paleolithic And Neolithic Ages
The earliest organisms that are related to humans is a hominid, a humanlike creature that walked upright. These creatures lived in eastern and southern
Africa. Father down the line, society started to develop within the hominids. These ages are called the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Age. The humans in
these periods started to make a name for themselves, developed new technology, and created civilizations. During the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages,
many changes occurred that affected the way people lived. During the Paleolithic Age, language was birthed, establishing the first historical
backgrounds of modern man. Paleolithic people also developed art, giving background for their culture at the time, also letting us learn more about the
way they controlled and developed their societies. Their culture also started to be more gender orientated, having the men hunt, create weaponry and
tools, and fighting other nomadic bands, while women would gather, make clothing, and bare children.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although only a few Paleolithic societies started to use agriculture rather than hunting/gathering, it lead to a huge shift in society, economy, and
technology. Man was able to start raising large herds of sheep and goats, and crops such as wheat and barley. As more nomadic bands started to settle
down with agriculture rather than continuing hunting and gathering, an economic system was created. Although most of the societies were
self–sustaining, trading emerged with objects like stones and shells. The Fertile Crescent, an area of land in Mesopotamia led to the development of
this systematic agriculture due to the plentiful amount of natural resources in the

Biological Evolution
In the Origins of Society By Natural Selection (2008), Turner and Maryanski provide us with a unique survey of societal change throughout history,
through connecting the biological and anatomical changes of early Hominoids to modern humans, and how these changes had played an important role
in shaping the survival rate, success, and patterns of social change throughout history. They starte by highlighting in the first two chapters these
biological changes and how they became an important part of the success story of the human race, through allowing hominoids to develop language and
strong ties. In the chapters that followed, they examine each of the societal types, starting with hunters and gatherers, horticultural, agrarian, and finally
industrial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They continue the argument in favor of the importance of strong ties in helping hominids into organizing into hordes. In fact, the early hominids
who didn't establish strong ties and who ventured to the savanna eventually went extinct. It was the development of strong ties between mothers and
children, as well as, weak and strong ties among members within the horde, that allowed the group to be more cohesive and formidable to
predators, and that's what was a crucial element that allowed early homo to survive the savanna compared to other groups who lacked these ties and
networks. However, even with these changes, weak ties were still a main hindering factor for the survival of the early hominids. Apes in the forest
and hominids in the savanna were still showing the effect of weak ties in their reactions to danger and predators. The only hominids that survived to
be included in the fossil record were the ones who lived on the edge of the savannas, because they had the ability to develop these strong ties, while
remaining ape like at their biological

Origin And Development Of Hunting
"Origin and Development of Hunting in Humans" Everyday humans around the world consume meat for nutritional value and; though it is out of
mind, survival. When we plan to acquire meat today it is typically purchased from a store where it had been processed and packaged. However the
process of acquiring this valuable protein was not always so simple. It has been proposed since the time of Darwin and his theory of Evolution that it
was our initial conversion into omnivores who both hunted and gathered that gave us the extra nutrients to further develop as an intelligent race. Not
only did meat help enlarge brain size but it has been argued to shape our morphology which further aided in hunting and survival on the savannah rather
than in trees. Darwin's evolutionary studies have remained unchallenged until recently. Darwin specified hominization began when our ancestors
abandoned the trees, embraced an upright bipedal gait, and began using their free hands to create and use tools. Tools became vital for the purpose of
hunting and carcass processing. Darwin explained that meat, obtained through hunting, became the most stimulating component in hominid adaptation
to savannas. Triggering a progressive increase in brain size, meat subsequently led to increased intelligence. Another element surrounding this theory of
evolution suggests men are superior in mental endowment to women. Hunting being primarily a male activity and gathering primarily for females its
possible gender

Morphology: Hominins
Morphology: Discovered in 1974 by paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson, A. afarensis was an early bipedal species of hominin that possessed
several features similar to both apes and humans. The discovery was made while driving back to camp when Donald spotted a right proximal ulna
(forearm) and identified it to belong to a hominid. Within minutes of excavation, he discovered the skull, several ribs, a femur, pelvis, lower jaw and
several other fragmented bones. Roughly 40% of the total skeleton was recovered in total. The specimen was named lucy after the popular song by
the beatles "Lucy in the sky with diamonds" as it was one of the few tapes Donald and his crew had brought to listen to. This species has been derived
to be both comfortable ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With smaller brain size came less complex development and thus shorter periods of brain development. The lifespan of these hominids was
projected to be much shorter than our own owing to several factors apart from centralized medicine and uncomfortable living conditions. Lucy, the
first discovered A. afarensis, died around age 12. While she was a fully grown adult at this point due to a difference in maturity rate, that is still
comparably young. Other members of this species were found to have comparably early ages of death to humans while still older than Lucy. Age of
death can be determined by examining the third molars to see if they have erupted yet. The ends of her bones and cranial sutures (expansion joints)
had all sealed up as well, indicating full

Hominid's Development of Bipedalism Essay
Hominid's Development of Bipedalism
Approximately 4 million years ago a wonderful evolutionary phenomenon was happening in Africa. Early hominids, man's ancestors, were beginning a
giant leap in their evolution. These hominids were moving out of the forest and beginning to walk upright, out on the open plains (Fagan, 98). This
change from quadrupedalism was the most significant adaptation that ever happened to these early hominids. It caused many adaptations that make
man what he is today. This process occurred in early hominids for many different reasons, each reason helping to perfect the upright walking posture.
Bipedalism is thought to have occurred because of changes in environment, feeding habits, thermal regulation, and ... Show more content on
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They usually balance themselves on branches or on the ground and hold on to higher limbs in an arm like fashion (Leney, 00). In later years this
adaptation evolved to australopithecines who were still arboreal bipedal fruit gatherers. Only when they started to become terrestrial creatures did
they adapt to be fully bipedal (Jacobs, 90). Another cause for the move to bipedalism was suggested by Wheeler in 1991 and it referred to thermal
regulation (Jacobs, 90). This theory stated that bipedalism resolved thermal stress on hominids in open equatorial environments and allowed
hominids to remain active in the open during the day (Leney, 00). Having bipedal qualities makes the body higher off the ground where cooler
temperatures and higher winds are present. This greater amount of wind created less need for sweating to cause evaporation; thus vital body fluid
was conserved. Also, direct solar exposure was minimized because the surface area receiving solar rays was less (Jacobs, 90). In 1981 Owen Lovejoy
suggested that behavioral mechanisms were a factor in the switch to bipedalism. This behavioral mechanism helped hominids in reproductive
processes. Having the hands free to carry food and other things to the mate and offspring is seen to be a strong selection factor for choosing a mate.
Having a such factor helps with reproductive success in a monogamous mating structure similar to what humans have today (Jacobs, 90). When

Advantages Of Bipedalism
A significantly enlarged brain size is one of the main features distinguishing modern humans from other hominids. Humans are unrivalled in both their
cognitive and linguistic capabilities, and since an expanded brain appears to be correlated with intelligence (Darwin, 1871), it is not surprising that the
evolution of modern humans was believed to be the result of increased brain size and complexity. However, the fossil evidence has revealed that an
increased brain size evolved only after the evolution of bipedalism early in the human lineage (Alexander et al., 1986; Ashby et al., 2010). Therefore,
there has been a shift from human evolution being believed to be brain–led to an increased focus on bipedalism as the main cause of an enlarged brain
and the subsequent cognitive and linguistic advancements characteristic of modern humans (Jerison, 1973; Dunbar, 1996). Modern humans engage in
behaviours that are extremely unique, such as language, art and music, all of which are the result of the superior capabilities in the realms of cognition
and linguistics (Sherwood et al., 2008). Humans are not only able to recognize, manipulate and form symbols into working sentences, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Bone and joint disorders such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis are associated with bipedalism (Cotter et al., 2011; Pennisi, 2012). Disorders of the
feet and spine are also common, including scoliosis (Gorman and Breden, 2009), Scheurmann kyphosis (Farrell et al., 2012) and other claudications in
the lower extremities (Smith, 1990). Lower back pain is also a common problem associated with lordosis of the lumbar spine due to bipedalism
(Wagner et al., 2012). Other anatomical changes such as the shortening of the palate have also resulted in problems associated with palatal muscles
(Nishimura et al.,

Sequencing Data and Gene Flow on Early Hominids
Sequencing data suggests that there has been some form of gene flow between Neandertals and their sister lineage, Denisovans, which resulted in
modern humans. It is estimated that one to three percent of a non–African human's genome has been inherited from Neandertals, with coalescent
models suggesting that 35 to 70 percent of the Neandertal genome is present in the DNA of modern humans.
In this study, the authors sought to reveal surviving lineages that potentially arose from a number of ancient predecessors by identifying the Neandertal
sequences present in the DNA of modern humans. The authors hypothesised that introgressed sequences – whereby the genes from the gene pool of one
species are introduced into that of another during the process of hybridisation – vary between individuals. Consequently, the authors predicted that by
analysing the DNA sequence of contemporary humans, a significant portion of the Neandertal genome could be retrieved. A computation model was
used to identify those Neandertal sequences that are present in the DNA of modern humans. Whole genome sequences of 379 European and 286 East
Asian individuals were obtained to ascertain Neandertal lineages that are present in the DNA of modern humans. This approach made use of the
previously developed statistic, S*. This statistic is calculated without using the Neandertal genome as a reference. Therefore, this statistic can be used
without an ancient reference sequence, revealing huge potential for

Ardipithecus Ramidus Kadabba: The Oldest Hominid Essay...
Ardipithecus Ramidus Kadabba: The Oldest Hominid
There was a chief new discovery of fossil bones and teeth belonging to the earliest human ancestors ever discovered. The fossil bones predate the
oldest formerly discovered human ancestor by more than a million years. The discovery was of fossil remains of a hominid that lived in present day
Ethiopia between 5.2 and 9.8 million years ago. (Hominids include all species following the split as of the chimpanzees on the "human" side of the
evolutionary tree.) "Analyses of the hominid indicate that they belonged to a previously unidentified species, which anthropologist Yohannes
Haile–Selassie of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History and his colleagues are calling ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Giday WoldeGabriel, a geologist with Los Alamos National Laboratory, and his colleagues, described the hominid's environment in Africa. The
creature lived during the Miocene era approximately 5 to 6 million years ago. Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba lived in a forested environment. The
surroundings that he lived in were much different then the present are today; which include harsh deserts. When the hominids were living there the
area was much cooler and more wet, also about 1,500 feet higher in elevation. Based on a toe bone discovered among other fossils belonging to this
new hominid, it has been determined by Haile–Selassie that "Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba almost certainly walked on two legs when on the ground.
The creature's teeth share more characteristics with all later discovered hominids than with the teeth of all fossils and modern apes" (Rickman 2001).
Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba ate a smaller amount of fruit and more soft leaves than prior chimpanzees, according to the fossils of the hominids
relatively large back teeth and narrow front teeth. Finding Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba was a remarkable challenge. The present day Middle Awash
area where the hominid was found is now covered with lakes, forest areas, volcanic rocks and sediments. Only one percent of the Middle Awash
contains exposed ancient–sediments that contain mammal fossils. "The new

Evolution Of Early And Modern Hominins Essay
Evolution is a process in which living organisms develop across a period of time (Bourrat, 2014). It also shows how one species is genetically linked
to another or how it has common attributes to other organisms (Bourrat, 2014). Throughout their course of life each species will go through a process
known as natural selection. Natural selection serves as an ability to pass on better genes on to the offspring in order to maintain an increasingly higher
genetic code (Bourrat, 2014). Evolution in most species occurs when the organism adapts to a constantly changing environment (Bourrat, 2014). This
increases not only their chances of surviving, but also their ability to reproduce (Bourrat, 2014). Throughout the constant change of hominin species it
has been said that humans evolved from apes. Although, humans may not be genetically linked to apes they do share some common characteristics
which is bipedal locomotion (Bourrat, 2014). Furthermore, this research paper will discuss all the different ideas that helped identify the evolution of
early and modern hominins, and how the origins of bipedalism came to be. Bipedal locomotion is the ability to walk upright by using only two legs
(Richmond & Jungers, 2008). Bipedalism is known to occur in mostly hominins (Richmond & Jungers, 2008). Bipedalism is the connection that binds
the idea that humans are related to apes since both species have the shared ability of bipedal locomotion (Richmond & Jungers, 2008). There are many

Documentary Argument
Documentary Arguments
The Mysterious Origins of Man are a documentary filmed in 1996. The documentary argued that mankind has lived on the Earth for tens of millions of
years, and that mainstream scientists have suppressed the fossil evidence for this. Some material included was based on the controversial Forbidden
Archeology, a book written by Hindu creationists Michael Cremo and Richard L. Thompson about abnormal archeological finds reported mainly in
early scientific journals. It also included interviews with people of different views to fortify their argument such as, creationist Carl Baugh on the
Paluxy tracks controversy; Richard Milton, author of Shattering the Myths of Darwinism, on Lucy (oldest skeleton of an upright humanoid discovered);
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Historians were discussing how they did not believe humans evolved from apes, but we do share DNA with them. A journalist later appeared to give a
testimony, she stated she gained access to Area 51, where government officials handed her a top–secret document (which she was prohibited from
taking a record of). This documented claimed to state that the United States is aware of the existence of extra–terrestrial life, and of Earth encounters
with Extra Terrestrials. Additionally, the document claims that these Aliens are the origin of humans, that Humans were formed by aliens combing
various ape DNA. This supposedly explains human–alien abduction cases, possibly collecting more DNA to make the next hominid species. This
proposition was extremely weak due to the lack of solid evidence. Using the concept of Occam's Razor in order to believe that Aliens created Humans,
one must make plenty of assumptions that they mixed ape DNA, and that this is why we have "alien" abductions involving humans, also that they
made past hominid species and are making more in the future after us. Evolution explains this in one easy theory, which makes evolution more
believable. This argument displays a Divine Fallacy towards the origins of humanity. The documentary and its associates struggled to answer how did
humans begin to be, as would anyone. A divine fallacy is arguing

Bipedalism Hypothesis
Many consider our first steps our first milestones. It is one of the most important developments for an individual. It was also the beginning of our
development as a species. Bipedalism is the ability to walk on two rear limbs or legs. Charles Darwin believed that bipedalism was an evolution by
natural selection. (Freidman 2006) However, fossil records do not provide enough information about the origin of bipedalism. There are many other
theories on how our ancestors went from being quadrupeds to bipeds. One theory is the postural feeding hypothesis by Kevin D. Hunt in his article
"The Postural feeding hypothesis: an ecological model for the evolution of bipedalism". Owen C. Lovejoy created the provisioning hypothesis which
can be found in his article "The Origin of Man". Gordon W. Hewes has a similar hypothesis to... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hunts based his postural feeding hypothesis off chimpanzee ecology and Australopithecus morphology. Hunt discusses how chimpanzees are often
most bipedal when eating small fruits on open forest trees. Hunt states that chimps get these fruits by either balancing on branches in a semi–hanging
arm posture and reaching for them or reaching for the fruit with their arms while their feet are on the ground. (Hunt 1996) The reason for Hunts
bringing this up is because chimpanzees are our closest living relatives. Also, Australopithecus had both ape like andhuman like features. Hunts makes
an in–depth comparison of chimpanzee postures to early hominid while gathering food to support his hypothesis of bipedalism. Hunts states that
postures such as hanging of the arms and vertically climbing on trees are what created the adaption of bipedalism. (Hunts 1996) While early hominids
gathered fruit, they developed the torso structure and their changes to arm hanging also increased and developed. (Hunts 1996) Hunts goes on to say
that early hominids developed arboreal bipedal from fruit gathering which evolved over time into what we know as bipedalism

Phylogenetic Tree C
In an attempt to find a correct phylogenetic tree, our group has found that Phylogenetic tree C shows a significant lineage. After researching,
Phylogenetic Tree C seems to be an accurate depiction of hominid evolution. It shows a clear line of lineage that begins with the common ancestor A.
Afarensis. To explain how the hominids connected in the lineage, our group decided to compare the skulls' cranium width and length of braincase. We
concluded that over millions of years, the width of the cranium of the hominids have increased, along with the length of braincases. Our explanation
matched up with tree C respectively. The order of the width of craniums recorded are: A. Afarensis (80 mm), A. Boisei (80 mm), A. Africanus (85
mm), H. Habilis (98 mm), H. Erectus (108 mm), H. Heidelbergensis (122 mm), H. Neanderthalensis (128 mm), and H. Sapien... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Heidelbergensis, H. Neanderthalensis, H. Sapien Sapien. The width of their craniums are all in a range of 6 mm while the cranium of both H.
Neanderthalensis and H. Sapien Sapien are both 180mm. This portrays that the hominids shown were close in generations and are directly connected
in the lineage. No gaps are shown in the measurements indicating a difference in generations. The lineage represents the growth of the craniums
caused by random mutations, spanning millions of years. Our evidence depicts that the closest ancestor to humans are H. Sapien Sapien, the most
recent hominid that has been the last of its species. Also, in the connection between H. Habilis and H. Erectus, a minor gap is seen between the
cranium width and the length of braincase. The H. Habilis' width of cranium is 98 mm while H. Erectus' is 108mm. The length of the braincase of H.
Habilis; is 115 mm while H. Erectus' is 175 mm. The hominids are still seen as subsequent generations, but the generation gap depicts that the mutation
in skull volume was

Essay On The Discovery Of Hominid Fossils Deep In A Cave...
In September of 2015, National Geographic published an article detailing the amazing (and lucky) 2013 discovery of hominid fossils deep in a cave
in South Africa. The supervising paleoanthropologist, Lee Berger, had assembled a team of slender but scientifically trained caving enthusiasts to
extract fossils from deep within the Dinaledi chamber of the Rising Star cave system (about 30 miles northwest of Johannesburg). The fossils were
located on the surface of the Dinaledi chamber, about 100 yards from the cave's entrance, in a cavern only accessible through a narrow chute. What
Berger's team found was truly remarkable – nearly 1500 hominid bone specimens including teeth, skulls, ribs, jaws, a nearly complete foot and a hand
with nearly... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lee Berger concludes that the Homo naledi bodies were deliberately placed there, by other Homo naledi, but only because all other explanations were
discarded as improbable. Other researchers have subsequently weighed in on these questions and this paper will focus on those opinions. Discussion
Lee Berger determined that this new hominid belonged in the Homo genus, but believed it to be an animal positioned in the
Australopithecus–toward–Homo transition timeframe. When Berger announced the Homo naledi find, it was thought that these fossils could be
900,000 to 1.8 million years old. Recent measurement of the radioactive

Extent Primate Analysis
1.Introduction:
Extent Primates provide great insight as analogies into facilitating an understanding of how tool use, culture and cognition developed in the early
hominid lineage. Archaeologists interpret primate behaviors and social structures as a means of investigating the evolution of hominin technology.
This process will be briefly outlined as well as a number of the benefits and disadvantages presented when using extant primates as analogies in this
way.
An analogy creates a comparison between two subjects through likening and contrasting aspects about them. Thus looking into extant primate tool
usage, one can gain insight into possible early hominin tool usage. This, as they can provide, to a certain extent, a living interpretation ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Chimps for example, have similar hands to humans, however, when using a hammer stone, they frequently use a power grip where all fingers are used
to control nut–cracking (Wong, 2004). Here, their finger proportions inhibit easy coordination between the index finger and thumb (Wong, 2004). This
is significantly different to that of hominids who have hands and thumbs which are very effective and allow for precise knapping and control over
hammer stones. This illustrates that their differences in physical characteristics lead to distinctly different behaviors that cannot be considered the

Neanderthal Parallax, Hominids, by Robert J. Sawyer
The human race has achieved many impossible feats. We have landed on the moon, illuminated the world with the electric light, and cured illnesses
that used kill thousands. In a world where we look to technology to answer all of life's problems, we are faced with a dilemma. How can our
technology possibly keep up with our modern needs? In the first book of the Neanderthal Parallax, Hominids, by Robert J. Sawyer, we are transported
into a parallel universe. In this unpolluted world that is populated by Neanderthals, there is a sophisticated computing system, we know as a quantum
computer. As of 2014, quantum computers are still in their infancy, and have been prophesied since the early 1990s. However, work on building a
quantum computer, and creating algorithms compatible with one, began around the turn of the century. As one of only seven sci–fi writers in the
world, and the only Canadian, who has won all three of the top international awards for science fiction, he is known for the amount of research and
probable vision intertwined into the technology in his books.
A quantum computer is a sophisticated computer device that can actually calculate the use of quantum–mechanical phenomena, to perform operations
on data. Basically, it's one of the few devices that can calculate the quantum theory. Quantum theory is also classified asquantum mechanics, which is a
branch of physics that deals with physical phenomena inside of particles at nanoscopic scales (Wilczek). It

Hominid Evolution Essay
There has been many scientific research and development done in order to find more about the modern human's ancestors. Hominid evolution is a
lengthy process of change occurring million years ago. Modern humans, Homo sapiens, are the only surviving species of the genus Homo. Three
ancestors that share close relationships and characteristics with Homo sapiens are Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo Neanderthalensis. These
three ancestors are important to know about because they show how humans have become the way they are. Humans first began to evolve in Africa,
specifically in Ethiopia where scientists searched for fossils of early humans. The genus Homo began developing shortly after Australopithecus
afarensis. Scientists found Lucy; a fossil... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is believed that they once coexisted before the Neanderthals disappeared 40 000 years ago. Brains were continuing to develop and the first industrial
process was recognized. This process called, pitch extraction, and was attributed to the Neanderthals. Their brains were definitely showing similarities,
but scientists wanted to find out more. DNA was isolated from the leg and scientists began processing the genome sequence, which took four years.
From this, it was discovered that Neanderthals share the language gene, Fox P2, with modern humans. Both species of DNA was compared and
scientists found that one to four percent of Neanderthal DNA is present in modern humans. This suggests that early Neanderthals must have mated with
humans in order to produce fertile offspring. It was also shown that Europeans and Asians are more closely related to Neanderthals than Africans;
supporting the Out–of–Africa theory. The significance of the female Neanderthal bones found in the cave in the Spain is that Neanderthals may have
had complex beliefs and this may have showed their burial rituals. Neanderthal DNA gives modern humans a stronger ability to fight off diseases and
immune

Bipedal Locomotion in Early Hominids Essay
Bipedal Locomotion in Early Hominids
Until recently, the oldest fossil species to provide evidence for bipedalism was Australopithecus afarensis, of which the best example of is the 3.2
million year old skeleton called Lucy found in Hadar, Ethiopia. According to article 19: Sunset at the Savanna, in 1995 Meave Leakey of the national
Museums of Kenya and her colleagues made public the discovery of and older hominid species Australopithecus anamensis (getting its name from the
Turkana word for lake "anam" having been found near lake Turkana and the site of another ancient lake). Leakey's team found a tibia from this
creature that is quite human like and emphatically bipedal, "in size and practically all details of the knee and ankle ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
We learned in lab last week that the pelvis has features that indicate the mode of locomotion. A bipedal creature will have an ilium that is short and
wide. The leg bones will give clues too. A bipedal creature has knees that point more directly forward than a quadrapedal creature (this is why apes
look very awkward when they walk bipedally, their legs kick out to the side when they step forward.) Another skeletal feature that indicatesbipedalism
is a special design of the anklebones so that they would be able to take the weight of a bipedal stride. The knee bone of a bipedal hominid has a
special feature too. It has extra spongy bone tissue that acts as a shock absorber when walking. One feature mentioned in article 20 is a oval hollow at
the bottom of the humerus where the humerus and the ulna lock in place. This is an adaptation to knuckle walking and is not present in bipedal
hominids.
Many theories have been made about what type of paleoecology or paleoecological changes were the niche for bipedalism. It must have been a
strong force since bipedaliam is generally slower and more awkward than quadrapedal locomotion. It also puts the animal at a greater risk of injury,
according to Owen Lovejoy of Kent State. The current most widely accepted theory is that there was a continent wide drying up of Africa starting
around 5mya. This caused shrinkage of the large forests to

Who Is Lucy Hominid
Lucy is the nickname given to "the world's most famous human ancestor." (National Geographic News) Lucy was found on November 24, 1974 in
Hardar, Ethiopia by paleontologists Tom Gray and Donald Johanson. While Lucy may not be the earliest human ancestor she is the first
Australopithecus afarensis skeleton found, with her remains being 3.2 million years old.
Lucy's nickname was inspired by the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. While it is unsure who exactly gave this 3.2 million year old
skeleton the nickname Lucy, it stuck and the skeleton has been referred to as Lucy ever since. Lucy has been identified as a hominid because she
walked upright, which is one of the foremost characteristics of the zoological family Hominidae. Hominidae

Out Of Africa Theory
The "Out of Africa" theory asserts that modern humans evolved from early Homo in Africa and then spread throughout the world to regions such as
Asia and Europe. According to this theory, the early Homo ancestors interbreed with other hominids living at the time and acquired characteristics that
afforded them an evolutionary advantage that led to increased survival, later known as natural selection and variation. Homo led to the extinction of
other hominids that coexisted with them (Laland, Odling–Smee and Myles, 2010). Evidence for the "Out of Africa" model comes primarily from
genetic studies of early hominid and human populations since the fossil record does not contain extensive evidence before the advent of agriculture due
to most early materials being highly decomposable. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They conducted a study on accelerated base pair changes, non–coding sequences and changes in amino acids of the macaque species and found that
deletions of deleterious or extraneous genetic material occurred in Homo that did not occur in other primates and early hominids. Their research finds
that 37,251 sequences that are present in ancient primates were deleted from the human genome. Such deletions are conserved in existing primates and
could have therefore been instrumental to the subsequent evolution of genotypic and phenotypic traits that are specific to humans. McLean et al. (2011)
also points out that such deletions and alterations could have had regulatory utility since they increased the viability of subsequent emergent species
without having an undesirable

The Characteristics Of Bipedalism In Humans
Bipedalism, a locomotion that consist of the two lower limbs to move. This can be found in many animals, but it is considered more "optional" than
"mandatory" as a way to transport. Some use it as a defense mechanism. In humans, it is one of the special characteristics that is used to differentiate the
human species from the rest of the Hominidae family. Only humans have "mandatory" bipedalism. Other characteristics include massive brain size
and the ability to make and use tools (Lovejoy,1988). It was discussed that because of going from quadrupedal to bipedal it cause many
advancements such as brain development. Bipedalism was the biggest evolutionary change for the human ancestors. Nobody really knows the
origins of bipedalism, but there are some theories that might explain it. It can be the freeing of hands to use tools or to hold and carry resources or
offspring. It can be change of habitat from woodland to plain or use of defense mechanism to look beyond the plains for predators at further distance.
It can also be energy efficient and to run longer more easier compare to quadrupedalism. Bipedalism gave many advantages with the change of human
body, mainly the skeletal structure, but is it possible that some of these changes have tradeoffs? Some scientists believe that certain illnesses, injuries,
and health complication are the results of the change of skeletal structure to become bipedal. There are disadvantages for bipedalism and it can differ
between male and

Why Do Primates Free Their Hands? How Is Walking Upright...
Walking upright with two legs is a common daily phenomenon, however, the ability of moving with only two legs is the result of millions of years of
evolution and adaptation. During the process of human evolution, the appearance of bipedalism, which describes the terrestrial locomotion where
animals move with their rear limbs in the form of walking, hopping or running, is considered as one of the major steps that sets Hominin group apart
from other primates. Even though the transition from quadrupedalism to bipedalism has major drawbacks that sacrifice the flexibility and prevent
bipeds to effectively practice arboreal locomotion, it provides a new form of locomotion and frees both hands to be capable of completing other
projects while ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another explanation of bipedalism is that walking upright reduce the energy consumption. Michael Sokol, a professor from University of California,
Davis, David Raichlen, a professor from University of Arizona, Tucson, and Herman Pontzer, a professor from Washington University, St. Louis,
conduct an experiment that examines the energy consumption level for both humans and adult chimpanzees. Their studies suggest that "early
transitional forms would have reaped some energy savings with minor increases in hip extension and leg length." According the research, they also
conclude that energetics is an important factor in the evolution of bipedalism and the improved efficiency of locomotion " may accrued very early
within the hominin lineage."
Methods
As Lovejoy indicates that males need their hands to carry food for their partners and offsprings, so that bipedalism starts to appear. This hypothesis is
hard to prove, however, logically speaking, carrying highly energy–rich food such as nuts or fruits is beneficial to the group and community. A study
conducted in West Africa suggests that early hominids walk upright to carry resources away from other competitors. Researchers provide piles of oil
palm and nuts to 11 chimpanzees, who prefer the nuts. According to the research, the chimps are four times more likely to walk upright with two legs,
so that they are able to

H. Erectus Essay
It is agreed that the hominid lineage originated in Africa and then dispersed from the continent, but there is still debate as to when this event occurred.
There have been several fossil findings in parts of Asia that have been analysed and used to date when the hominid lineage left Africa and travelled into
the Asian continent. Some of the most important discoveries have been made in several different locations in Indonesia and China. It is believed that
the first hominids to migrate from Africa belonged to Homo ergaster/erectus. "Paleoanthropologists are spilt on the taxonomic status of H. ergaster
and H. erectus. Some researchers consider these two forms to be regional variants of a single species (H. erectus), whereas others consider ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ancestors of H.ergaster/erectus were restricted to Africa and because of this paleontologist considered the notion that H. erectus evolved in Africa
and then moved into Asia. However discoveries of fossils at Longgupo cave in central China have provided evidence that H. erectus may have
evolved in Asia from earlier migrants (Freeman and Herron 2007). The fossils at Longgupo cave are similar to H. habilis and H. ergaster, both of
which originated in Africa. The findings are significant in that they provide evidence that hominids inhabited Asia as early as 1.9 mya. The fossils
also present morphological evidence that may represent a more primitive species related to H. ergaster, not H. erectus. This supports the theory that
hominins migrated out of Africa before Homo ergaster evolved. In 1891 Eugene Dubois discovered the first Hominid fossils at Trinil, a village in
Indonesia. The remains were assigned to Pithecanthropus erectus, which later became Homo erectus. Decades later remains were found at
Zhoukoudian, a cave system in China. The hominid remains became known as 'Peking man' and were appointed to a new genus and species, but
because of their resemblance to the hominids discovered in Indonesia at Trinil eventually became classified

Evolution of the Hominids
Modern humans are the only remaining species of the hominids, a branch of great apes which characterized by posture, dexterity, sociality and uses
tools which trend towards larger and more complex brains. Early hominids, for example the australopithecines had more apelike brains and skulls, are
less often thought to as human than hominids of the genus of Homo. Homo heidelbergensis are considered to be the most likely to form the line of
ancestry of modern humans. Homo sapiens began to reach their modernity about 200,000 years ago. They began to exhibit behavioral towards modern
era around 50,000 years ago. Humans have become the most cosmopolitan species at the earth that established their populations on all parts of earth
except the smallest, driest, and coldest lands. They also permanently manned spaces in Antarctica, on area offshore platforms, and also orbiting the
earth.
Humans are distinguished by their relatively larger brain with its, prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes, which enable high levels of reasoning,
language, problem solving, and culture through social learning. Human uses tools to a much higher degree of complexity than any other animal, and
are the only known species to build fires and cook their food, as well as using cloths and also creating numerous other technologies and arts.
Humans are also uniquely adept in utilizing systems of symbolic communication, such as language and art which they used for self–expression,
exchanging ideas, and

3. Paleolithic Age Or Older Stone Age Was Marked By Hominids,
3. Paleolithic age or older Stone Age was marked by hominids, who lived five or more million years ago and had a nomadic lifestyle. It was before the
advent of agriculture; furthermore, hominids were gatherers and hunters. They gathered all different kinds of plants, vegetables, fruits, and seeds. Also,
they hunted wild animals. However, one of the most important developments certainly was walking upright, which allowed Australopithecus to hold
things in her hands while walking, allowing them to develop tools that are able to transmit from place to place, to hold in their hands the weapons for
hunting, and to much more use the intelligence that they had. It is likely that precisely this progress was crucial to further development and... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using crisp, ironed ax people began to cut forests and settle along the banks of lakes and rivers where the built permanent settlements. They built
dugouts – habitats that are dug into the ground, and dwellings – wooden houses or houses built of twigs over water. People have tamed some animals
and started practicing animal husbandry. First, cattle were first used for meat, and later for milk. Furthermore, they used skin and hair to make clothes
and shoes. From gathering fruit they gradually developed agriculture. Crossings on agriculture and animal husbandry emerged the first great social
division of labor and the first exchange of products – including livestock and agrarian population. Progress in production instrumentality for life caused
a change in the social order. In order to manufacture successfully performed was required to work together. Horde gradually replaced by rod – a
community based on consanguinity. In the beginning of the Neolithic, pottery developed. The man drafted various dishes made of clay, which he used
for the preparation and storage of food.
5. About 5,000 years ago on the banks of the Nile River in North Africa has evolved in many ways remarkable civilization of ancient Egypt. The main
reason for the supremacy of Egypt at that time was a great geographic advantage that no other country had, embodied in the great and the mighty Nile
River. Tens of thousands of years, the center of life and development in Egypt was

Compare And Contrast Paleolithic And Neolithic
The Stone Age was divided into two eras, The Paleolithic and the Neolithic. During the Paleolithic Era, humans mostly foraged for food, used crude
tools, and depended heavily on the environment around them. By the time the Neolithic Era began, people were developing more complex technology,
social organization, using fire, and living sedentary lifestyles because of the discovery of agriculture. During the Paleolithic era, hominids used the
natural materials in the environment around them (mostly wood, bone, and animal skin) to create simple tools and shelter, which started out mainly in
caves and canyons. With the discovery of fire about one million years ago, humans were able to make simple structures like tents and huts to live in.
Fire ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Tools that have been interpreted as cheese–strainers show that farmers in the sixth millennium BCE were able to process dairy. This was a major
innovation for early humans and a step to eating more food without having to kill wild animals. In addition, it was during the Neolithic Era that people
made the gradual switch to farming and food production from foraging. During this transition, they found animals in the wild and learned to
domesticate them. They also began to selectively breed their crops for various traits, leading to the creation of new species. For example, one species
of cabbage was selectively bred into the creation of several new plant species, including kale, brussels sprouts, and cauliflower. As these farmers
transitioned into eating more farmed food, they also stopped taking in as many nutrients as they had been. This caused the human species as a whole to
get shorter, their bones lighter, and their brains smaller. Since meat is also a good source of vitamin D, this change may have caused the skin of
northern farmers to lighten, as they weren't getting as much sun and therefore vitamin D as southern

Hominids In William Golding's Lord Of The Flies
Early hominids developed into the humans we are today. Not only did they evolve genetically, but they also had inventions and ideas that evolved
them mentally. Through these forms of evolution, man has developed its civilizations into the modern world we know today. In the book Lord of the
Flies by William Golding, a group of boys crash on an island from a plane. From this point in time, the boys attempt to develop their society. The boys
in Lord of the Flies mirror their development of society to the development of early man through the use of fire, the building of basic shelter and
settlements, and the process of obtaining food by hunting and gathering using technology.
The boys in Lord of the Flies mirror the development of early man through the use of fire. Early man developed controlled fire to help cook food,
provide warmth and light, and help scare away predators (World History 15). These attributes of fire helped early man migrate, as they were able to
see in the night and were able to cook food, which helped disinfect and preserve it. This migration process through the use of fire is seen in the
migration routes on a migration map, in which Homo erectus travelled very little out of Africa while Homo sapiens were able to cover most of the
globe and settle almost everywhere (World History 17). The spread of hominids was important tocivilization because it allowed the development to
occur all around the globe and create various types of civilization. However, the

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