AMERICAN LITERATURE and AFRO ASIAN LIT.ppt.pptx

A Brief Overview of British Literary Periods
 The history of English literature initiated with the history of the
English race and kept on developing with the social
development of the nation. When we analyze the history of
English literature, we discover that it consists of eight (8)
major periods and several ages. Each period or age of
English literature is named after the central literary figure, or
the important rulers of England, or certain literary movements.
Moreover each period or phase of English literature has its
distinct characteristics.

What are the ‘Eight (8) Major Periods’ in
the history of English Literature?
The major eight (8) periods in the history of English literature are:
 The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period (450–1066)
 The Anglo-Norman or Middle English period (1066–1500)
 The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)
 The Neoclassical Period (1660–1798)
 The Romantic Period (1798–1837)
 The Victorian Period (1837–1901)
 The Modern Period (1901-1945)
 The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)

1. The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period
(450-1066 AD)
 The term Anglo-Saxon comes from two Germanic tribes: the Angles and
the Saxons. This period of literature dates back to their invasion (along
with the Jutes) of Celtic England circa 450. The era ends in 1066 when
Norman France, under William, conquered England.
 Much of the first half of this period—prior to the seventh century, at least—
had oral literature. A lot of the prose during this time was a translation of
something else or otherwise legal, medical, or religious in nature; however,
some works, such as Beowulf and those by period poets Caedmon and
Cynewulf, are important.

(450-1066 AD)
 The language brought by these Anglo-Saxon settlers together
with some Latin and Celtic words became Old English. Anglo-
Saxon literature was the earliest phase of English literature.
This period consists of literature written in Old English in
Anglo-Saxon England from the 5th Century AD to the Norman
Conquest of 1066.
 The Old English spoken by Anglo-Saxon people looks
incomprehensible to today’s English-speakers. However,
there are a good number of words that have survived in
modern day English such as “day” , “year”, “kiss” , “love” ,
“arm” etc.

(450-1066 AD)
 religious poetry- religion.
 Caedmon and Cynewulf. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn in which praises in honor of God.
Cynewulf’s famous religious poems were Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, Crist, and Elene.
Among them , ‘Crist’ is the most popular one telling the event that occurred in the life of Jesus
Christ.
 The famous Anglo-Saxon king, Alfred the Great, translated most of the famous Latin
Chronicles in English. However, the second famous prose writer of the Anglo-Saxon period
was, no doubt, Aelfric.
 The Anglo-Saxon period flourished until the Norman Conquest of 1066. After the defeat of
Harold, the last of Saxon kings, by William who was the Conqueror of Normandy, France, the
Anglo-Saxon period finally came to an end. In history, their ruling period extends roughly from
450 A.D. to 1066 A.D.

2. The Anglo-Norman or Middle English
Period (1066-1500 AD)
 Middle English Literary Period, the Medieval English Literature
comprises of a diverse range of works as the population of
England during this time was literate and a considerable portion
was also bilingual and trilingual. Geoffrey Chaucer - “Canterbury
Tales” “The House of Fame”, and ‘The Book of the Duchess’.
 William Langland’s famous religious works including “Piers
Plowman” also deserves a crucial mention as it represents
another popular genre of this period of English Literature which
was secular and religious prose.

2. The Anglo-Norman or Middle English
Period (1066-1500 AD)
 During the era of Medival English Literature, the most esteemed
works also include morality plays, miracle plays and interludes.
‘Everyman’ was a noted Morality play of the time and Miracle
plays were taken from the Bible and were frequently performed
in churches.

3. The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)
 Elizabethan Period or the Age of Shakespeare.
 The ‘golden age’ in the history of English literature.
 After the Middle Ages in Europe came the Renaissance, meaning revival or rebirth.
As a result, the darkness of the middle ages was replaced by the enlightenment of
the human mind with the ‘Revival of Learning’, which the Renaissance prompted.
 The major characteristic of the Renaissance was its focus on Humanism i.e. man’s
concern with himself as an object of observation.
 The Renaissance actually started Italy by Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch.
However, it became popular in Europe during the Elizabethan Period.

3. The Renaissance Period (1500–1660)
 3.1. Elizabethan Drama
 During the Renaissance Period the most important
achievement in English literature was in the field of drama.
The dramatists of this golden period include William
Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Johnson, Lyly,
George Peele, Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene and others.
 the greatest among all Elizabethan dramatists was
Shakespeare in whose hands the Elizabethan drama reached
its climax. He took English drama to the level which could not
be surpassed till today.

4. The Neoclassical Period (1660-1798)
 The period between 1660 and 1798 as the Neoclassical Period in the
history of English literature.
 Moreover, this time period is divided into two parts: the Restoration Period
or the Age of Dryden (1660-1700), and the Classical Age or the Augustan
Age (18 Century). The Classical Age is further divided into two distinct
periods–the Age of Pope (1700-1744) and the Age of Johnson (1744-
1784).
 4.1. The Restoration Period (1660-1700)
 The period from 1660 to 1700 is called the Restoration Period because
monarchy was restored in England, and Charles II came back to England
from his exile in France and became the King. It is also known as the Age
of Dryden because Dryden was the most significant literary figure of the
age.

5. The Romantic Period (1798-1837)
 The most flourished period in the history of English literature is the
Romantic Period.
 Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Shelley, Keats, and Byron belonged to
this period.
 The Romantic Age was basically the age of poetry. With the publication of
Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth and Coleridge introduced a new form of
poetry in opposition to the poetry of the Classical school.
 The Romantic poets focused on the simplicity of language and chose the
language of the common people. They looked back to the Elizabethan
masters—Shakespeare, Spenser and others—in order to take inspiration
from them. Their poems usually dealt with the events of everyday life.

6. The Victorian Period (1837–1901)
 Beginning in the second quarter of the 19th Century, the Victorian Period is so
long as well as complicated. Moreover, there are numerous great writers who
flourished during that period. That’s why, for the sake of convenience, the
Victorian Period is divided into two further periods—Early Victorian Period
(1837-1870) and Later Victorian Period (1870-1901).
 The Earlier Victorian Period dominated by middle class supremacy, the age of
‘laissez-fair’ or free trade, and of unrestricted competition. The great writers of
this period were Robert Browning, Alfred Tennyson, Charles Dickens, Matthew
Arnold, Carlyle, Thackeray and Ruskin.
 The Later Victorian Period began after 1870. The most prominent writers of
that period were Christiana Rossetti, Charles Swinburne, George Eliot, William
Morris, Thomas Hardy, Oscar Wilde, Pater and others.

6. The Victorian Period (1837–1901)
 The Victorian Period exhibits a unique and complex amalgamation of two
opposites—Romanticism and Classicism. Basically, its inclination towards
Classicism was due its rational approach to the problems of life, deeply
moral attitude, and a search for stability and balance. On the other hand, it
exhibited close proximity to the Romantic spirit which had not completely
exhausted itself but suddenly ended due to the following reasons:
 the premature deaths of Keats, Byron, and Shelley.
 the disillusionment resulted from industrialization and material prosperity.
 the social and economic unrest.

7. The Modern Period (1901-1945)
 Modern period in the English literature begins with the 20th century and remain till 1965.
 The period saw an abrupt break away from the old ways of interacting with the world.
 The blow of the modern age were the World War 1 and 2. These wars began in the year
1914 and last till 1919 and 1939 to 1945 respectively.
 The most significant feature of Modern literature was that it opposed the general attitude
of Victorian writers and people to life and its problems. During the first decade of the 20th
Century, the young people regarded the Victorian age as hypocritical, and the Victorian
ideals as superficial, mean and stupid. This rebellion hugely affected modern literature
which was directed by moral values, spiritual ideals as well as mental attitudes that were
dramatically opposed to those of the Victorians.

8. The Contemporary Period (1945–Today)
 After World War II, new trends appeared in English literature.
 the novel was the form which told the stories of World War II. This was because
mass media, cinema, newspapers, and radio had changed the way of information
and entertainment.
 Henry Greene’s novels— Nothing (1950), The End of Affair (1951), and A Burnt-
out Case (1961) deal with war. These novels explore regions of human
unhappiness in many different areas of the world.
 William Golding was one of the great story-tellers of his time. He always explored
in his novels the things which form human behavior.

The Beginnings of Asian and African Literature
 Literary works were handed by mouth from generation to generation to entertain, and
remind the people about their past, heroic deeds of their people, ancestry and culture.
 Traditional ballads or poems outlining Afro-Asian history are part of the culture's oral
history these poems or songs were passed down from generation to generation told of
the unique struggles and successes of Afro-Asian people.
 in most cultures, oral histories marked the beginnings of teaching history. Later, when
more people were able to read and write, history became recorded in prose, plays, and
poems.
 Genres: playwriting, poems, prose

The Beginnings of Asian and African Literature
 African literature is as diverse as the continent itself, but several characteristics an themes
prevail throughout much of the written works emerging from Africa. There is often great
emphasis on the history, culture and customs of a group of people when telling their stories.
 Afro-Asian's literary works were handed by mouth from generation to generation to entertain,
and remind the people about their past, heroic deeds of their people, ancestry and culture.
 Afro-Asian literature s a sign of new and modern times. these times include literature from all
kinds of people, from all places on earth

AFRICAN LITERATURE
 African literature has origins dating back thousands of years to Ancient Egypt and
hieroglyphs, or writing which uses pictures to represent words. These Ancient
Egyptian beginnings led to Arabic poetry, which spread during the Arab conquest of
Egypt in the seventh century C.E. and through Western Africa in the ninth century
C.E.
 - Africa experienced several hardships in its long history which left an impact on
the themes of its literature. One hardship which led to many others is that of
colonization.

AFRICAN LITERATURE
 - Colonization led to slavery - from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. This
spreading of African people, largely against their will, is called the African
Diaspora.
 - Sub-Saharan Africa developed a written literature during the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. This development came as a result of missionaries
coming to the area. The missionaries came to Africa to build churches and
language schools in order to translate religious texts. This led to Africans writing
in both European and indigenous languages.
 - Though African literature's history is as long as it is rich, most of the popular
works have come out since 1950, especially the noteworthy Things Fall Apart by
Chinua Achebe.

MAJOR AUTHOR’S LIFE’S AND WORKS
 1. Chinua Achebe
- one of the best African authors who have contributed a lot in the field of African
literature. He was born in 1930, and schooled at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. His first
groundbreaking novel titled Things Fall Apart was published in 1958. This novel which
has since been translated into over 50 languages due to its high demand, made Achebe
very popular. Chinua Achebe later served as a professor of African Studies at the David
and Marianna Fisher University and at the Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island.
He died early 2013 in Boston, Massachusetts, aged of 82 years old.
 2. Wole Soyinka
- one of the great heroes in the list of top and best African authors who have won great
awards and honours in the world of literature. He was born in 1934 in Nigeria and he became the
first African author to be awarded the Nobel Prize award in literature. In the late 1950’s, he wrote his
very first important play titled ‘A Dance of the Forests’ that satirizes a fledgling nation by
highlighting that the present days were no longer as golden as past. Common in his recent works, is
the focus on satirizing the the evils fundamental in the practice of power in modern West Africa.

 3. Amos Tutuola
Amos Tutuola was born in 1920, Abeokuta in Western Nigeria and died in 1997.
He was a selftaught African author who usually focused his literature on the Yoruba folk
tales. He became popular after gaining the world fame with his best story ‘The Palm-Wine
Drunkard’ that completed in 1946.
4. Camera Laye
Camera Laye was born in 1928 in Kouroussa, Upper Guinea and later died in
1980. He was the first African author from a French-speaking African country. His first
novel written in French, L’Enfant Noir (The African Child) made him one of the best and
important novelists from the French-speaking countries in Africa

 5. Dinaw Mengestu
Dinaw Mengestu was also one of the best African authors who have contributed greatly in the
field of African literature. He was born in 1978 in Addis Ababa the capital city of Ethiopia. He moved to the
USA together with his sister and mother two years after his birth, to reunite with his father who had
previously fled the country during the Red Terror. He graduated from Georgetown University. So far, he has
written two novels titled “The Beautiful Things that Heaven Bears” which was established in 2007 and “How
to Read the Air” established in 2010. He also recently received a MacArthur Foundation, usually known as
“genius grant”.
 6. Mariama Bâ
Maria BA is also an African author born in 1929, Dakar, Senegal. She has been regarded as one of
the best and most original African authors to come from West Africa. Her works and life were usually
preoccupied with several issues such as power, gender relations, and inequality. She also focused on the
ways in which these issues were affected and framed by Islamic and African cultural beliefs. She wrote her
first novel titled So Long a Letter in 1981. She died in 1986, just before publishing her second novel, Scarlet
Song

 7. Buchi Emecheta
Buchi Emecheta was born in Lagos, the capital city of Nigeria in 1944. Her
work and life as an African author set the stage for the new generation of the west
African female authors. Her fiction was drawn from her experiences in Diaspora as
well as influences from her educational background. In the Ditch and Second-Class
Citizen published in 1972 and 1974 respectively, are Emecheta’s heavily
autobiographical novels.
 8. Bessie Head
Bessie Head was born in the year 1937, in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa; and she died in 1986. She was one of the African female authors
whose life and litarary works have been brought into focus in recent days. She
became famous because of her three novels; When Rain Clouds Gather, published
in 1968, Maru also published in 1971 and the third one A Question of Power
launched in 1974.

 9. Ousmane Sembane
In 1923, Uosmane Sembane was born in Ziguinchor, a region found in southern
Senegal. He is widely acknowledged as the seminal figure in both African film and literature.
His work was focused centrally on the cultural practices as well as political discourses that
surround the female body in the continent of Africa. He died in 2007 after winning a critical
acclaim for his film, “Moolaadé” in 2004.
 10. Ngugi wa Thiong’o
In 1938, Ngugi wa Thiong’o was born in Kamiriithu, Kenya. He is one of the best and
most celebrated African authors and intellectuals. He is also one of the African authors who
have enjoyed both national and international acclaim as an essayist, novelist, playwright,
activist and social commentator. His experience of the Mau Mau struggle for independence,
British colonialism and the position of Kenya in the neo-colonial era are some of the issues
that preoccupy much of his thoughts and writings. Some of his novels include Weep Not Child
published in 1964, The River Between (1965), and A Grain of Wheat published in 1967.

Famous Literary Masterpieces
 1. Things Fall Apart
Novel, By Chinua Achebe – Nigeria
Things Fall Apart is a piece of work that focuses on a clash of traditions during
Africa’s transition period from the colonial rule. It is at this period that Africa’s
traditional values were in a violent clash with those values of their colonial
subjugators.
Even though the Western culture brought profound positive effects on Africa –
including modern industrialization and infrastructure, it nonetheless caused
tremendous destruction in terms of Africa’s authentic traditional values that held
families together and defined the gender roles.
Things Fall Apart is a theme about characterization and demonstration of Africa’s
torn sociocultural fabric as different forces fight for their own domain.

 2. An African Thunderstorm
 Poem, By David Rubadiri – Malawi
Like most early African writers, he ran afoul with his country’s government under
dictator Hastings Kamuzu Banda and ran into exile in Uganda. While in Uganda,
Obote’s government was overthrown, forcing him again to run into exile in Kenya. He
served twice as his country’s diplomat, first has Malawi’s first ambassador to the US.
After Kamuzu Banda ceased to be president, he returned to the country and later
became his country’s Ambassador to the UN.And like most writers of his time, he was
critical of poor governance and leadership in Africa. Some of his work was critical of
Africa’s despotic regimes.
3. Burger’s Daughter
Novel, By Nadine Gordimer – South Africa
This is a historical and political novel by Nadine Gordimer, one of Africa’s earliest
literary Nobel Laureates. This piece of work focuses on the criticism of the era of the
draconian Apartheid regime of South Africa. Burger’s Daughter was billed by the New
York Times as Gordimer ’s most political and most moving novel.

 4. Aye Africa
 Song, by Franklin Boukaka – DRC
 This is a great song that many people brand it as “Africa’s Anthem”.
 It is a deep moving song with that moves any listener who understands the plight of
Africa, especially after the mirage of the so-called ‘Independence’. In the song, Franklin
Boukaka questions whether this war, poverty and misery that Africa faces is the
independence and freedom that was promised by the Independence heroes.
 From his background as a Congolese from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),
the song is painfully relevant when you realize that DRC is in deep turmoil that has so
far claimed over 10 million lives, not forgetting that over 6 million of them that were
massacred by King Leopold of Belgium prior to independence. This is a painful song.
Its lyrics can move any patriot to tears. A song from the deep heart of a martyr who was
killed trying to fight for a better country through words and deeds.

 5. Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika
 Song, by Enoch Sontonga – South Africa
 Translated as ‘God Bless Africa’, this is another emotionally moving son by
a great son of Africa – Enoch Sontonga. It’s greatness is evidenced by the
fact that it has been adapted by several countries in Southern Africa as
their national anthem. These includes South Africa itself, Zambia, Namibia,
Tanzania (in Swahili version), and Zimbwabwe (Shona version). Enoch
Sontonga was a teacher and Choirmaster at the Methodist Mission School
in South Africa. He composed and sung the song as part of religious
service and as a special dedication to his continent – Africa.

 Asian literature is diverse in that it showcases a selection of styles and themes, but as it
progressed over time, common ideas have been identified between the texts from the
various regions of the Asian continent.
 Perhaps the most similar trait of all Asian texts is their religiosity and spirituality. Asian
literature is known to be a philosophical and contemplative art, pondering on major
matters in life such as our origins and our death: where we come from and where we go,
how we come alive and how we die, as well as how we should live in between.
 Related to the spiritual feature, the involvement of nature is evident.
 Besides these, Asian literature greatly talks about race, injustice, power, nationalism,
struggles, love—and in all things at all times, there are morals to be learned.

 poetry or verse and dramatic prose. Asian poetry is typically lyrical, as in it deals with
the grand scheme of emotions. A sub-type of lyrical poetry is the ode, which we can see
in some religious texts. Asian poetry is also usually formed in narratives or story-telling
verses like epics. As for the proses of Asia, there are collections of short stories,
legends, orally transmitted sayings, and dramas.
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam having originated from West Asia, Hinduism and Buddhism
from the South, and Confucianism and Taoism from the East. Examples of literary texts that
support religions range from the Tao Te Ching that exemplifies Taoism, the Analects that
epitomizes Confucianism, to the Sanskrit epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata that are
important to Hinduism, amongst many others that knit the patchwork of Asian religions.

 Asian literature has also aided the spread of Asian spirituality,
heightening the major religions that we know and are a part of
until today—all of which started in the continent itself:
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam having originated from West
Asia, Hinduism and Buddhism from the South, and Confucianism
and Taoism from the East. Examples of literary texts that support
religions range from the Tao Te Ching that exemplifies Taoism,
the Analects that epitomizes Confucianism, to the Sanskrit epics
of Ramayana and Mahabharata that are important to Hinduism,
amongst many others that knit the patchwork of Asian religions.

Development of Asian Literature
 the oldest known written piece is the Epic of Gilgamesh. This in fact originated
in Asia, particularly in ancient Mesopotamia, which is now found in the Western
region of the continent.
 The Kesh Temple Hymn and the Instructions of Shuruppak are two other
examples of the earliest written literature that came from Mesopotamia, brought
about by their development of writing at around 3400 BC.
 As civilizations grew and developed—in the whole world and within Asia—, so
have literature.

 In Asia, the literary pieces developed according to its various
regions. And while every country in these regions has their own
unique style and story to offer, there are major advancements in
Asian literature that represent the continent. Typically,
researchers of literature classify Asian literary artworks into only
three categories despite the many regions; we have Chinese,
Japanese, and Indian literature to characterize the growth of
Asian literature because they are the ones with withstanding
influence and recognition.

 Chinese Literature
 In China, the system of writing began at around 1300 BC under
the Shang Dynasty. Following suit, Chinese literature was
established using their formal language of Classical Chinese.
Under another dynasty between 1045 to 225 BC—the Zhou
dynasty—, the Chinese writing system blossomed from mere
hieroglyphs to bodies of religious texts, marking the beginnings
of Chinese literature.

 The philosophical texts written in this era comprised the great
literary pieces that served as a foundation to Confucianism and
Taoism, amongst other budding systems of beliefs, of which little
are known due to their lost records caused by the book burning
event in the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). This then reduced
China’s “One Hundred Schools of Thought”, as well as
standardized the Chinese writing system. However, despite such
literary destruction, political literature did thrive in this time,
emphasizing an emperor’s power and thus contributing to their
seemingly unending reigns.

 During the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), it was the turn of
scientific and historic texts to prosper, and in the subsequent
dynasties, more forms of literature emerged and became
prominent. These were less formal or knowledge-centered
pieces that ranged from the Tang Dynasty’s poetry, the Song
Dynasty’s travel and neo-Confucianism literature, the Yuan
Dynasty’s dramas and fictions, to the Ming and Qing Dynasty’s
novels, until it has become the modern Chinese literature that
we produce and consume today, though now riddled with
Western principles.

 Japanese Literature
 The Japanese owed the origins of their writing system to China.
Some of the oldest known pieces of Japanese literature are the
Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, the former being a collection of
myths and legends and the latter being a historical chronicle. A
third ancient literary piece is the Man’yoshu, a vast collection of
poems. We can see in these examples, however early, the
recurring patterns and themes of Asian literature that until today
are palpable.

 These genres of Japanese literature continued and prospered into their golden era
of art, the Heian period (794-1185), in which classical pieces of poetry, fiction,
novels, and essays on the topics of life, love, nature, and nobility were evident.
Specific examples would be the Genji Monogatari, Kokin Wakashu, and Makura no
Soshi.
The Asian literature feat of telling tales of hardships and setting examples of reflection
and morality are also based in Japanese literature—especially from the Kamakura-
Muromachi Period of 1185-1600—, where we saw epics like the Heike Monogatari, as
well as pieces such as the Hojoki and Tsurezuregusa.

 The Kabuki drama of the Edo Period (1600-1868), as well as the Haiku and Renga
types of poetry continued to shape the bigger picture of not just Japanese but also
Asian literature.
 However, such developments became intermingled by Western literary ideas at
around 1868-1945 during the Meiji Period. Free verse and romanticism started to
reign, especially during the war. The literary period that then followed was filled
with more stories centered on socio-political awareness. However, later, fiction and
non-fiction pieces of every genre—especially in the form of Manga—started to
dominate the scene, resulting to the Japanese literary landscape that we know
today.

 Indian Literature
 Yet another epitome of Asian literature is that of India, in which some
of the oldest literary masterpieces are religious and reflective in
nature, becoming the basis for the major religion of Hinduism.
Examples include the Veda hymns and the epics of Ramayana and
Mahabharata, all of which inspire morals and philosophy in the form
of myths, chants, narratives, and verses.

 Indian Literature
 The rest of Indian literature molded itself over the years after these ancient texts.
India’s renowned writer, Rabindranath Tagore, exemplified such styles in his
romantic works that spanned spiritual and mystic themes mainly in various forms
of prose and poetry.
 The Adikal stage of Indian literature was another example of spiritually-inclined
poetic pieces, emphasized further by the next stage of Bhakti Kal literature, which
personified God. Ritikal Literature centered on notions of love, while Adhunikaal
literature has presented itself even until the modern era in the form of more varied
texts; novels, short stories, and dramas of every genre has become apparent,
especially written in the English language that the British occupation brought.

REFERENCES
 https://leverageedu.com/blog/history-of-english-
literature/#:~:text=The%20history%20of%20English%20Literature%20starts%20with%20the
%20Anglo%2DSaxons,set%20of%20Anglo%2DFrisian%20dialects.
 https://elifnotes.com/introduction-history-of-english-
literature/?fbclid=IwAR03ZYWM3dAaxrifaz9ZMzftbV1WHlAuEtoYEpyk6_-
X2SUQD2IFg6npO7U
 https://www.ukiyoto.com/post/growth-of-asian-
literature#:~:text=Asian%20Literature%2C%20Defined&text=Asian%20literature%20is%20kn
own%20to,we%20should%20live%20in%20between.
 https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/history-south-african-literature-timeline-1824-2005
 https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/arts/world-lit/misc/african-literature

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