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Bab 4
Pilihan
Pengguna
EPPE1013 Mikroekonomi
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Topik Perbincangan
1. Keutamaan Pilihan.
2. Utiliti.
3. Kekangan Belanjawan.
4. Pilihan Pengguna Berkekangan
5. Behavioral Economics.
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Asas Kepada Gelagat Pengguna
• Keutamaan Pilihan individu menentukan
kepuasan yang diperoleh drpd pilihan
barangan yang digunakan
• Pengguna menghadapi kekangan yang
boleh menghadkan pilihan mereka.
• Pengguna memaksimumkan
kebajikan/kepuasan mereka drpd
penggunaan tertakluk kepada kekangan
yang dihadapi.
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Properties/Syarat Dalam Pilihan
Pengguna
• Completeness/Lengkap – Bila
menghadapi pilihan antara dua barang (A,
B), pengguna boleh menyusun pilihan
(ranking) ikut susunan untuk memboleh
pengguna membuat salah satu pilihan
berikut; Pengguna lebih menyukai barang
A drpd B atau lebih menyukai barang B
drpd A atau tidak kisah (indifferent)
samada barang A atau B.
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Properties/Syarat Dalam Pilihan
Pengguna (samb..)
• Transitif – pilihan pengguna mestilah
konsisten iaitu jika pengguna lebih
menyukai A drpd B, dan lebih menyukai B
drpd C maka semestinya pengguna lebih
menyukai A drpd C.
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Properties/Syarat Dalam Pilihan
Pengguna (samb..)
• Lebih Banyak Lebih Baik. - pengguna
lebih suka barangan yang lebih banyak
daripada yang sedikit.(keinginan mahukan
lebih banyak juga dikenali sebagai konsep
ketidakpuasan)
 Barang baik/elok - barang yang mana, lebih
banyak lebih baik sekurang kurangnya pada
sesuatu tingkat penggunaan.
 Barang tidak baik – barang yang mana lebih
sedikit lebih baik seperti bahan cemar.
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Peta Pilihan (Preference Maps)
• Keluk Puasama – gabungan atau
kombinasi barangan yang pada
pandangan pengguna memberikan
kepuasan yang sama.
 Peta Puasama - satu set lengkap keluk
puasama yang menggambarkan citarasa
atau pilihan pengguna.
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Lisa prefers bundle e to
any bundle in area B
Rajah 4.1 Gabungan/Bundle Pizza dan
Burito Digunakan LisaB,Burritospersemester
(a)
302515
Z, Pizzas per semester
25
20
15
10
5
d
a
b
e
c
f
A
B
B,Burritospersemester
(b)
302515
Z, Pizzas per semester
25
20
15
10
a
b I1
e
c
Which of these
two bundles would
be preferred by
Lisa?
Lisa prefers bundle e
over bundle d, since e
has more of both
goods: Pizza and
Burritos
Which of these
two bundles would
be preferred by
Lisa?
Lisa prefers bundle f
over bundle e, since f
has more of both
goods: Pizza and
Burritos
Lisa prefers any bundle
in area A over e
If Lisa is indifferent between
bundles e, a, and c …..
we can draw an indifferent
curve over those three points
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Figure 4.1 Bundles of Pizzas and
Burritos Lisa Might ConsumeB,Burritospersemester
(a)
302515
Z, Pizzas per semester
25
20
15
10
5
d
a
b
e
c
f
A
B
B,Burritospersemester
(c)
302515
Z, Pizzas per semester
25
20
15
10
d
a
I1
e
c
f
we can draw an indifferent
curve over those three points
I2
I0
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Syarat/Ciri Peta Puasama
(Properties of Indifference Maps)
1. Keluk puasama yang berada jauh dari
origin/asalan lebih diutamakan drpd
yang dekat dgn origin.
2. Terdapat keluk puasama melalui setiap
kemungkinan gabungan (bundle)
barangan.
3. Keluk keluk puasama tidak boleh
bersilang.
4. Keluk puasama mencerun kebawah.
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Keluk Puasama yang Tak Mungkin
• Lisa tak kisah antara e
dan a, dan juga antara
e dan b…
 Berasas syarat transitif
semestinya dia juga tak
kisah antara a dan b…
 Tapi ini tak mungkin
kerana b mesti lebih
diutamakan drpd a sbb
b mempunyai lebih
banyak kedua dua
barang.
B,Burritospersemester
Z, Pizzas per semester
I1
I0
a
b
e
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Keluk Puasama yang Tak Mungkin
(samb..)
• Lisa tak kisah antara
b dan a sebab kedua
duanya atas keluk
puasama yg sama…
 Tapi ini kontradik dgn
andaian/syarat “more
is better”
 b mempunyai lebih
banyak kedua dua
barang sbb itu ianya
patut diberikan
keutamaan drpd a. B,Burritospersemester
Z, Pizzas per semester
I
a
b
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Figure 4.2 Keluk Puasama yang Mustahil
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Soalan Contoh 4.1
• Bolehkah Keluk Puasama berbentuk
lebar/tebal?
• Jawapan:
 Lukiskan keluk puasama yang garisnya lebar
dua kali ganda drpd keluk puasama biasa
dan tunjukkan yang ia boleh melanggar
syarat keutamaan pilihan yang dibincangkan.
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Soalan Contoh 4.1
• Pengguna tak kisah
antara b dan a
sebabkedua dua titik
pada keluk puasama
yang sama…
 Tapi ia bersalahan
dengan syarat “more
is better” sebab b
mempunyai lebih
banyak kedua dua
barang dan mesti
dipilih drpd a.
B,Burritospersemester
a
b
Z, Pizzas per semester
I
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Kesanggupan Penggantian Antara
Barangan
• Kadar Penggantian Sut (MRS) – jumlah
maksimum satu satu barang yang pengguna
sanggup korbankan untuk mendapatkan satu
lagi unit barangan lain.
 MRS juga kecerunan/slope keluk puasama!
Z
B
MRS



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From bundle b to bundle c, Lisa is willing to give up 2
Burritos in exchange for 1 more Pizza…
From bundle c to bundle d, Lisa is willing to give up 1
Burritos in exchange for 1 more Pizza…
From bundle a to bundle b, Lisa is willing
to give up 3 Burritos in exchange for 1
more Pizza…
Rajah 4.3(a) MRS Disepanjang Keluk
Puasama
B,Burritospersemester
Indifference Curve Convex to the Origin
5
3
8
1
-1
1
1
2
0
-2
–3
3 4 5 6
Z, Pizzas per semester
a
b
c
d
I
• The MRS from bundle
a to bundle b is -3.
 This is the same as the
slope of the indifference
curve between those
two points.
• From b to c,
 MRS = -2.
 This is the same as the
slope of the indifference
curve between those
two points.
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Figure 4.3(b) Marginal Rate of
Substitution
• Dari a ke b, Lisa
sanggup
melepaskan 2
Pizzas untuk 1
Burrito.
 Dari b ke c dia
sanggup lepaskan
3 Pizzas untuk 1
burrito.
 Mungkin kah ini
terjadi?
• Pandangan anda?
B,Burritospersemester
(b) Indifference Curve Concave to the Origin
5
7
1
1
2
0
–2
–3
3 4 5
Z, Pizzas per semester
a
b
c
I
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Diminishing marginal rate of substitution/Kadar
penggantian sut berkurangan
• The MRS approaches zero as we move
down and to the right along an
indifference curve. (MRS menghampiri sifar
apabila semakin ke bawah dan ke kanannya
KPS).
• Discussion: could you imagine a good
that does not exhibit this property?
(Perbincangan: bolehkah anda bayangkan
barangan yang tidak dapat ditunjukkan oleh
ciri ini?).
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Curvature of Indifference Curves/Bentuk
KPS.
• Casual observation suggests that most people’s
indifference curves are convex. (Kebiasaanya KPS
setiap individu berbentuk cembung ke titik
asalan).
• Exceptions/pengecualian:
 Perfect substitutes - goods that a consumer is
completely indifferent as to which to consume.
(Pengganti sempurna – pengguna tidak kisah sepenuhnya
untuk menggunakan mana mana barangan).
 Perfect complements - goods that a consumer is
interested in consuming only in fixed proportions
(Pelengkap sempurna – barangan yang digunakan pengguna
berkadar tetap).
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Figure 4.4(a) Pengganti Sempurna
(Perfect Substitutes)
• Bagi Bill Coke dan
Pepsi sebagai
penggati sempurna:
Keluk puasamanya
 Bergaris lurus dan
selari dengan MRS
Cerun -1 (Straight,
parallel lines with an
MRS (slope) of −1).
 Bill sanggup menukar
1 Coke dengan 1
Pepsi.
Coke,Cansperweek
1 2 3 4
Pepsi, Cans perweek
1
0
2
3
4
I 1
I2
I3
I 4
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Figure 4.4(b) Penggenap Sempurna
(Perfect Complements)
Icecream,Scoopsperweek
1 2 3
Pie, Slices per week
1
2
3
0
I1
I2
I3
a
d
e c
b
 Jika Lisa hanya
mendpt sepotong
pie,dia mndapat
kepuasan darpd
nya bersama dgn
1 scoop icekrim di
a,
 Kepuasan yang
sama jika dia
gunakan di d dan
e
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Figure 4.4c Imperfect Substitutes/
Pengganti tidak sempurna
• Bentuk umum
keluk puasama
adalah cembung
dan berada antara
2 keluk puasaama
yang ekstrem.
 Keluk puasama yg
cembung
menunjukkan
pengguna melihat
dua baraang yg
digunakan bukan
pengganti
sempurna.
B,Burritospersemester
f
Z, Pizzas per semester
I
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Application: Indifference Curves Between
Food and Clothing
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Problems: constructing indifference
curves/Permasalahan: Lakarkan KPS
1. 1. Don is altruistic. Show the possible shape of his
indifference curves between charity and all other
goods. (Don seorang yang gemarkan kerja kebajikan.
Lakarkan bentuk KPS Don di antara pilihan untuk kerja
kebajikan dan barangan lain).
2. Miguel considers tickets to the Houston Grand Opera
and to Houston Astros baseball games to be perfect
substitutes. Show his preference map. (Miguel
merasakan tiket ke Opera Houston Grand Opera dan permainan
besbol di Houston Astros adalah pengganti sempurna).
3. If Joe views two candy bars and one piece of cake as
perfect substitutes, what is his marginal rate of
substitution between candy bars and cake? (Joe
merasakan 2 bar caramel dan sepotong kek adalah pengganti
sempurna. Apakah MRS di antara kedua-dua barang tersebut?).
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Utility/Utiliti
• Utility - a set of numerical values that reflect the relative
rankings of various bundles of goods. (Utiliti – suatu set
nilai berangka yang menggambarkan penarafan relatif
bagi pelbagai kombinasi barangan).
• Utility function - the relationship between utility values
and every possible bundle of goods. (Fungsi utiliti –
hubungan antara nilai utiliti dengan setiap pilihan
barangan).
U(B, Z)
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Utility Function: Example/Fungsi Utiliti:
Contoh
• Question: Can determine whether Lisa would be
happier if she had Bundle x with 9 burritos and 16
pizzas or Bundle y with 13 of each? (Soalan: Bolehkan
ditentukan sama ada Lisa berpuashati jika ia mendapat bakul x
dengan 9 burritos dan 16 pizzas atau bakul y dengan 13 setiap
satunya?).
• Answer: The utility she gets from x is 12utils. The
utility she gets from y is 13utils. Therefore, she
prefers y to x.U= BZ. (Jawapan: Lisa memperoleh utiliti
daripada bakul x sebanyak 12utils dan bakul y sebanyak 13utils.
Oleh itu, ia mengutamakan y dpd x.U= BZ).
BZu 
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Pilihan Ordinal (Ordinal Preferences)
• Jika pengguna boleh membuat
susunan/penarafan (ranking) relatif
kombinasi barangan,-ini ukuran ordinal
e.g gred A, B, C etc. A lebih baik dari B tp
tak tahu banyak mana A lebih baik dar B.
• Ukuran kardinal: boleh membuat
perbandingan mutlak antara susunan e.g
niilai wang.
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Utility and Indifference Curves (Utiliti
dan Keluk Puasama)
• Keluk puasama menunjukkan pelbagai
kombinasi penggunaan barangan yang
memberikan sesuatu ringkat utiliti yang sama.
• Jika fungsi utiliti Lisa U(Z, B), maka keluk
puasama Lisa diberikan sebagai,
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Figure 4.5(a) The Relationship Between the
Utility Function and Indifference Curves
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Figure 4.5(b) The Relationship Between the
Utility Function and Indifference Curves (cont.)
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Utiliti Marginal/Utiliti Sut
• Utiliti marginal - the extra utility that a
consumer gets from consuming the last unit of
a good.(Utiliti sut – tambahan utiliti yang
pengguna peroleh daripada unit terakhir
barang yang digunakan).
 the slope of the utility function as we hold the
quantity of the other good constant. (kecerunan bagi
fungsi utiliti selagi kuantiti barangan lain adalah malar).
• Marginal Utility of good Z is:/ Utiliti sut bagi barang Z
ialah:
Z
U
MUZ



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Figure 4.6 Utility
and Marginal
Utility
• As Lisa consumes
more pizza, holding her
consumption of burritos
constant at 10, her total
utility, U, increases…
 and her marginal
utility of pizza, MUZ,
decreases (though it
remains positive).
• Marginal utility is the
slope of the utility
function as we hold the
quantity of the other
good constant.
MUZ,Marginalutilityofpizza
MUZ
10987654321
Z, Pizzas per semester
0
130
(b) Marginal Utility
20
U,Utils
U = 20
Utility function,U (10, Z)
Z = 1
10987654321
Z, Pizzas per semester
0
350
250
(a) Utility
230
Z
U
MUZ



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Utility and Marginal Rates of
Substitution/Utiliti dan MRS
• The MRS is the negative of the ratio of the
marginal utility of another pizza to the
marginal utility of another burrito. (MRS
adalah nilai negatif bagi nisbah antara utiliti
sut bagi tambahan unit pizza dan utiliti sut
bagi tambahan unit burrito).
• Formally/Ditulis sebagai:
B
Z
MU
MU
Z
B
MRS 



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Budget Constraint/Kekangan Belanjawan
• Budget line (or budget constraint) - the bundles of
goods that can be bought if the entire budget is
spent on those goods at given prices.
(Garis/kekangan belanjawan – jumlah barangan
yang dapat dibeli jika kesemua pendapatan
dibelanjakan terhadap sejumlah barangan pada
suatu tingkat harga diberi).
• Opportunity set - all the bundles a consumer can
buy, including all the bundles inside the budget
constraint and on the budget constraint. (Set
peluang- semua kombinasi barangan yg pengguna
boleh beli, termasuk kombinasi yg berada dibawah
dan disepanjang kekangan belanjawan).
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Budget Constraint (cont). /Kekangan
Belanjawan
• How many burritos can Lisa buy?
 To answer solve budget constraint for B (quantity of
burritos): (Berapa banyak burritos yang dapat dibeli
oleh Lisa? Selesaikan kekangan belanjawan untuk B
(kuantiti burritos:)
B
Z
ZB
ZB
P
ZPY
B
ZPYBP
YZPBP




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Budget Constraint (cont.)
• If Lisa spends all her budget, Y, on pizza and
burritos, then
pBB + pZZ = Y
 where pBB is the amount she spends on burritos and
pZZ is the amount she spends on pizzas.
• This equation is her budget constraint.
 It shows that her expenditures on burritos and pizza
use up her entire budget.
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Budget Constraint (cont.)
• How many burritos can Lisa buy?
 To answer solve budget constraint for B (quantity of
burritos):
B
Z
ZB
ZB
P
ZPY
B
ZPYBP
YZPBP




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Budget Constraint (cont). /Kekangan
Belanjawan
• From previous slide we have: (Paparan
sebelum ini:)
 If pZ = $1, pB = $2, and Y = $50, then:
B
Z
P
ZPY
B


Z
Z
B 25.025
2$
)1($50$



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Table 4.1 Allocations of a $50 Budget
Between Burritos and Pizza
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Figure 4.6 Budget Constraint/Kekangan
Belanjawan
 From previous slide we have
that if:
– pZ = $1, pB = $2, and Y =
$50, then the budget
constraint, L1, is:
Z
Z
B 25.025
2$
)1($50$



B,Burritospersemester
Opportunity set
50 = Y /pZ
L1
25 = Y/pB
20
10
100 30
Z, Pizzas per semester
a
b
c
d
Amount of Burritos
consumed if all
income is allocated
for Burritos.
Amount of Pizza
consumed if all
income is allocated
for Pizza.
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The Slope of the Budget Constraint/
Kecerunan garis belanjawan
• We have seen that the budget constraint for Lisa is given
by the following equation: (Garis belanjawan Lisa seperti
berikut:)
 The slope of the budget line is also called the marginal rate of
transformation (MRT) (kecerunana garis belanjawan juga
disebut sebagai kadar transformai sut (MRT) .
• rate at which Lisa can trade burritos for pizza in the marketplace
(kadar di mana Lisa boleh menggantikan burritos bagi membeli pizza
di pasaran).
Z
P
P
P
Y
B
B
Z
B

Slope = B/ Z =
MRT
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Figure 4.7(a) Changes in the Budget Constraint: An
increase in the Price of Pizzas/ Perubahan garis
belanjawan: peningkatan harga Pizza.
B,Burritospersemester
Loss
50
L1 (pZ = $1)
L2 (pZ = $2)
25
250
Z, Pizzas per semester
B =
Y
PB
-
PZ = $1
PB
Z
If the price of Pizza doubles,
(increases from $1 to $2)
the slope of the budget line
increases
This area represents
the bundles she can
no longer afford!!!
$2
Slope = -$1/$2 = -0.5
Slope = -$2/$2 = -1
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Figure 4.7(b) Changes in the Budget Constraint:
Increase in Income (Y)/ Perubahan garis belanjawan:
peningkatan pendapatan dua kali ganda (Y).
Gain
L3 (Y = $100)
L1 (Y = $50)
0
B =
$50
PB
-
PZ
PB
Z
If Lisa’s income increases
by $50 the budget line shifts
to the right (with the same
slope!)
$100
This area represents
the new
consumption
bundles she can now
afford!!!10050
Z, Pizzas per semester
B,Burritospersemester
50
25
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Solved Problem 4.2/ Penyelesaian
masalah 4.2
• A government rations water, setting a quota on
how much a consumer can purchase. If a
consumer can afford to buy 12 thousand gallons
a month but the government restricts purchases
to no more than 10 thousand gallons a month,
how does the consumer’s opportunity set
change? (Kerajaan menetapkan kuota pembelian air
kepada pengguna. Sekiranya penggunan mampu
membeli air sebanyak 12 ribu gelen sebulan tetapi
kerajaan menghadkan kepada tidak lebih daripada 10
ribu gelen sebulan, bagaimana peluang pengguna
berubah?).
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Penyelesaian Problem 4.3
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Pilihan Pengguna Berkekangan
• Dengan diberikan maklumat keutamaan
pilihan dan peruntukan kewangan Lisa
dapat ditentukan kombinasi optimumnya.
• Kombinasi optimumnya bila budget yang
ada dapat membeli kombinasi yang
memberikan kepuasan maksimum.
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Figure 4.9 Pemaksimuman Pengguna:
Penyelesaian Interior
• Would Lisa be able to
consume any bundle
along I3 (i.e. bundle f)?
 No! Lisa does not have
enough income to afford
any bundle along I3
B,Burritospersemester
10
20
25
5030100
Z, Pizzas per semester
I1
I2
I3
d
fc
e
aA
B
 Would Lisa be able to
consume any bundle along
I1?
 Yes; she could afford bundles
d, c, and a.
 Nevertheless, there are other
affordable bundles that should
be preferred and affordable.
 For instance bundle e
 Bundle e is called a
consumer’s optimum.
 If Lisa is consuming this
bundle, she has no
incentive to change her
behavior by substituting
one good for another.
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 The budget constraint and the indifference curve
have the same slope at the point e where they
touch.
 Therefore, at point e:
Slope of I2
Figure 4.9 Pemaksimuman Pengguna:
Penyelesaian Interior (samb)
B,Burritospersemester
25
500
Z, Pizzas per semester
I2
e
MRT
P
P
MU
MU
MRS
B
Z
B
Z

Slope of BL
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 50
Figure 4.10 Consumer
Maximization, Corner Solution
B,Burritospersemester
Budget line
25
50
Z, Pizzas per semester
I1
I2
I3
e
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 51
Solved Problem 4.4
• Nigel, a Brit, and Bob, a Yank, have the same
tastes, and both are indifferent between a
sports utility vehicle (SUV) and a luxury sedan.
Each has a budget that will allow him to buy and
operate one vehicle for a decade. For Nigel, the
price of owning and operating an SUV is greater
than that for the car. For Bob, an SUV is a
relative bargain because he benefits from lower
gas prices and can qualify for an SUV tax
break. Use an indifference curve–budget line
analysis to explain why Nigel buys and operates
a car while Bob chooses an SUV.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 52
Solved Problem 4.4
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 53
Solved Problem 4.4/ Penyelesaian
masalah 4.4
• Alexx doesn’t care about where he lives, but he does care about
what he eats. Alexx spends all his money on restaurant meals at
either American or French restaurants. His firm offers to transfer
him from its Miami office to its Paris office, where he will face
different prices. The firm will pay him a salary in euros such that he
can buy the same bundle of goods in Paris that he is currently
buying in Miami.11 Will Alexx benefit by moving to Paris?
(Alexx tidak kisah sangat di mana dia tinggal, tetapi dia mengambil
berat mengenai apa yang dimakan. Alexx membelanjakan semua
wangya sama ada di restoran American atau French. Firma tempat
dia bekerja menawarnya untuk berpindah dari cawangan di Miami
ke cawangan di Paris, di mana harga adalah berbeza. Firma akan
memberi gaji dalam bentuk euro yang mana dia boleh membeli
bakul barangan di Paris sama seperti yang sedang dibelinya di
Miami . sama seperti di Paris. Adakah kebajikan Alexx meningkat
dengan berpindah ke Paris?)
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 54
Solved Problem 4.4/ Penyelesaian
masalah 4.4
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 55
Figure 4.11 Optimal Bundles on Convex
Sections of Indifference Curves
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 56
Food Stamps/Stem Makanan
• Nearly 11% of U.S. households worry about having
enough money to buy food and 3.3% report that they
suffer from inadequate food (Sullivan and Choi, 2002).
(hampir 11% dpd isirumah U.S. bimbang mengenai
kecukupan kewangan untuk membeli makanan dan
3.3% melaporkan mereka menderia akibat kekurangan
makanan (Sullivan dan Choi, 2002).
• Households that meet income, asset, and employment
eligibility requirements receive coupons that can be
used to purchase food from retail stores. (Isirumah
yang memenuhi syarat kelayakan (pendapatan, harta
dan pekerjaan) menerima kupon yang boleh digunakan
untuk membeli makaan darpda kedai runcit).
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 57
Food Stamps (cont)./ Penyelesaian
masalah 4.3
• The Food Stamps Program is one of the nation’s
largest social welfare programs with expenditures of
$33.1 billion for nearly 29.1 million people in 2006.
(Program stem makanan adalah salah satu program
kebajikan terbesar dengan perbelanjaan sebanyak
$33.1 bilion bagi hampir sejumlah 29.1 milion penduduk
pada 2006).
• Would a switch to a comparable cash subsidy increase
the well-being of food stamp recipients? (Adakah
dengan memberi subsidi tunai dapat meningkatkan
faedah program stem makanan?).
 Would the recipients spend less on food and more
on other goods? (Adakah penerima program stem makanan
kurang berbelanja untuk manakan dan banyak kepada
barangan lain?).
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 58
Figure 4.12 Food Stamps Versus Cash
Allothergoodspermonth
Y Y + 100
Y + 100
0 100
Food per month
Budget line with
food stamps
Budget line with cash
Original
budget line
A
B
f
d
e
Y
C
I1
I2
I3
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 59
Behavioral Economics
• Dengan maklumat tambahan dari aspek
seperti psikologi dan kajian empirikal
mengenai perlakuan manusia dan
kelainan emosi mereka terhadap model
ekonomi dapat membantu ahli ekonomi
membuat ramalan yang lebih baik dalam
membuat keputusan.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 60
Ujian kepada Transitif (Test of
Transitivity)
• Orang dewasa lebih konsisten dalam
membuat pilihan transitif.
• Kanak kanak tidak begitu konsisten dalam
membuat pilihan transitif.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 61
Kesan Endowment (Endowment
Effect)
• Kebanyakan orang memberikan nilai yang
lebih tinggi kepada barang yang mereka
milikki drpd barangan yang mereka
bercadang untuk membelinya.
• Teori pilihan pengguna mengandaikan
endowment tidak memberi kesan kepada
peta keluk puasama.
• Kajian menunjukkan pengalaman banyak
mengurangkan kesan endowment.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 62
SEKIAN TERIMA KASIH

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Mikro i pilihan pengguna

  • 2. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 2 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. Topik Perbincangan 1. Keutamaan Pilihan. 2. Utiliti. 3. Kekangan Belanjawan. 4. Pilihan Pengguna Berkekangan 5. Behavioral Economics.
  • 3. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 3 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. Asas Kepada Gelagat Pengguna • Keutamaan Pilihan individu menentukan kepuasan yang diperoleh drpd pilihan barangan yang digunakan • Pengguna menghadapi kekangan yang boleh menghadkan pilihan mereka. • Pengguna memaksimumkan kebajikan/kepuasan mereka drpd penggunaan tertakluk kepada kekangan yang dihadapi.
  • 4. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 4 Properties/Syarat Dalam Pilihan Pengguna • Completeness/Lengkap – Bila menghadapi pilihan antara dua barang (A, B), pengguna boleh menyusun pilihan (ranking) ikut susunan untuk memboleh pengguna membuat salah satu pilihan berikut; Pengguna lebih menyukai barang A drpd B atau lebih menyukai barang B drpd A atau tidak kisah (indifferent) samada barang A atau B.
  • 5. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 5 Properties/Syarat Dalam Pilihan Pengguna (samb..) • Transitif – pilihan pengguna mestilah konsisten iaitu jika pengguna lebih menyukai A drpd B, dan lebih menyukai B drpd C maka semestinya pengguna lebih menyukai A drpd C.
  • 6. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 6 Properties/Syarat Dalam Pilihan Pengguna (samb..) • Lebih Banyak Lebih Baik. - pengguna lebih suka barangan yang lebih banyak daripada yang sedikit.(keinginan mahukan lebih banyak juga dikenali sebagai konsep ketidakpuasan)  Barang baik/elok - barang yang mana, lebih banyak lebih baik sekurang kurangnya pada sesuatu tingkat penggunaan.  Barang tidak baik – barang yang mana lebih sedikit lebih baik seperti bahan cemar.
  • 7. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 7 Peta Pilihan (Preference Maps) • Keluk Puasama – gabungan atau kombinasi barangan yang pada pandangan pengguna memberikan kepuasan yang sama.  Peta Puasama - satu set lengkap keluk puasama yang menggambarkan citarasa atau pilihan pengguna.
  • 8. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 8 Lisa prefers bundle e to any bundle in area B Rajah 4.1 Gabungan/Bundle Pizza dan Burito Digunakan LisaB,Burritospersemester (a) 302515 Z, Pizzas per semester 25 20 15 10 5 d a b e c f A B B,Burritospersemester (b) 302515 Z, Pizzas per semester 25 20 15 10 a b I1 e c Which of these two bundles would be preferred by Lisa? Lisa prefers bundle e over bundle d, since e has more of both goods: Pizza and Burritos Which of these two bundles would be preferred by Lisa? Lisa prefers bundle f over bundle e, since f has more of both goods: Pizza and Burritos Lisa prefers any bundle in area A over e If Lisa is indifferent between bundles e, a, and c ….. we can draw an indifferent curve over those three points
  • 9. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 9 Figure 4.1 Bundles of Pizzas and Burritos Lisa Might ConsumeB,Burritospersemester (a) 302515 Z, Pizzas per semester 25 20 15 10 5 d a b e c f A B B,Burritospersemester (c) 302515 Z, Pizzas per semester 25 20 15 10 d a I1 e c f we can draw an indifferent curve over those three points I2 I0
  • 10. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 10 Syarat/Ciri Peta Puasama (Properties of Indifference Maps) 1. Keluk puasama yang berada jauh dari origin/asalan lebih diutamakan drpd yang dekat dgn origin. 2. Terdapat keluk puasama melalui setiap kemungkinan gabungan (bundle) barangan. 3. Keluk keluk puasama tidak boleh bersilang. 4. Keluk puasama mencerun kebawah.
  • 11. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 11 Keluk Puasama yang Tak Mungkin • Lisa tak kisah antara e dan a, dan juga antara e dan b…  Berasas syarat transitif semestinya dia juga tak kisah antara a dan b…  Tapi ini tak mungkin kerana b mesti lebih diutamakan drpd a sbb b mempunyai lebih banyak kedua dua barang. B,Burritospersemester Z, Pizzas per semester I1 I0 a b e
  • 12. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 12 Keluk Puasama yang Tak Mungkin (samb..) • Lisa tak kisah antara b dan a sebab kedua duanya atas keluk puasama yg sama…  Tapi ini kontradik dgn andaian/syarat “more is better”  b mempunyai lebih banyak kedua dua barang sbb itu ianya patut diberikan keutamaan drpd a. B,Burritospersemester Z, Pizzas per semester I a b
  • 13. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 13 Figure 4.2 Keluk Puasama yang Mustahil
  • 14. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 14 Soalan Contoh 4.1 • Bolehkah Keluk Puasama berbentuk lebar/tebal? • Jawapan:  Lukiskan keluk puasama yang garisnya lebar dua kali ganda drpd keluk puasama biasa dan tunjukkan yang ia boleh melanggar syarat keutamaan pilihan yang dibincangkan.
  • 15. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 15 Soalan Contoh 4.1 • Pengguna tak kisah antara b dan a sebabkedua dua titik pada keluk puasama yang sama…  Tapi ia bersalahan dengan syarat “more is better” sebab b mempunyai lebih banyak kedua dua barang dan mesti dipilih drpd a. B,Burritospersemester a b Z, Pizzas per semester I
  • 16. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 16 Kesanggupan Penggantian Antara Barangan • Kadar Penggantian Sut (MRS) – jumlah maksimum satu satu barang yang pengguna sanggup korbankan untuk mendapatkan satu lagi unit barangan lain.  MRS juga kecerunan/slope keluk puasama! Z B MRS   
  • 17. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 17 From bundle b to bundle c, Lisa is willing to give up 2 Burritos in exchange for 1 more Pizza… From bundle c to bundle d, Lisa is willing to give up 1 Burritos in exchange for 1 more Pizza… From bundle a to bundle b, Lisa is willing to give up 3 Burritos in exchange for 1 more Pizza… Rajah 4.3(a) MRS Disepanjang Keluk Puasama B,Burritospersemester Indifference Curve Convex to the Origin 5 3 8 1 -1 1 1 2 0 -2 –3 3 4 5 6 Z, Pizzas per semester a b c d I • The MRS from bundle a to bundle b is -3.  This is the same as the slope of the indifference curve between those two points. • From b to c,  MRS = -2.  This is the same as the slope of the indifference curve between those two points.
  • 18. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 18 Figure 4.3(b) Marginal Rate of Substitution • Dari a ke b, Lisa sanggup melepaskan 2 Pizzas untuk 1 Burrito.  Dari b ke c dia sanggup lepaskan 3 Pizzas untuk 1 burrito.  Mungkin kah ini terjadi? • Pandangan anda? B,Burritospersemester (b) Indifference Curve Concave to the Origin 5 7 1 1 2 0 –2 –3 3 4 5 Z, Pizzas per semester a b c I
  • 19. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 19 Diminishing marginal rate of substitution/Kadar penggantian sut berkurangan • The MRS approaches zero as we move down and to the right along an indifference curve. (MRS menghampiri sifar apabila semakin ke bawah dan ke kanannya KPS). • Discussion: could you imagine a good that does not exhibit this property? (Perbincangan: bolehkah anda bayangkan barangan yang tidak dapat ditunjukkan oleh ciri ini?).
  • 20. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 20 Curvature of Indifference Curves/Bentuk KPS. • Casual observation suggests that most people’s indifference curves are convex. (Kebiasaanya KPS setiap individu berbentuk cembung ke titik asalan). • Exceptions/pengecualian:  Perfect substitutes - goods that a consumer is completely indifferent as to which to consume. (Pengganti sempurna – pengguna tidak kisah sepenuhnya untuk menggunakan mana mana barangan).  Perfect complements - goods that a consumer is interested in consuming only in fixed proportions (Pelengkap sempurna – barangan yang digunakan pengguna berkadar tetap).
  • 21. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 21 Figure 4.4(a) Pengganti Sempurna (Perfect Substitutes) • Bagi Bill Coke dan Pepsi sebagai penggati sempurna: Keluk puasamanya  Bergaris lurus dan selari dengan MRS Cerun -1 (Straight, parallel lines with an MRS (slope) of −1).  Bill sanggup menukar 1 Coke dengan 1 Pepsi. Coke,Cansperweek 1 2 3 4 Pepsi, Cans perweek 1 0 2 3 4 I 1 I2 I3 I 4
  • 22. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 22 Figure 4.4(b) Penggenap Sempurna (Perfect Complements) Icecream,Scoopsperweek 1 2 3 Pie, Slices per week 1 2 3 0 I1 I2 I3 a d e c b  Jika Lisa hanya mendpt sepotong pie,dia mndapat kepuasan darpd nya bersama dgn 1 scoop icekrim di a,  Kepuasan yang sama jika dia gunakan di d dan e
  • 23. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 23 Figure 4.4c Imperfect Substitutes/ Pengganti tidak sempurna • Bentuk umum keluk puasama adalah cembung dan berada antara 2 keluk puasaama yang ekstrem.  Keluk puasama yg cembung menunjukkan pengguna melihat dua baraang yg digunakan bukan pengganti sempurna. B,Burritospersemester f Z, Pizzas per semester I
  • 24. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 24 Application: Indifference Curves Between Food and Clothing
  • 25. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 25 Problems: constructing indifference curves/Permasalahan: Lakarkan KPS 1. 1. Don is altruistic. Show the possible shape of his indifference curves between charity and all other goods. (Don seorang yang gemarkan kerja kebajikan. Lakarkan bentuk KPS Don di antara pilihan untuk kerja kebajikan dan barangan lain). 2. Miguel considers tickets to the Houston Grand Opera and to Houston Astros baseball games to be perfect substitutes. Show his preference map. (Miguel merasakan tiket ke Opera Houston Grand Opera dan permainan besbol di Houston Astros adalah pengganti sempurna). 3. If Joe views two candy bars and one piece of cake as perfect substitutes, what is his marginal rate of substitution between candy bars and cake? (Joe merasakan 2 bar caramel dan sepotong kek adalah pengganti sempurna. Apakah MRS di antara kedua-dua barang tersebut?).
  • 26. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 26 Utility/Utiliti • Utility - a set of numerical values that reflect the relative rankings of various bundles of goods. (Utiliti – suatu set nilai berangka yang menggambarkan penarafan relatif bagi pelbagai kombinasi barangan). • Utility function - the relationship between utility values and every possible bundle of goods. (Fungsi utiliti – hubungan antara nilai utiliti dengan setiap pilihan barangan). U(B, Z)
  • 27. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 27 Utility Function: Example/Fungsi Utiliti: Contoh • Question: Can determine whether Lisa would be happier if she had Bundle x with 9 burritos and 16 pizzas or Bundle y with 13 of each? (Soalan: Bolehkan ditentukan sama ada Lisa berpuashati jika ia mendapat bakul x dengan 9 burritos dan 16 pizzas atau bakul y dengan 13 setiap satunya?). • Answer: The utility she gets from x is 12utils. The utility she gets from y is 13utils. Therefore, she prefers y to x.U= BZ. (Jawapan: Lisa memperoleh utiliti daripada bakul x sebanyak 12utils dan bakul y sebanyak 13utils. Oleh itu, ia mengutamakan y dpd x.U= BZ). BZu 
  • 28. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 28 Pilihan Ordinal (Ordinal Preferences) • Jika pengguna boleh membuat susunan/penarafan (ranking) relatif kombinasi barangan,-ini ukuran ordinal e.g gred A, B, C etc. A lebih baik dari B tp tak tahu banyak mana A lebih baik dar B. • Ukuran kardinal: boleh membuat perbandingan mutlak antara susunan e.g niilai wang.
  • 29. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 29 Utility and Indifference Curves (Utiliti dan Keluk Puasama) • Keluk puasama menunjukkan pelbagai kombinasi penggunaan barangan yang memberikan sesuatu ringkat utiliti yang sama. • Jika fungsi utiliti Lisa U(Z, B), maka keluk puasama Lisa diberikan sebagai,
  • 30. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 30 Figure 4.5(a) The Relationship Between the Utility Function and Indifference Curves
  • 31. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 31 Figure 4.5(b) The Relationship Between the Utility Function and Indifference Curves (cont.)
  • 32. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 32 Utiliti Marginal/Utiliti Sut • Utiliti marginal - the extra utility that a consumer gets from consuming the last unit of a good.(Utiliti sut – tambahan utiliti yang pengguna peroleh daripada unit terakhir barang yang digunakan).  the slope of the utility function as we hold the quantity of the other good constant. (kecerunan bagi fungsi utiliti selagi kuantiti barangan lain adalah malar). • Marginal Utility of good Z is:/ Utiliti sut bagi barang Z ialah: Z U MUZ   
  • 33. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 33 Figure 4.6 Utility and Marginal Utility • As Lisa consumes more pizza, holding her consumption of burritos constant at 10, her total utility, U, increases…  and her marginal utility of pizza, MUZ, decreases (though it remains positive). • Marginal utility is the slope of the utility function as we hold the quantity of the other good constant. MUZ,Marginalutilityofpizza MUZ 10987654321 Z, Pizzas per semester 0 130 (b) Marginal Utility 20 U,Utils U = 20 Utility function,U (10, Z) Z = 1 10987654321 Z, Pizzas per semester 0 350 250 (a) Utility 230 Z U MUZ   
  • 34. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 34 Utility and Marginal Rates of Substitution/Utiliti dan MRS • The MRS is the negative of the ratio of the marginal utility of another pizza to the marginal utility of another burrito. (MRS adalah nilai negatif bagi nisbah antara utiliti sut bagi tambahan unit pizza dan utiliti sut bagi tambahan unit burrito). • Formally/Ditulis sebagai: B Z MU MU Z B MRS    
  • 35. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 35 Budget Constraint/Kekangan Belanjawan • Budget line (or budget constraint) - the bundles of goods that can be bought if the entire budget is spent on those goods at given prices. (Garis/kekangan belanjawan – jumlah barangan yang dapat dibeli jika kesemua pendapatan dibelanjakan terhadap sejumlah barangan pada suatu tingkat harga diberi). • Opportunity set - all the bundles a consumer can buy, including all the bundles inside the budget constraint and on the budget constraint. (Set peluang- semua kombinasi barangan yg pengguna boleh beli, termasuk kombinasi yg berada dibawah dan disepanjang kekangan belanjawan).
  • 36. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 36 Budget Constraint (cont). /Kekangan Belanjawan • How many burritos can Lisa buy?  To answer solve budget constraint for B (quantity of burritos): (Berapa banyak burritos yang dapat dibeli oleh Lisa? Selesaikan kekangan belanjawan untuk B (kuantiti burritos:) B Z ZB ZB P ZPY B ZPYBP YZPBP    
  • 37. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 37 Budget Constraint (cont.) • If Lisa spends all her budget, Y, on pizza and burritos, then pBB + pZZ = Y  where pBB is the amount she spends on burritos and pZZ is the amount she spends on pizzas. • This equation is her budget constraint.  It shows that her expenditures on burritos and pizza use up her entire budget.
  • 38. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 38 Budget Constraint (cont.) • How many burritos can Lisa buy?  To answer solve budget constraint for B (quantity of burritos): B Z ZB ZB P ZPY B ZPYBP YZPBP    
  • 39. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 39 Budget Constraint (cont). /Kekangan Belanjawan • From previous slide we have: (Paparan sebelum ini:)  If pZ = $1, pB = $2, and Y = $50, then: B Z P ZPY B   Z Z B 25.025 2$ )1($50$   
  • 40. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 40 Table 4.1 Allocations of a $50 Budget Between Burritos and Pizza
  • 41. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 41 Figure 4.6 Budget Constraint/Kekangan Belanjawan  From previous slide we have that if: – pZ = $1, pB = $2, and Y = $50, then the budget constraint, L1, is: Z Z B 25.025 2$ )1($50$    B,Burritospersemester Opportunity set 50 = Y /pZ L1 25 = Y/pB 20 10 100 30 Z, Pizzas per semester a b c d Amount of Burritos consumed if all income is allocated for Burritos. Amount of Pizza consumed if all income is allocated for Pizza.
  • 42. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 42 The Slope of the Budget Constraint/ Kecerunan garis belanjawan • We have seen that the budget constraint for Lisa is given by the following equation: (Garis belanjawan Lisa seperti berikut:)  The slope of the budget line is also called the marginal rate of transformation (MRT) (kecerunana garis belanjawan juga disebut sebagai kadar transformai sut (MRT) . • rate at which Lisa can trade burritos for pizza in the marketplace (kadar di mana Lisa boleh menggantikan burritos bagi membeli pizza di pasaran). Z P P P Y B B Z B  Slope = B/ Z = MRT
  • 43. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 43 Figure 4.7(a) Changes in the Budget Constraint: An increase in the Price of Pizzas/ Perubahan garis belanjawan: peningkatan harga Pizza. B,Burritospersemester Loss 50 L1 (pZ = $1) L2 (pZ = $2) 25 250 Z, Pizzas per semester B = Y PB - PZ = $1 PB Z If the price of Pizza doubles, (increases from $1 to $2) the slope of the budget line increases This area represents the bundles she can no longer afford!!! $2 Slope = -$1/$2 = -0.5 Slope = -$2/$2 = -1
  • 44. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 44 Figure 4.7(b) Changes in the Budget Constraint: Increase in Income (Y)/ Perubahan garis belanjawan: peningkatan pendapatan dua kali ganda (Y). Gain L3 (Y = $100) L1 (Y = $50) 0 B = $50 PB - PZ PB Z If Lisa’s income increases by $50 the budget line shifts to the right (with the same slope!) $100 This area represents the new consumption bundles she can now afford!!!10050 Z, Pizzas per semester B,Burritospersemester 50 25
  • 45. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 45 Solved Problem 4.2/ Penyelesaian masalah 4.2 • A government rations water, setting a quota on how much a consumer can purchase. If a consumer can afford to buy 12 thousand gallons a month but the government restricts purchases to no more than 10 thousand gallons a month, how does the consumer’s opportunity set change? (Kerajaan menetapkan kuota pembelian air kepada pengguna. Sekiranya penggunan mampu membeli air sebanyak 12 ribu gelen sebulan tetapi kerajaan menghadkan kepada tidak lebih daripada 10 ribu gelen sebulan, bagaimana peluang pengguna berubah?).
  • 46. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 46 Penyelesaian Problem 4.3
  • 47. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 47 Pilihan Pengguna Berkekangan • Dengan diberikan maklumat keutamaan pilihan dan peruntukan kewangan Lisa dapat ditentukan kombinasi optimumnya. • Kombinasi optimumnya bila budget yang ada dapat membeli kombinasi yang memberikan kepuasan maksimum.
  • 48. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 48 Figure 4.9 Pemaksimuman Pengguna: Penyelesaian Interior • Would Lisa be able to consume any bundle along I3 (i.e. bundle f)?  No! Lisa does not have enough income to afford any bundle along I3 B,Burritospersemester 10 20 25 5030100 Z, Pizzas per semester I1 I2 I3 d fc e aA B  Would Lisa be able to consume any bundle along I1?  Yes; she could afford bundles d, c, and a.  Nevertheless, there are other affordable bundles that should be preferred and affordable.  For instance bundle e  Bundle e is called a consumer’s optimum.  If Lisa is consuming this bundle, she has no incentive to change her behavior by substituting one good for another.
  • 49. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 49  The budget constraint and the indifference curve have the same slope at the point e where they touch.  Therefore, at point e: Slope of I2 Figure 4.9 Pemaksimuman Pengguna: Penyelesaian Interior (samb) B,Burritospersemester 25 500 Z, Pizzas per semester I2 e MRT P P MU MU MRS B Z B Z  Slope of BL
  • 50. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 50 Figure 4.10 Consumer Maximization, Corner Solution B,Burritospersemester Budget line 25 50 Z, Pizzas per semester I1 I2 I3 e
  • 51. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 51 Solved Problem 4.4 • Nigel, a Brit, and Bob, a Yank, have the same tastes, and both are indifferent between a sports utility vehicle (SUV) and a luxury sedan. Each has a budget that will allow him to buy and operate one vehicle for a decade. For Nigel, the price of owning and operating an SUV is greater than that for the car. For Bob, an SUV is a relative bargain because he benefits from lower gas prices and can qualify for an SUV tax break. Use an indifference curve–budget line analysis to explain why Nigel buys and operates a car while Bob chooses an SUV.
  • 52. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 52 Solved Problem 4.4
  • 53. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 53 Solved Problem 4.4/ Penyelesaian masalah 4.4 • Alexx doesn’t care about where he lives, but he does care about what he eats. Alexx spends all his money on restaurant meals at either American or French restaurants. His firm offers to transfer him from its Miami office to its Paris office, where he will face different prices. The firm will pay him a salary in euros such that he can buy the same bundle of goods in Paris that he is currently buying in Miami.11 Will Alexx benefit by moving to Paris? (Alexx tidak kisah sangat di mana dia tinggal, tetapi dia mengambil berat mengenai apa yang dimakan. Alexx membelanjakan semua wangya sama ada di restoran American atau French. Firma tempat dia bekerja menawarnya untuk berpindah dari cawangan di Miami ke cawangan di Paris, di mana harga adalah berbeza. Firma akan memberi gaji dalam bentuk euro yang mana dia boleh membeli bakul barangan di Paris sama seperti yang sedang dibelinya di Miami . sama seperti di Paris. Adakah kebajikan Alexx meningkat dengan berpindah ke Paris?)
  • 54. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 54 Solved Problem 4.4/ Penyelesaian masalah 4.4
  • 55. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 55 Figure 4.11 Optimal Bundles on Convex Sections of Indifference Curves
  • 56. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 56 Food Stamps/Stem Makanan • Nearly 11% of U.S. households worry about having enough money to buy food and 3.3% report that they suffer from inadequate food (Sullivan and Choi, 2002). (hampir 11% dpd isirumah U.S. bimbang mengenai kecukupan kewangan untuk membeli makanan dan 3.3% melaporkan mereka menderia akibat kekurangan makanan (Sullivan dan Choi, 2002). • Households that meet income, asset, and employment eligibility requirements receive coupons that can be used to purchase food from retail stores. (Isirumah yang memenuhi syarat kelayakan (pendapatan, harta dan pekerjaan) menerima kupon yang boleh digunakan untuk membeli makaan darpda kedai runcit).
  • 57. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 57 Food Stamps (cont)./ Penyelesaian masalah 4.3 • The Food Stamps Program is one of the nation’s largest social welfare programs with expenditures of $33.1 billion for nearly 29.1 million people in 2006. (Program stem makanan adalah salah satu program kebajikan terbesar dengan perbelanjaan sebanyak $33.1 bilion bagi hampir sejumlah 29.1 milion penduduk pada 2006). • Would a switch to a comparable cash subsidy increase the well-being of food stamp recipients? (Adakah dengan memberi subsidi tunai dapat meningkatkan faedah program stem makanan?).  Would the recipients spend less on food and more on other goods? (Adakah penerima program stem makanan kurang berbelanja untuk manakan dan banyak kepada barangan lain?).
  • 58. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 58 Figure 4.12 Food Stamps Versus Cash Allothergoodspermonth Y Y + 100 Y + 100 0 100 Food per month Budget line with food stamps Budget line with cash Original budget line A B f d e Y C I1 I2 I3
  • 59. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 59 Behavioral Economics • Dengan maklumat tambahan dari aspek seperti psikologi dan kajian empirikal mengenai perlakuan manusia dan kelainan emosi mereka terhadap model ekonomi dapat membantu ahli ekonomi membuat ramalan yang lebih baik dalam membuat keputusan.
  • 60. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 60 Ujian kepada Transitif (Test of Transitivity) • Orang dewasa lebih konsisten dalam membuat pilihan transitif. • Kanak kanak tidak begitu konsisten dalam membuat pilihan transitif.
  • 61. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 61 Kesan Endowment (Endowment Effect) • Kebanyakan orang memberikan nilai yang lebih tinggi kepada barang yang mereka milikki drpd barangan yang mereka bercadang untuk membelinya. • Teori pilihan pengguna mengandaikan endowment tidak memberi kesan kepada peta keluk puasama. • Kajian menunjukkan pengalaman banyak mengurangkan kesan endowment.
  • 62. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved.4 - 62 SEKIAN TERIMA KASIH