sindh text book board, nineth biology

1. CHAPTER NO 11
TRANSPORT IN
ORGANISMS Created by
ADNAN JAT
adnanjat03@gmail.com

2. IMPORTANCE OF WATER
WATER MAKES UP LARGEST PROPORTION OF CELL PROTOLPASM
LIVING ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF 60-90 % OF WATER
HUMAN BODY MASS IS ATLEAST 60% OF WATER
WATER IS A MOLECULE OF ENORMOUS BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE WHICH PLAYS
MANY VITAL ROLES FOR CELL.

3. DIFFERENT ROLES OF WATER
AS A METABOLITE
• EVERY METABOLOIC REACTION REQUIRES AVAILABITY.
• WATER IS EITHER COSUMED OR RELEASED.

4. WATER AS A SOLVENT
• WATER IS BEST SOLVENT, DISSOLVES MANY OF THE SUBSTANCES SPECIALLY
SALTS, DUE TO ITS POLAR NATURE,WATER ENTERS INTO MANY REACTIONS
OCCURING IN THE LIVING CELL.
• PROTIENS, NUCLEIC ACIDS PHOSPHOLIPIDS ATTAIN SPECIFICATION ACCEPTING
OR DENOTING H+ FROM OR TO WATER.
• MINERALS SALTS ALSO IONOZE IN AN AQUEOUS MEDIUM OF THE CELL.

5. WATER AS MEDIUM OF TRANSPORT
• WATER IS NEEDED FOR PLASMA, THE LIQUID PART OF THE BLOOD MUST
CONTAIN A LOT OF WATER SO THAT SUBSTANCES LIKE GLUCOSE GET
DISSOLVED AND TRANSPORTED AROUND THE BODY.
• WATER IS ESSENTIAL FOR TRANSPORTING COLLOIDAL MOLECULES FOR COOLING
PLANTS AND ANIMALS BY EVAPORATING.
• WATER DEVELOPS TURGIDITY FOR LEAVES AND PLANTS HELPS IN SHAPE AND
SUPPORT.
• IN MANY ANIMAL WATER WORKS AS HYDROSTATIC SKELETON.

6. DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
• DIFFUSION
• IT IS MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES FROM THE AREA OF HIGHER CONCENTRATION
TO THE AREA OF LOWER CONCENTRATION.
• A FEW SUBSTANCES LIKE OXYGEN, CARBON DIOXIDE, DIFFUSE FREELY ACROSS
THE CELL MEMBRANE.
• DIFFUSION IS ESSENTIAL IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION ETC
• STOMATAL TRANSPIRATION TAKES PLACE WHEN WATER VAPORS ESCAPE FROM
INTERCELLULAR SPACES IN THE OUTER ATMOSPHERE.
• AMOEBA AND HYDRA DEPENDS UPON DIFFUSION FOR OBTAINING OXYGEN AND
GETTING RID OF CARBON DIOXIDE
• LARGE ANIMALS, IN LUNGS, EXCHANGE OF GASES TAKES PLACE BY DIFFUSION.

7. OSMOSIS
• PROTOPLASM OF CELL IS SURROUNDED IN PLASMA/ CELL MEMBRANE. IT IS
SELECTIVITY PERMEABLE.
• OSMOSIS IS A PROCESS BY WHICH SOLVENT MOLECULE (WATER) DIFFUSE ACROSS
SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE FROM A REGION OF LOW SOLUTE
CONCENTRATION TO THE HIGH SOLUTE CONCENTRATION.
• DUE TO OSMOSIS WATER MOVES FROM ONE CELL TO ANOTHER CELL.
• IT ALSO MAINTAIN THE TURGIDITY OF CELL.
• WITH THE HELP OF THIS PROCESS PLANTS ABSORB LARGE QUANTITY OF WATER
BY ROOTS.

8. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN PASSIVE AND ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Passive transport does not require energy Active transport requires energy which
supplied by ATP
Passive transport is done by Diffusion and
Osmosis
Most of the material transported due to
concentration gradient
It is low process It is more rapid
Diffusion is essential in Photosynthesis and
respiration. Osmosis maintains turgidity of
cell
It helps to maintain ionic and water balance
between cell and extra cellular fluids.

9. FUNCTION OF SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE
MEMBRANE
• EVERY CELL’S PROTOPLASM IS SURROUNDES BY PLASMA MEMBRANE.
• IT ALLOWS ONLY CERTAIN MOLECULES, IONS TO ENTER AND LEAVE THE
CYTOPLASM FREELY, HENCE, IT IS SAID SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEBRANE.
• ALLOWS SOLVENT MOLECULES FROM REGION OF LOW SOLUTE CONCENTRAION
TO A REGION OF HIGH SOLUTE CONCENTRATION.
• ALSO MAINTAINS THE TURGIDITY OF CELLS.
• THROUGH THIS MEMBRANE PLANTS ABSORB LARGE QUANTITY OF WATER BY
ROOTS.

10. WHAT IS TURGOR
• CONDITIONS PRODUCED INSIDE THE PLANT CELL IS CALLED IS CELLED TURGOR.
• MECHANISM
• THE CELL SAP PRESENT IN THE VACOULE IS THE SOLUTION OF SALTS AND
SUGARS. IF THE PLANT CELL IS SURROUNDED BY WATER THAN WATER WOULD
ENTER THE VACOULE BY OSMOSIS.
• SUCH EXTRA WATER IN THE VACOULE WOULD CAUSE THE CELL SWELL AND PUSH
THE CYTOPLASM AGAINST THE CELL WALL WHICH BECOMES THE STRETCHED.
• SUCH CELL IS SAID TO BE TURGID.
• THE CONDITIONS THEN PRODUCED INSIDE THE CELL IS CALLED TURGOR.
• THE OUTWARD PRESSURE EXCERTED ON THE CELL WAL BY THE FLUID CONTENTS
OF THE CELL IS CALLED THE TURGOR PRESSURE.
• WHEN ALL THE CELLS IN A LEAF OF THE PLANT ARE TURGID, THE WHOLE
STRUCTURE IS FIRM AND HARD.

11. IMPORTANCE OF TURGOR
• WHEN ALL THE CELLS IN A LEAF OF THE PLANT ARE TURGID, THE WHOLE
STRUCTURE IS FIRM AND HARD.
• THE PLANT WILTS IF THE CELL LOSE WATER THAN THEY CAN TAKE IT IN AND
CELL LOSE THEIR TURGIDTY.
• TURGOR IS IMPORTANT IN THE GROWTH OF THE CELL SPECIALLY IN THE
ELONGATION OF THE CELLS.
• THE OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA DEPENDS UPON THE CHANGES IN THE
TURGOR OF THE GUARD CELLD.
• THE RISING AND FALLING OF THE LEAFLETS OF MIMOSA ARE ALSO DUE TO
CHANGES IN THE TURGOR OF THE LEAF CELL.

12. WATER AND MINERALS TRANPOTATION IN FLOWERING
PLANTS
• UPTAKE WATER AND MINERALS
• PLANTS TAKE UP WATER AND SALTS FROM THE SOIL BY THE ROOTS, SUCH WATER IS
CONDUCTED TO ALL PARTS OF THE PLANT BODY BY XYLEM.
• ROOT HAIRS
• A ROOT HAIR IS OUTGROWTH OF ONE OF THE EPIDERMAL CELLS, IT HAS THIN WALL
OF CELLULOSE LINED WITH A THIN LAYER OF CYTOPLASM SURROUNDING A LARGE
VACOULE. VACOULE CONTAINS SOLUTION OF SUGAR, ORGANIC ACID, ACIDS,
MINERALS, SALTS, ETC
• FUNCTIONS
• ROOT HAIRS ARE IN CONTACT WITH SOIL PARTICLES, EACH OF PRTICLE IS
SURROUNDED BY A THIN WATER CONTAING MINERALS AND SALTS, CELL SAP OF THE
ROOT HAIR IS STRONGER THAN THAT OF A SOIL WATER, THUS A CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT IS STABLISHED BETWEEN THE ROOT HAIR AND THE SOIL WATER, WATER
FROM THE SOIL MOVES INTO THE ROOTS HAIRS BY IMBIBITION AND OSMOSIS.

13. WATER AND MINERALS TRANPOTATION IN FLOWERING
PLANTS
• ASCENT OF SAP
• AS A RESULT OF OSMOSIS OF WATER, THE ROOT HAIRS BECOME TURGID AND
THEIR CELL SAP BECOMES DILUTE THAN THAT OF ADJACENT CELLS, SO WATER
MOVES FROM CELL TO CELL AND FINALLY FORCED INTO THE XYLEM VESSELS
AND ASCENDS UPTO THE XYLEM, SUCH UPWARD MOVEMENT OF WATER IS
CALLED ASCENT OF SAP.

14. MOVEMENT OF OGANIC MATERIALS IN PLANTS
•TRANSLOCATION
• IN HIGHER PLANT, ONLY THE GREEN PARTS SPECIALLY LEAVES CAN
MANUFACTURE FOOD. THE MOVEMENT OF PREPARED FOOD FROM LEAVES TO
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT THROUGH PHLOEM ELEMENTS (SIEVE TUBE) IS
CALLED TRANSLOCATION. PHLOEM ALSO CONDUCTS OTHER SUBSTANCES SUCH
AS VITAMIN, HORMONES ETC.
•MUNCH HYPOTHESIS
• ACCORDING TO THIS HYPOTHESIS, SOLUTES ARE TRANSLOCATED THROUGH
THE SIEVE TUBES WHICH FLOW IN BULK FROM THE SUPPLY END (LEAVES) TO THE
CONSUMPTION END (ROOT) UNDER A TURGOR PRESSURE GRADIENT.

15. MECHANISM OF TRANSLOCATION
• AS A RESULT OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS, THE SUPPLY END (LEAVES) HAVE A LARGE
AMOUNT OF ORGANIC SOLUTES, WHICH CAUSES TREMENDOUS INCREASE IN
SUCTION PRESSURE OF LEAF CELL ( MESOPHYLL CELL) AND THEY DRAW WATER
FROM THE XYLEM OF THE LEAF, AS CONSEQUENCE TURGOR PRESSURE IS
INCREASED.
• THE TURGOR PRESSURE IN STEM AND ROOT IS COMPARATIVELY LOW AND
HENCE, THE SOLUBLE ORAGANIC SOLUTES BEGIN TO FLOW FROM MESOPHYLL
THROUGH SIEVE TUBES DOWN TO THE CELLS OF STEM AND ROOT UNDER
GRADIENT OF TURGOR PRESSURE.
• THESE SOLUTES ARE EITHER CONSUMED OR STORED IN SLUBLE FORM.
• THE EXCESS WATER IS RELEASED BACK INTO THE XYLEM VESSELS.

16. TRANSPIRATION
• THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM AERIAL PARTS OF PLANT IS KNOWN AS
TRANSPIRATION.
• TRANSPIRATION MAY BE
• STOMATAL TRANSPITAION
• MORE THAN 90% OF WATER TRANSPIRED THROUGH STAMATA
• LENTICULAR TRANSPAIRATION
• IT OCCURS THROUGH LENTICLES OF STEM
• CUTICULAR TRANSPIRATION
• IT OCCURS THROUGH EPIDERMAL CELLS THROUGH TE CUTICLE

17. TRANSPIRATION
• TRANSPIRATION RESULTS IN LESSER CONCENTARION OF WATER AND GREATER
CONCENTRAION OF SALTS IN THE LEAF CELLS.
• OSMOTIC PRESSURE IN LEAF CELLS THUS INCREASES AND THEY DRAW MORE
WATER FROM THE XYLEM.
• WATER DEFICIT IN THE XYLEM PRODUES A PULL OR TENSION, CALLED
TRANSPIRATIONAL PUL.
• AS A RESULT OF TRANSPIRATIONAL PULL AND COHESION OF WATER MOLCELUS,
WATER IS PULLED UPWARD IN THE XYLEM VESSEL AS A CONTINUOUS COLUMN,
CALLED TRANSPIRATIONAL STREAM.
• TRANSPIRATION HELPS IN ASCENT OF SAP THROUGH TRANSPIATION PULL AND
TRANSPIRATION STREAM.

18. FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF
TRANSPIRATION
• THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATAION IS AFFECTED BY FOLLOWING ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS.
• LIGHT:
• IT IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS BECAUSE IT REGULATES THE OPENING
AND CLOSING OF STOMATA.
• THE STOMATA REMAIN WIDE OPEN DURING DAY TIME, AS A RESULT TRANSPIRATION
TAKES PLACE THROUGH THEM BUT AT NIGHT THEY ARE CLOSED.
• TEMPERATURE:
• THE INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE INCREASE IN RATE OF TRANSPIRATION BY
INCREASUNG RATE OF EVPORATION OF WATER FROM CELL SURFACE
•

19. FACRORS AFFECTING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
• HUMIDITY:
• TRANSPIRATION DECREASE IN THE INCREASE OF HUMIDITY (MOISTURE OF AIR) AND
INCREASES WITH THE DECREASE OF HUMIDITY.
• IT MEANS THAT TRANSPIRATION CAN ONLY TAKE PLACE WHEN THE ATMOSPHERE IS
PARTIALLY SATURATED OR DRY.
• THE DIFFERENCE IN WATER CONTENT OF THE PLANT LEVEL THAT OF THE
ATMOSPHERE AFFECTS THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION.
• WIND:
• THE INCREASE IN THE WIND VELOCITY INCREASE THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
THROUGH A REDUCTION IN THE DENSITY OF THE AIR.

20. FACRORS AFFECTING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
• ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
• LOW ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE INCREASE THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
THROUGH REDUCTION IN THE DENSITY OF THE AIR.

21. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION
• BY ACTIVE TRANSPIRATION A SUCTION FORCE THE TRANSPIRATION PULL IS
CREATED WHICH HELPS IN UPWARD MOVEMENT OF WATER AND MINERALS.
• IT ALSO INCREASES THE RATE OF ABSORPTION.
• IT HELPS THE EVAPORATING EXCESS AMOUNT OF WATER.
• IT MAINTAIN A SUITABLE TEMPERATURE FOR THE LEAVES AND PREVENTS OVER
HEATING.
• IT FACILITATES THE ASCENT OF SAP.
• IT BRINGS ABOUT THE OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA WHICH INDIRECTLY
INFLUENCES THE PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
• EXCESSIVE LOSS OF WATER FROM AERIAL PARTS MAY ALSO RESULT IN WILTING
AND DEHYDRATION, LEADING TO DEATH OF PLANTS IN EXTREME CONDITIONS.

22. STOMATA
• STRUCTURE OF STOMATA
• STOMATA ARE THE SPECIAL PORE LIKE STRUCTURES IN THE EPIDERMIS OF
PLANTS, THEY OCCUR MOSTLY IN LEAVES.
• GUARD CELLS:
• EACH STOMATA IS SURROUNDED BY TWO KIDNEY SHAPED GUARD CELLS
CONTAINING CHLOROPLAST, WHICH CONTROL THE OPENING AND CLOSING OF
THE STOMATA. THE INNER WALL OF THE GUARD CELL IS THICK INELASTIC DUE
PRESENCE OF SECONDARY CELLULOSE LAYER. THE OUTER WALL OF THE GUARD
CELL IS THIN, ELASTIC AND PRMEABLE.

23. STOMATA
• OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA:
• THE OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA DEPENDS UPON THE TURGIDITY OF
THEIR GUARD CELLS.
• OPENING OF STOMATA:
• STOMATA ARE OPEN WHEN THE GUARD CELLS ARE TURGID. THE INNER MARGINS
CURVE APART DUE TO OUTWARD STRETCH OF OUTER WALLS RESULTING IN THE
WIDENING OF STOMATA PORE.
• CLOSING OF STOMATA:
• STOMATA ARE CLOSE WHEN THE TURGIDITY OF GUARD CELL DECREASES.

24. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN
ANIMALS
• TWO TYPES OF CIRCULATION:
• OPEN TYPE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• CLOSED TYPE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• OPEN TYPE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
• MANY INVERTEBRATES SUCH AS ARTHROPODS, MOLLUSCS ETC. BLOOD DOES
NOT FLOW IN BLOOD VESSEL, IT REMAINS FILLED IN THE OPEN TISSUE SPACES
CALLED SINUSES.

25. MECHANISM OF BLOOD FLOW
• TISSUES OF THE BODY IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH BLOOD.
• AFTER EXCHANGE OF MATERIAL WITH TISSUES, BLOOD ENTERS THE PUMPING
ORGAN OR HEART WHICH PUMPS BLOOD INTO THE VESSEL.
• HENCE CIRCULATION GOES ON.

26. CLOSED TYPE OF CIRCULATION
• FOUND IN CHORDATES AND SOME ANNELIDS.
• BLOOD CIRCULATES INSIDE THE BLOOD VESSELS. DOES NOT COME IN DIRECT
CONTACT WITH TISSUES.
• CONSISTS OF
HEART
BLOOD VESSELS (ARTERIES, VEINS AND CAPILLARIES)
BLOOD

27. HEART
• IT IS MUSCULAR ORGANS
• PUSHES BLOOD INTO BLOOD VESSELS (ARTERY) DIVIDING INTO MANY BRANCHES
LEADING TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF BODY
• IN EACH ORGAN ARTERY DIVIDES INTO MANY BRANCHES CALLED CAPILLARIES.
• IN CAPILLARIES EXCHANGE OF MATERIALS TAKES PLACE BETWEEN BLOOD AND
BODY ORGANS.
• AT OTHER END CAPILLARIES JOIN TO FORM VEINS WHICH BRINGS THE BLOOD
BACK TO THE HEART.

28. BLOOD
• BLOOD IS SPECIAL TYPE OF TISSUE WHICH CIRCULATES IN FLUID FORM IN THE
BODY
• COMPOSITION OF BLOOD:
PLASMA ( A FLUID PART)
THE CORPUSCLES (R.B.CS AND W.B.CS)
PLATELETS (FRAGMENTS)

29. PLASMA
• IN MAN, ABOUT 55% OF THE BLOOD CONSIST OF FLUID PART CALLED PLASMA.
IT IS COLORLESS AND CONSISTS OF:
90% WATER
7-8% PROTEIN
GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS, SALTS, ENZYMES, HORMONES, WASTES, GASES ETC

30. RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES
• IN MAMMALS RED CORPUSCLES ARE CIRCULAR DISC LIKE, BICONCAVE CELLS
• MATURE R.B.CS DO NOT HAVE NUCLEUS, MITOCHONDRIA, ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM AND GOLGI BODIES.
• THE MATURE R.B.C IS A BAG OF HEMOGLOBIN
• HEMOGLOBIN TRANSPORTS OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE, HENCE IT IS CALLED
RESPIRATORY PIGMENT. IT READILY COMBINES WITH OXYGEN IN LUNGS AND
TRANSPORTS IT TO ALL THE TISSUES OF THE BODY
• DEFICIENCY OF HEMOGLOBIN SLOWS DOWN THE METABOLIC ACTIVITIES

31. WHITE BLOOD CORPUSCLES
• W.B.CS ARE COLORLESS, IRREGULAR IN SHAPE AND NUCLEATED
• W.B.CS ARE LARGER THAN R.B.CS
• W.B.CS ARE COMMONLY KNOWN AS POLICE OF THE BODY BECAUSE, THEY
PROTECT THE BODY BY KILLING THE GERMS THAT SOMEHOW ENTER THE BODY
• W.B.CS HAVE THE ABILITY TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THEIR OWN BODY CELLS
AND THE FOREIGN CELLS.
• W.B.CS ARE OF DIFFERENT TYPES EACH OF WHICH PLAYS A UNIQUE ROLE IN
DEFENCE OF THE BODY

32. TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• MONOCYTES. THEY HAVE A LONGER LIFESPAN THAN MANY WHITE BLOOD CELLS
AND HELP TO BREAK DOWN BACTERIA.
• LYMPHOCYTES. THEY CREATE ANTIBODIES TO DEFEND AGAINST BACTERIA,
VIRUSES, AND OTHER POTENTIALLY HARMFUL INVADERS.
• NEUTROPHILS. THEY KILL AND DIGEST BACTERIA AND FUNGI. THEY ARE THE
MOST NUMEROUS TYPE OF WHITE BLOOD CELL AND YOUR FIRST LINE OF
DEFENSE WHEN INFECTION STRIKES.
• BASOPHILS. THESE SMALL CELLS APPEAR TO SOUND AN ALARM WHEN
INFECTIOUS AGENTS INVADE YOUR BLOOD. THEY SECRETE CHEMICALS SUCH AS
HISTAMINE, A MARKER OF ALLERGIC DISEASE, THAT HELP CONTROL THE BODY'S
IMMUNE RESPONSE.
• EOSINOPHILS. THEY ATTACK AND KILL PARASITES, DESTROY CANCER CELLS,
AND HELP WITH ALLERGIC RESPONSES.

33. PLATELETS
• PLATELETS ARE FRAGMENTS OF A LARGE CELL PRESENT IN MAMMALS
• THEY PLAY A VERY IMPORTANT ROLE IN CLOTTING OF BLOOD

34. FUNCTION OF BLOOD
• TRANSPORTS OXYGEN TO THE TISSUES AND FROM THE TISSUES
• DEFENDS THE BODY BY KILLING THE GERM, WHICH SOMEHOW ENTER THE BODY
• TRANSPORTS THE NUTRIENTS FROM THE GUT TO ALL PARTS OF THE BODY
• TRANSPORTS THE NITROGENOUS WASTES FROM TISSUES TO EXCRETORY
ORGANS
• TRANSPORTS THE HORMONES FROM THE ENDOCRINE TO ORGANS
• IT MAINTAINS THE UNIFORMS BODY TEMPERATURE
• IT MAKES A CLOT ITSELF TO STOP THE BLEEDING

35. ABO BLOOD GROUPS
• THE BLOOD CONSISTS OF PLASMA AND CORPUSCLES, THE HUMAN BLOOD IS
DIVIDED INTO FOUR GROUPS ON THE BASIS OF TWO SPECIAL PROTEINS CALLED
ANTIGEN ‘A’ AND ANTIGEN ‘B’ ON THE SURFACE OF R.B.CS ETC
A PERSON HAVING ANTIGEN ‘A’ ON RBC BELONGS TO BLOOD GROUP ‘A’.
A PERSON HAVING ANTIGEN ‘B’ ON RBC BELONGS TO BLOOD GROUP ‘B’.
 A PERSON HAVING BOTH ANTIGEN ‘A’ & ‘B’ ON RBC BELONGS TO BLOOD GROUP
‘AB’.
A PERSON WHO LACKS BOTH THE ANTIGENS BELONGS TO BLOOD GROUP ‘O’

36. ABO BLOOD GROUPS
• RH FACTOR:
• IF RH FACTOR IS PRESENT ON RBCS, THE PERSON IS DESIGNATED AS POSITIVE
(+VE)
• IF RH FACTOR IS ABSENT ON RBCS, THE PERSON IS DESIGNATED AS NEGATIVE (-
VE)
ON THE BASIS OF PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF THE ANTIGEN AND RH FACTORS,
THE HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS ARE OF FOLLOWING TYPES,
A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O-,.

37. HUMAN ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS
Blood Group Type of antigen Types of
antibodies in
plasma (against)
Compatibility
can receive from
blood group
Can donate to
blood group
A A B A, O A, AB
B B A B, O B, AB
AB A, B None A, B, AB, O AB
O None A, B O A, B, AB, O
Blood Group Type of antigen Types of
antibodies in
plasma (against)
Compatibility
can receive from
blood group
Can donate to
blood group
Rh+ Rh none Rh+, Rh- Rh+
Rh- none Rh+ Rh- Rh+, Rh-
Rh Factor System

38. BLOOD TRANSFUSION
• IT IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH A COMPATIBLE DOSE OF BLOOD FROM HEALTHY
PERSON IS GIVEN TO A PERSON IN NEED OF BLOOD DUE TO A LOT OF BLOOD
LOSS,
• UNIVERSAL DONORS:
• THE PERSON OF GROUP ‘O’ CAN DONATE BLOOD TO ALL GROUPS, THAT IS WHY
CALLED UNIVERSAL DONORS,
• UNIVERSAL RECIPIENTS:
• THE PERSON BELONGING TO ‘AB’ GROUP CAN ACCEPT BLOOD FROM ALL THE
BLOOD GROUPS,

39. ANEMIA
• GENERALLY REFERRED TO ANY ABNORMALITY IN STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION OR
NUMBER OF RBCS
•CAUSES:
• EITHER CAUSED BY RAPID LOSS OF BLOOD DUE AN ACCIDENT.
• PATHOGENICITY OF SOME GERMS
• NATURAL DEFICIENCY
• SYMPTOMS
• PALER APPEARANCE OF SKIN AND EYE
• GENERAL PHYSICAL WEAKNESS

40. STRUCTURE OF HUMAN HEART
• HEART IS MUSCULAR, PUMPING ORGAN. LOCATED IN THE THORAX CAVITY.
ENCLOSED IN A FIBROUS BAG LIKE STRUCTURE CALLED PERICARDIUM.
EXTERNALLY IT IS CONICAL IN SHAPE. INTERNALLY IT CONSISTS OF FOUR
CHAMBERS.
RIGHT ATRIUM
LEFT ATRIUM
RIGHT VENTRICLE
LEFT VENTRICLE

41. STRUCTURE OF HUMAN HEART
• Upper thin walled two chambers are Atria,
• Lower thick walled two chambers are ventricles,
• Atria are completely separated from each other by an
inert-atrial septum,
• Ventricles are completely separated by a muscular
partition called inert-ventricle septum,
• Auricular-ventricular aperture connects each atrium
with ventricle of its own side,
• In between right atrium and right ventricle, lies a
tricuspid valve,
• Similarly a bicuspid valve guards the opening between
the left atrium and left ventricle,
• These valves prevent the back flow of blood from the
ventricles to the atria.
• Two atria contract to flow the blood into ventricles
which simultaneously contract to push the blood into
the body,
• The blood from the right ventricle is pumped through
pulmonary area of the lungs for oxygenation while
blood from the left ventricle is pumped through aorta

42. DOUBLE CIRCUIT CIRCULATION
THE CIRCULATION OF BLOOD IN OUR BODY IS CALLED DOUBLE CIRCUIT BECAUSE
IT CIRCULATES IN TWO SEPARATE CIRCUITS
I. PULMONARY CIRCUIT
II. SYSTEMATIC CIRCUIT

43. PULMONARY CIRCUIT
• THE RIGHT ATRIUM RECIEVS DEOXYGENATED BLOOD FROM ALL PARTS OF THE BODY
(EXCEPT LUNGS) THROUGH TWO LARGE VEINS CALLED SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR
VENACAVA RESPECTIVELY.
• THIS DEOXYGENATED BLOOD PASSES INTO THE RIGHT VENTRICLE THROUGH
TRICUPSID VALVE.
• THE RIGHT VENTRCILE UPON CONTRSCTION FORCES THE DEOXYGENATED INTO THE
PULMONARY ARCH WHICH BIFURCATES INTO PULMONARY ARTERIES IMMEDIATELY
AFTER LEAVING THE HEART.
• EACH PULMONARY ARTERY SUPPLIES THE BLOOD (DEOXYGENATED) TO THE LUNGS
OF ITS SIDE.
• WHILE PASSING THROUGH THE CAPPILARY NETW OF LUNGS, THE BLOOD GIVES UP
CARBON DIOXIDE AND ABSORBS OXYGEN.
• THE OXYGENATED BLOOD COMES BACK TO THE LEFT ATRIUM THROUGH A PAIR OF
PULMONARY VIENS FROM EACH LUNGS.
• THIS ENTIRE CIRCUIT I.E. BLOOD FROM LINGS TO HEART AND FROM HEART TO
LUNGS IS CALLED PULMONARY CIRCIUT.

44. SYSTEMATIC CIRCUIT
• THE TRANSPORT OF OXYGENATED BLOOD THROUGHOUT THE BODY PARTS
EXCEPT OF LUNGS THROUGH SYSTEMATIC ARCH AND AORTA, KNOWN AS
SYSTEMATIC CIRCUIT.
• AORTA IS DIVIDED INTO THREE BRANCHES WHICH SUPPLIES BLOOD TO HEAD,
ARMS AND SHOULDERS.
• AORTA FURTHER DIVIDES INTO MANY BRANCHES WHICH SUPPLIES BLOOD TO
DIFFERENT BODY ORGANS E.G.
HEPATIC ARTERY – SUPPLIES BLOOD TO LIVER.
RENAL ARTERY – SUPPLIES BLOOD TO KIDNEY.
GASTRIC OR MESENTERIC ARTERIES – SUPPLIES BLOOD TO STOMACH, INTESTINE,

45. SYSTEMATIC CIRCUIT
• THE DEOXYGENATED BLOOD IS COLLECTED FROM ALL PARTS OF THE BODY BY
BLOOD VESSELS CALLED VEINS E.G.
 RENAL VEINS – COLLECTS DEOXYGENATED BLOOD FROM KIDNEYS
 HEPATIC PORTAL VEINS – COLLECTS DEOXYGENATED BLOOD FORM ALIMENTARY
CANAL.
 HEPATIC VEIN – COLLECTS DEOXYGENATED BLOOD FROM LIVER.
ALL THESE VEINS FROM POSTERIOR PART OF THE BODY FUSE TOGETHER TO FORM
POSTERIOR VENA CAVA.
THE VEINS FROM ALL THE ORGANS ANTERIOR TO HEART I.E. HEAD AND FORE LIMBS
FUSE TO FORM ANTERIOR VENA COVA.
• BOTH ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR VENA COVA DISCHARGE ALL THE VENOUS BLOOD
INTO RIGHT ATRIUM FROM WHERE THROUGH RIGHT VENTRICLE IT IS PUMPED TO
LUNGS THROUGH PULMONARY CIRCUIT FOR OXYGENATION.

46. HEART ATTACK
• THE MUSCLES OF HEART NEED A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF BLOOD LIKE ALL
OTHER ORGANS OF THE BODY.
• THE CORONARY ARTERY SUPPLIES OXYGENATED BLOOD WHICH ARISES JUST AT
THE BEGINNING OF AORTA.
• CORONARY ARTERY DIVIDES INTO FINE BRANCHES WHICH SUPPLY BLOOD TO
THE ENTIRE TISSUES OF HEART.
• IF THE BLOOD SUPPLY TO SOME PARTS OF THE HEART IS DECREASED OR
STOPPED BECAUSE OF BLOCKAGE IN THE ARTERY, THE CARDIAC (HEART)
MUSCLES OF THAT AREA DIE DUE TO LACK OF OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS. THE
WORKING OF HEART GO ABNORMAL. THIS IS CALLED HEART ATTACK.

47. HEART ATTACK
• SYMPTOMS:
• IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY SEVERE PAIN IN THE CENTER OF THE CHEST MOVING
TOWARDS THE LEFT SHOULDER AND ARM.
• CAUSES:
• SEVERAL FACTORS SUCH AS DIET RICH IN FATS, SMOKING, HIGH BLOOD
PRESSURE, STRESS ARE RESPONSIBLE FACTORS FOR HEART ATTACK.

48. ARTERIES, CAPILLARIES & VEINS.
•ARTERIES:
• THE BLOOD VESSELS THAT CARRIES BLOOD FROM HEART TO VARIOUS ORGANS
OF THE BODY ARE TERMED AS ARTERIES.
• THESE ARE THICK WALLED AND MORE ELASTIC THAN VEIN. DUE TO THEIR THICK
WALLS, THEIR INNER SPACE (LUMEN) IS NARROWER, THEY LIE DEEP IN THE BODY.
WHEN AN ARTERY ENTERS IN CORRESPONDING ORGAN IT DIVIDES INTO
SMALLER BRANCHES CALLED ARTERIOLES. THE ARTERIOLES EVENTUALLY
DIVIDES INTO FINE MICROSCOPE INERTCONNECTED NETWORK OF CAPILLARIES

49. STRUCTURE OF ARTERIES
• THE WALLS OF ARTERIS ARE COMPOSED OF THREE LAYERS
AN INNER LAYER OF ENDOTHELIAL CELLS.
A THICK MIDDLE LAYER OF SMOOTH MUSCLES AND ELASTIC FIBRES.
AN OUTER LAYER OF ELASTIC FIBRES AND CONNECTIVE TISSUES.

50. CAPILLARIES
• THESE ARE MICROSCPIC VESSELS WHERE EXCHANGE OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
OCCURS BETWEEN BLOOD AND THE SURROUNDING TISSUES.
• EACH CAPILLARY IS COMPOSED OF ONLY A SINGLE CELL LAYER OF ENDOTHELIAL
CELLS, INTERNALLY ITS DIAMETER IS SLIGHTLY LARGER THAN THAT OF RBCS.
THEY ARE CONNECTED WITH ARTERIOLES ON ONE SIDE AND VESSELS ON THE
OTHER SIDE.

51. VEINS
• VEINS ARE THE BLOOD VESSELS THAT BRING BLOOD BACK TO HEART. THEY ARE
FORMED BY UNION OF SMALLER BRANCHES CALLED VENUES WHICH IN TURN ARE
FORMED BY THE FUSION OF CAPILLARIES WITH EACH OTHER. THE BLOOD FLOW,
IN A VEIN IS SLOWER AND UNIFORM AS COMPARED TO ARTERY.
• STRUCTURE:
• VEINS ARE THIN WALLED AND LESS ELASTIC THAN ARTERIES. THE WALLS OF A
VEIN ARE ALSO COMPOSED OF THE SAME THREE BUT LESS ELASTIC.

52. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARTERIES AND VEINS
ARTERIES VEINS
Arteries are the blood vessels that carry
blood from heart to various organs of the
body
Veins are the blood vessels that bring blood
back from various organs to the heart
Arteries are thick walled and more elastic Veins are thin walled and less elastic
They lie deep in the body They do not lie deep in the body
The walls of arteries are more muscular The walls of veins are less muscular
Arteries divide up into small branches called
arterioles
Veins divide up into small branches celled
venues

53. THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• IT IS THE SYSTEM OF VESSELS THAT BRINGS MOST OF THE TISSUE FLUID (LYMPH)
BACK TO THE BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
• THIN WALLED INTER CONNECTED LYMPH CAPILLARIES (LACTEALS) JOIN
TOGETHER TO FORM LYMPH VESSELS FORMING THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
• INTERNALLY, LYMPH VESSELS ARE PROVIDED WITH VALVES TO PREVENT THE
BACK FLOW OF LYMPH TO THE TISSUES.
• THE LYMPH HAS UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW, I.E. FROM TISSUES TOWARDS THE
HEART.
• THE LYMPH ALSO PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE DEFENSE OF THE BODY
AGAINST GERMS THROUGH ITS W,B,CS.
• MOREOVER, LACTEALS ALSO TRANSPORT FATS FROM INTESTINE TO THE BLOOD.

54. TISSUE FLUID
• THE FLUID ESCAPES FROM THE CAPILLARIES BED INTO THE TISSUE SPACES IS
KNOWN AS TISSUE FLUID OR LYMPH.
• IT CONTAINS WBCS (LYMPHOCYTES), PLASMA, SMALL PROTEINS AND FAT.
• THROUGH THIS FLUID THE EXCHANGE OF VARIOUS MOLECULES OCCURS
BETWEEN BLOOD AND THE TISSUES.

55. HAEMOPHILIA:
• IT IS HEREDITARY DISORDER IN WHICH BLOOD FAILS TO CLOT WHENEVER IT
OOZES OUT OF SOME WOUND OR INJURY.
• IT IS DUE TO THE ABSENCE OF SOME SPECIAL PROTEINS (FIBRINOGEN) IN THE
BLOOD.
• IT IS CALLED CLOTTING FACTOR.
• THUS EXCESSIVE LOSS OF BLOOD MAY LEAD TO THE DEATH OF THE
HEAMOPHILIC PERSON.

56. ANGINA PECTORIS
• IT IS A MILD (NOT SEVERE) HEART ATTACK WHICH OCCURS DUE TO
INSUFFICIENT BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEART MUSCLES.
• IT OCCURS DUE TO THE NARROWING OF CORONARY ARTERY OR ITS BRANCHES.
• DEPOSITION OF FATS FORMS PLAQUES. DUE TO SUCH PLAQUES INTERNAL
DIAMETER OF BLOOD VESSELS BECOMES NARROW AND BLOOD SUPPLY IS
REDUCED.
• AS A CONSEQUENCE, A MILD SEVERE PAIN IS FELT IN THE CHEST.