Managerial Finance Syllabus Working Capital Ratios

Managerial Finance
FIN 935
Dr. Heba Srour

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Syllabus Agenda
Part I Introduction to
Managerial Finance
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C1 The Role of Managerial
Finance
Part IV Risk and required Rate
of Return
C 6,7 Bond, Stock and Valuation
Part V Long term Investment
C13 Leverage and capital
Structure
Part VI Long term Finance
Decisions
Part VII Short term Finance
Decisions
C15 Working capital and
Current assets
management
C10 Capital Budget Techniques CFA Introduction to Corporate
Governance
C 9 Cost of Capital

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Working Capital management
Working Capital Management
A company’s primary sources of liquidity are the sources of cash
it uses in its normal day-to-day operations. The company’s cash
balances result from selling goods and services, collecting
receivables, and generating cash from other sources such as short-
term investments. Typical sources of short-term funding include
trade credit from vendors and lines of credit from banks. Effective
cash flow management of a firm’s collections and payments can
also be a source of liquidity for a company.

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Secondary sources of liquidity include liquidating short-term or
long-lived assets, negotiating debt agreements (i.e., renegotiating),
or filing for bankruptcy and reorganizing the company. While using
its primary sources of liquidity is unlikely to change the company’s
normal operations, resorting to secondary sources of liquidity such
as these can change the company’s financial structure and
operations significantly and may indicate that its financial position
is deteriorating.

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Factors That Influence a Company’s Liquidity Position
▪ Drags on liquidity delay or reduce cash inflows, or increase borrowing costs.
Examples
include uncollected receivables and bad debts, obsolete inventory (takes longer to sell
and can require sharp price discounts), and tight short-term credit due to economic
conditions.
▪ Pulls on liquidity accelerate cash outflows.
Examples
include paying vendors sooner than is optimal and changes in credit terms that require
repayment of outstanding balances.

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Liquidity ratios are employed by analysts to determine the firm’s ability to pay its
short-term liabilities.
The higher the current ratio, the more likely it is that the company will be able to pay its
short-term bills. A current ratio of less than one means that the company has negative
working capital and is probably facing a liquidity crisis. Working capital equals current
assets minus current liabilities.

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The higher the quick ratio, the more likely it is that the company will be able to pay its
short-term bills. The current and quick ratios differ only in the assumed liquidity of the
current assets that the analyst projects will be used to pay off current liabilities.

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▪ This formula for the receivables turnover ratio uses credit sales in the numerator,
rather than total sales. While an analyst within a company will know what
proportion of sales are credit or cash sales, an external analyst will likely not have
this information but may be able to estimate it based on standard industry practice.
▪ In most cases when a ratio compares a balance sheet account (such as receivables)
with an income or cash flow item (such as sales), the balance sheet item will be
the average of the account instead of simply the end-of-year balance.
▪ Averages are calculated by adding the beginning-of-year account value and the
end-of-year account value, then dividing the sum by two.
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As is the case with accounts receivable, it is considered
desirable to have an inventory processing period (and
inventory turnover) close to the industry norm.
✓ A processing period that is too high might mean that too
much capital is tied up in inventory and could mean that
the inventory is obsolete.
✓ A processing period that is too low might indicate that
the firm has inadequate stock on hand, which could hurt
sales.

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A measure of the use of trade credit by the firm is the payables turnover ratio:

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Working Capital management 15
Operating Cycle
Operating cycle is the length of time it takes to convert an investment of cash in
inventory back into cash (through collections of sales).

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Operating Cycle
Is the length of time from when a company makes an investment in goods and
services to the time it collects cash from its accounts receivable.
Operating Cycle = Number of
Days of Inventory
+
Number of
Days of Receivable
Time from investment in inventory to collection of accounts.
Number of
Inventory Days
Number of
Receivable Days
30 days 40 days
Operating Cycle = 70 days

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Cash Cycle =
Number of
Days of Inventory
+
Number of
Days of Receivable
-
Number of
Days of Payable
Time from investment in inventory to collection of accounts, considering the use of trade
credit in purchases.
Note:
• In a large company, a small reduction in the cash cycle can increase pretax profits
significantly because of the lowered costs of financing.
• Some companies may actually have negative cash cycles.
• High cash conversion cycles are considered undesirable. A conversion cycle that is too
high implies that the company has an excessive amount of investment in working capital.

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Cash Cycle
Cash Cycle =
Number of
Days of Inventory
+
Number of
Days of Receivable
-
Number of
Days of Payable

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❖Daily cash position refers to uninvested cash balances a firm has available to make
routine purchases and pay expenses as they come due. The purpose of managing a firm’s
daily cash position is to have sufficient cash on hand (that is, make sure the firm’s net
daily cash position never becomes negative) but to avoid keeping excess cash because of
the interest income foregone by not investing the cash.
❖Typical cash inflows for a firm include its cash from sales and collections of
receivables; cash received from subsidiaries; dividends, interest, and principal
received from investments in securities; tax refunds; and borrowing.
❖Typical cash outflows include payments to employees and vendors; cash
transferred to subsidiaries; payments of interest and principal on debt;
investments in securities; taxes paid; and dividends paid.

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To manage its cash position effectively, a firm should analyze its
typical cash inflows and outflows by category and prepare forecasts
over short-term (daily or weekly balances for the next several
weeks), medium-term (monthly balances for the next year), and
long-term time horizons. A firm can use these forecasts to identify
periods when its cash balance may become low enough to require
short-term borrowing, or high enough to invest excess cash in short-
term securities.

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Short-term investment
Short-term securities in which a firm can invest cash include:
✓ U.S. Treasury bills.
✓ Short-term federal agency securities.
✓ Bank certificates of deposit.
✓ Banker’s acceptances.
✓ Time deposits.
✓ Repurchase agreements.
✓ Commercial paper.
✓ Money market mutual funds.
✓ Adjustable-rate preferred stock
Adjustable-rate preferred stock has a dividend
rate that is reset quarterly to current market
yields and offers corporate holders a tax
advantage because a percentage of the dividends
received are exempt from federal tax.

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Working capital management
Marketable Securities
Instrument Description
United
States
treasury securities
• Direct obligations of the U.S. treasury: backed by the full faith and credit of the
U.S. government.
• Interest rates provide a reference point and market indicator for other securities.
• Considered "safe" investments because they are free of default risk, are actively
traded on a large secondary market. And are highly marketable.
• Common types include.
▪ Treasury bills (or T-bills) do not bear interest, sold at a discount and mature
to face value in year or less.
▪ Treasury notes (or T-notes) bear interest semiannually; mature within 1 to 10
years.
▪ Treasury bonds (or T-notes) similar to T-notes but have maturities longer
than 10 years; generally, not purchased for a short-term portfolio except when
the bond is close to maturity.
Types of Marketable Securities

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Federal agency
securities (agency
securities)
• Interest-bearing securities usually offered and redeemed at face value.
• Generally, not backed by the full faith and credit of the U.S. government but
still considered a relatively safe investment and free of default risk.
• Typically, smaller issues than Treasury securities; not quite as marketable but
still highly liquid.
• Limited tax exposure: many are exempt from state/local income taxes but not
state franchise taxes.

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Repurchase
agreements
(repos)
• Purchase of a security from another party, usually a bank or security
dealer who agrees to buy it back at a specified data for a fixed price.
• Commonly involve U.S Treasury securities as the underlying security to
be repurchased at a rate slightly less than the U.S. Treasury securities
offer.
• Varying maturity, starting with overnight repurchase agreements.
• Generally considered a relatively safe investment (because of the
government underlier).
• Often transferred to a third party to ensure that securities are available for
sale if the issuer defaults.

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Banker's
acceptances
(Bas)
• Essentially time drafts that result from commercial trade
financing; frequently involve international transactions.
Commercial
paper
• Unsecured short-term loan issued by a corporation.
• Negotiable instrument but typically held to maturity because
of a weak secondary market; typically, higher yield than
similar securities because of its low marketability.
• May be interest-bearing or discounted; usually discounted
• Generally rated by credit rating agencies (e.g., by Moody's or
Standard & Poor's) to help investors assess risk.

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Auction
rate
preferred
stock
• Equity usually purchased by other corporations that
invest in short-term debt instruments.
• Dividend rate is regularly rest (usually every seven
weeks) to keep the price from fluctuating.
• Investors usually can sell the stock if they don't want
the adjusted rate (unless the auction process fails).
• Desirable because of the 70% dividend exclusion
allowance on the dividend income.

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Negotiable
certificates of
deposit (CDs)
• Interest-bearing deposits issued by banks or saving and loan institutions that can be
traded in money markets; generally sold at face value in denominations of $ 1
million.
• Most mature between 1 and 3 months; some can be for several years.
• Offer fixed and variable interest rates.
• Not guaranteed by the Federal deposit insurance Corporation (FDIC) if in excess of
$100.000; therefore, issuing bank should be carefully investigated.
• Highly marketable if issued by a large, established bank.
Common types include:
• Eurodollar CDs (or Euro CDs)- dollar- denominated CDs issued by foreign
branches of U.S. banks and foreign banks, primarily in London.
• Yankee CDs-CDs issued by U.S. branches of foreign banks.
• Thrift CDs-CDs issued by savings and loan associations, savings banks, and
credit unions.

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Eurodollar
deposits
• Typically, nonnegotiable dollar-denominated time deposits held by
banks outside the United States (although not necessarily in Europe);
not subject to U.S. banking regulations.
• May be purchased through most large U.S. banks.
• Maturities range from overnight to several years; most are months or
less.
Short-term
municipals
• State and local government issues.
• Two common types:
• CP instrument with float interest rate reset weekly.
• Longer term notes with a 1to 2-year maturity.
• Short- term municipal has great price stability and better marketability.

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Cash Management Investment Policy
Typically, the objective of cash management is to earn a market return without taking on
much risk, either liquidity risk or default risk. Firms invest cash that may be needed in the
short term in securities of relatively high credit quality and relatively short maturities to
minimize these risks.
It is advisable to have a written investment policy statement. An investment policy
statement typically begins with a statement of the purpose and objective of the investment
portfolio, some general guidelines about the strategy to be employed to achieve those
objectives, and the types of securities that will be used. The investment policy statement will
also include specific information on who is allowed to purchase securities, who is
responsible for complying with company guidelines, and what steps will be taken if the
investment guidelines are not followed.

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Cash Management Investment Policy
Finally, the investment policy statement will include limitations on the specific types of
securities permitted for investment of short-term funds, limitations on the credit ratings of
portfolio securities, and limitations on the proportions of the total short-term securities
portfolio that can be invested in the various types of permitted securities.
An investment policy statement should be evaluated on how well the policy can be expected
to satisfy the goals and purpose of short-term investments, generating yield without taking on
excessive credit or liquidity risk. The policy should not be overly restrictive in the context of
meeting the goals of safety and liquidity.

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Accounts
Receivable
Management
More detail about the accounts receivable performance can be gained by using
an aging schedule

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Presenting this data as percentages of total outstanding receivables can facilitate
analysis of how the aging schedule for receivables is changing over time.
Accounts
Receivable
Management

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Another useful metric for monitoring the accounts receivable performance is the
weighted average collection period, which indicates the average days outstanding
per dollar of receivables. As illustrated in table below, the weights are the
percentage of total receivables in each category, and these are multiplied by the
average days to collect accounts within each aging category.
Accounts
Receivable
Management

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Accounts
Receivable
Management
The company must always evaluate the trade-off between stricter
credit terms (and borrower creditworthiness) and the ability to make
sales. Terms that are too strict will lead to less-than-optimal sales.
Terms that are too lenient will increase sales at the cost of longer
average days of receivables, which must be funded at some cost, and
will increase bad accounts, directly affecting profitability.

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Inventory Management
Inventory is a list of all the items held in stock. An item is a single type of product kept
in stock or one entry in the inventory. A unit is the standard size or quantity of an item.
Inventory control (or stock control) refers to the collective activities and procedures
that ensure that the right amount of each item is held in stock.
Inventory management refers to the process of determining and maintaining the
required level of inventory that will ensure that customer orders are properly filled on
time.

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Ordering cost: include the marginal costs of placing a purchase or production order. They
are the marginal cost of computer time to prepare orders and the cost of the supplies used to
generate an order. Fixed costs of ordering, such as salaries, are irrelevant. Order cost
include the costs of:
• Placing an order (obtaining purchase approvals, preparing and issuing purchase orders).
• Receiving orders and inspecting items received.
• Matching invoices received with purchase orders and receiving reports to make payments.
• Any other special processing associated with ordering.
Ordering costs →
𝐷
𝑄
𝑎 (decrease with order size)

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Carrying cost: (also called storage costs or holding costs) are the costs of having the
inventory. They include storage and handling costs, obsolescence and deterioration costs,
insurance, taxes, and the cost of the funds invested in inventories.
• Rental or depreciation of facilities used for storing the inventory.
• Insuring and securing the inventory.
• Inventory taxes.
• Obsolescence and spoilage of the inventory.
• The opportunity cost of the investment in inventory.
Carrying costs → 𝑘
𝑄
2
(increase with order size)

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Example:
The following cost data are available for
an item of inventory:
Invoice price $300 per unit
Shipping costs $15 per unit
Inventory insurance $5 per unit
Handling 80 per order
Order cost 15 per order
Cost of capital 20%
The cost of carrying a unit of inventory can be
calculated as follows:
Invoice price $300
Shipping costs 15
Per-unit purchase cost $315
Times: cost of capital × 20%
Opportunity cost $ 63
Insurance on inventory 5
Per-unit carrying cost $ 68

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Economic order quantity - EOQ
Economic order quantity (EOQ) represents the optimum
order size—the quantity of a regularly ordered item to be
purchased at a point in time that results in minimum total
cost (i.e., the sum of ordering costs and carrying costs).
EOQ =
𝟐𝑫𝒂
𝑲
=
𝟐𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 × 𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕
𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒆𝒓 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕

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Stock out cost are the costs that that result from lost sales when a company does not have
inventory available to sell when customers want to buy it. Stockout costs can include:
• Costs for placing an expedited order to meet customer demand when the inventory is out of
stock..
• The revenue and profit lost if the inventory cannot be received in time to make an individual
sale.
• The cost of customer ill will. Customer ill will can be very costly, as it can cause the
customer to not return for future purchases. Once a customer has found another source, that
customer could be gone permanently. Ill will is almost impossible to measure.

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Inventory Shrinkage: Inventory shrinkage is the difference between the cost of the
inventory as recorded on the books and the cost of inventory when it is counted
physically. Inventory shrinkage can be caused by:
• Theft by outsiders or embezzlement by employees.
• Clerical errors in recording and tracking the inventory.

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Example: Ralf Co. produces 90,000 radios yearly, and its safety stock now is 1,000 radios.
The cost of purchasing order $15 and cost of carrying one unit of inventory is 20%. The price
per unit is $ 1.5 working day per year 360, LT = 3 days.
a. What is the EOQ?
b. What is the average inventory?
ሻ
𝑎 𝐸𝑂𝑄 =
2𝑎𝐷
𝑘
=
2 × 90,000 × 15
20% × 1.5
= 3,000𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑠
ሻ
𝑏 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑦 =
𝑄
2
+ 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 =
3,000
2
+ 1,000 = 2,500𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑠

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When to order? The objective is to order at a point in time to a void stock outs but not so
early that an excessive safety is maintained.
ROP = Safety stock + Q daily used ×LT

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Example: Ralf Co. produces 90,000 radios yearly, and its safety stock now is 1,000 radios.
The cost of purchasing order $15 and cost of carrying one unit of inventory is 20%. The price
per unit is $ 1.5 working day per year 360, LT = 3 days.
c. Compute the ROP?
d. How many times should the company placing an order?
c) ROP = Safety + QLT
= 1,000 +
90,000
360
× 3 = 1,000 + 750 = 1750𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑠
ሻ
𝑑 𝑁 =
𝐷
𝑄
=
90,000
3000
= 30𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

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EOQ is based on these assumptions:
1. Only one item is involved
2. Annual demand requirements are known
3. Usage rate is constant
4. Usage occurs continually, but production occurs periodically
5. The production rate is constant
6. Lead time does not vary
7. There are no quantity discounts

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Although widely used, EOQ analysis has these weaknesses.
Assumptions sometimes are unrealistic and inaccurate; situations where all relevant
factors (demand, lead time, and costs) are known with complete certainty are rare.
• Calculations are based on estimated costs and forecast demands.
• In manufacturing environments, where setup costs are high, large quantities lead to
excess capacity and inventory.
• Too much capacity leaves too much capital tied up in inventory.

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Just-in-Time Systems and Kanban
The underlying objective of JIT systems is to minimize all waste in manufacturing operations
by meeting production targets with the minimum number of materials, equipment, operators,
and so on.
This is accomplished by completing all operations just at the
time they are needed. Kanban is the simple manual method of
control used in conjunction with JIT to ensure that all materials
actually do arrive just as they are needed.

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Just-in-Time Systems and Kanban
The Kanban system is known as a pull system because
it pulls the inventory items through the process based on
demand in the next step within the process. This contrasts
with a traditional system of pushing inventory through
the system based on the budgeted demand for a final
product.

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Question: The optimal level of inventory is affected by all of the following except
the
a) Usage rate of inventory per time period.
b) Cost per unit of inventory.
c) Current level of inventory.
d) Cost of placing an order for merchandise.

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Question: In inventory management, the safety stock will tend to increase if the:
a) Carrying cost increases.
b) Cost of running out of stock decreases.
c) Variability of the lead time increases.
d) Variability of the usage rate decreases.

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Accounts
Payable
Management
✓ Payables must be managed well because they represent a source of working
capital to the firm. If the firm pays its payables prior to their due dates, cash is
used unnecessarily and interest on it is sacrificed. If a firm pays its payables
late, it can damage relationships with suppliers and lead to more restrictive
credit terms or even the requirement that purchases be made for cash. Late
payment can also result in interest charges that are high compared to other
sources of short-term financing.
✓ Typical terms on payables (trade credit) contain a discount available to those
who pay quickly as well as a due date. Terms of “2/10 net 60" mean that if the
invoice is paid within ten days, the company gets a 2% discount on the
invoiced amount and that if the company does not take advantage of the
discount, the net amount is due 60 days from the date of the invoice.

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Accounts
Payable
Management

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Accounts
Payable
Management
Trade credit can be a source of liquidity for a company. However, when the cost of
trade credit is greater than the company’s cost of short-term liquidity from other
sources, the company is better off paying the invoice within (ideally at the end of)
the discount period.

The annualized cost of trade credit decreases as the
payment period increases. If the company does not
take the 2% discount within the first ten days, it
should wait until the due date (day 60) to pay the
invoice.
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Sources of Short-Term Funding From Banks
Lines of credit are used primarily by large, financially sound companies.
✓ Uncommitted line of credit. A bank extends an offer of credit for a certain amount but may
refuse to lend if circumstances change.
✓ Committed (regular) line of credit. A bank extends an offer of credit that it “commits to”
for some period of time. The fact that the bank has committed to extend credit in amounts
up to the credit line makes this a more reliable source of short-term funding than an
uncommitted line of credit. Banks charge a fee for making such a commitment. Loans
under the agreement are typically for periods of less than a year, and interest charges are
stated in terms of a short-term reference rate, such as LIBOR or the U.S. prime rate, plus
a margin to compensate for the credit risk of the loan. Outside the United States, similar
arrangements are referred to as overdraft lines of credit.

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✓ Revolving line of credit. An even more reliable source of short-term financing than a
committed line of credit, revolving lines of credit are typically for longer terms, sometimes
as long as years. Along with committed lines of credit, revolving credit lines can be
verified and can be listed on a firm’s financial statements in the footnotes as a source of
liquidity.

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• Companies with weaker credit may have to pledge assets as collateral for bank
borrowings. Fixed assets, inventory, and accounts receivable may all serve as collateral
for loans.
• Short-term financing is typically collateralized by receivables or inventory and longer-
term loans are secured with a claim to fixed (longer-term) assets.
• The bank may also have a blanket lien which gives it a claim to all current and future
firm assets as collateral in case the primary collateral is insufficient, and the borrowing
firm defaults. When a firm assigns its receivables to the bank making a loan, the
company still services the receivables and remains responsible for any receivables that
are not paid.

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➢Banker’s acceptances are used by firms that export goods. A banker’s acceptance is a
guarantee from the bank of the firm that has ordered the goods stating that a payment will
be made upon receipt of the goods. The exporting company can then sell this acceptance at
a discount in order to generate immediate funds.
➢Factoring refers to the actual sale of receivables at a discount from their face values.
The size of the discount will depend on how long it is until the receivables are due, the
creditworthiness of the firm’s credit customers, and the firm’s collection history on its
receivables. The “factor” (the buyer of the receivables) takes on the responsibility for
collecting receivables and the credit risk of the receivable's portfolio

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Non-Bank Sources of Short-Term Funding
Smaller firms and firms with poor credit may use nonbank finance companies for short-
term funding. The cost of such funding is higher than other sources and is used by firms
for which normal bank sources of short-term funding are not available.
Large, creditworthy companies can issue short-term debt
securities called commercial paper. Whether the firm sells the
paper directly to investors (direct placement) or sells it through
dealers (dealer-placed paper), the interest costs are typically
slightly less than the rate they could get from a bank.

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In managing its short-term financing, a firm should focus on the objectives of having
sufficient sources of funding for current, as well as future foreseeable, cash needs and
should seek the most cost-effective rates available given its needs, assets, and
creditworthiness. The firm should have the ability to prepay short-term borrowings when
cash flow permits and have the flexibility to structure its short-term financing so that the
debt matures without peaks and can be matched to expected cash flows. For large
borrowers, it is important that the firm has alternative sources of short-term funding and
even alternative lenders for a particular type of financing. It is often worth having
slightly higher overall short -term funding costs in order to have flexibility and
redundant sources of financing.

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Question⁚ An example of a primary source of liquidity is:
A. liquidating assets.
B. negotiating debt contracts.
C. short-term investment portfolios.

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Question⁚ Firm A and Firm B have the same quick ratio, but Firm A has a
greater current ratio than Firm B. Compared to Firm B, it is most likely that
Firm A has:
A. greater inventory.
B. greater payables.
C. a higher receivables turnover ratio.

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Question⁚ An increase in Rowley Corp’s cash conversion cycle and a decrease in
Rowley’soperating cycle could result from:
Cash conversion cycle increase Operating cycle decrease
A. Decreased receivables turnover Increased payables turnover
B. Decreased receivables turnover Decrease in days of inventory
C. Increased inventory turnover Increased payables turnover

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Question⁚ Which of the following statements most accurately describes a key
aspect of managing a firm’s net daily cash position?
A. Analyze cash inflows and outflows to forecast future needs for cash.
B. Maximize the firm’s cash inflows and minimize its cash outflows.
C. Minimize uninvested cash balances because they earn a return of zero.

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Question⁚ Boyle, Inc., just purchased a banker’s acceptance for $25,400. It will
mature in 80 days for $26,500. The discount-basis yield and the bond equivalent
yield for this security are closest to:
Discount-basis Bond equivalent
A. 18.7% 18.7%
B. 18.7% 19.8%
C. 4.2% 19.8%

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Question⁚ An aging schedule is most likely used by a company to evaluate its
management of:
A. inventories.
B. accounts payable.
C. accounts receivable.

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Question⁚ Chapmin Corp. is a large domestic services firm with a good
credit rating. The source of short-term financing it would most likely use is:
A. factoring of receivables.
B. issuing commercial paper.
C. issuing bankers’ acceptances.

Managerial Finance Syllabus Working Capital Ratios

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