William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Lecture Notes

1. Lecture Notes
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD

2. The Pragmatic Difference Between
Scientific and Moral Theory
Aristotle -
This theorist was wise and is known as the father of
many subjects such as democracy, and virtue theory.
He is noted for theoretical excellence and worldly
savvy (Smith, 2009).

3. Virtue Theory
 Virtue Theory is popular approach to moral theory.
Aristotle believed that human reasoning is too
unreliable for determining rightful action in every
case.
 Instead attention should be focused on virtues that
equip people for living communal life and developing
personal excellencies.

4. Aristotle’s Advice for Educators
Teachers
Develop in students skills of both practical and
theoretical reasoning. Develop in them an
understanding of virtues appropriate for democratic
participation and personal experience.
 Principals
Model appropriate virtues for students and staff.

5. Aristotle’s Advice for Educators
Cont.
Superintendents
Interpret the needs of society and develops students
into citizens that can support democracy and the
flourishing of fellow citizens.

6. Zagzebski’s Advice for Educators
 Linda Zagzebski’s, a prominent contemporary virtue
theorist, lays out theory of moral motivation that
weaves together character and personality traits along
with desires, instinct, reason, and purpose.

7. Zagzebski’s Advice for Educators
Teachers
Show students the difference between their
motivations and desires and the consequences of
each for establishing appropriate moral
commitments.

8. Zagzebski’s Advice for Educators
Principals
Reassure teachers that student character can be
developed despite turbulent personality traits. Change
is both possible and probable if teachers and students
work together, and it is the teacher’s professional duty
to help student develop character.

9. Zagzebski’s Advice for Educators
Superintendents
District policy is a community’s best predictor of the
common good in the future. Ensure that the district is
developing people with the right set of virtues, not
mere adherence to district rules and regulations.

10. Summary of Virtue Theory
 Virtue Theory may be an especially potent guide for
educational administrators (Sergiovanni, 1984). As
Aristotle and Zagzebski advise people are most likely
to follow educational leaders who exhibit integrity and
are recognized for their embodiment of virtues
generally (Smith, 2009).

11. Virtue Theory: Emphases and
Questions
Theorists Emphases and Questions
 Aristotle
 Zagzebski
 Personal virtues and not reason
alone make for better communal
living. Q- Are we developing
ourselves and students virtues
that fall between opposing
natural instincts?
 Character, personality traits,
desires, and reasons are more
important than external rules.
Q-Are we nurturing
development of virtues or
settling for obedience to school
rules and regulations?

12. Rationality and Moral Realists
 Plato believed that true leaders can see clearly into the
light of truth and make local rulings that capture the
spirit of true moral absolutes.
 Plato’s thinking may seem very provincial and
indefensible. Yet how often does literature from
around the world tout the hero who does not
compromise principle and stands firmly his or her
ground? Consider the lives of Gandhi, Martin Luther
King Jr., Bishop Tutu and the American woman
suffragists. (Gordon, Lai 2008).

13. Plato’s Advice for Educators
 Teachers – Teach students discipline and rigorous
thinking, and they won’t act wrongly except when
confronted with inadequate or incorrect information.
 Principals – Teachers must learn to lead students by
asking the right sequence of questions. Teacher
workshops should develop such skills.
 Superintendents – The extensive study and practical
experience places the superintendent in a position to
make the best possible decisions for others.

14. More on Realism
 Confucius and Lao Tzu aligned themselves with moral
realist thinking. They believed that by serious and rational
thinking one can come to see previously obscured truth in
moral matters.
 Critics charge that with moral realism, it is not always clear
who possesses the wisdom needed to address a case at
hand. It all becomes a matter of “your guess is no better
than mine.”
 Morality is about the well-being of all.
 Morality should free us from provincial thinking at the
surface level and take us beyond to more penetrating levels
of reflection.

15. Confucius’s Advice for Educators
 Teachers – Should initiate children into proper
behavior and train them in attitudes of honor, respect
and dignity
 Principals – They should encourage students to give
something of value in return for the education they
receive. This teaches students to value their
education.
 Superintendents – The betterment of society depends
on proper behavior being instilled in students by
expert moral teachers.

16. The Social Contract
*Aristotle believes we are
social by nature.
*Hobbes – believes people are
pushed together by self interest
Theorists – Emphases
1) Plato – study and experience are
essential to moral maturation
2) Ortega y Gasset – expert
knowledge should always be
valued
3) Confucius and Lao Tzu – moral
practice and moral knowledge
are one and the same
Hobbes’s Advice for Educators
 Teachers - make children feel
comfortable in the classroom.
 Principals – ensure security
for students and staff.
 Superintendents – maintain
balance and protect school
system form intrusion by
outsiders.

17. The Social Contract cont.
Theorist Emphases
 Aristotle
 Hobbes
 Ethical responsibility is best
shared between community
members.
 Organizational power is
meant to serve as a safe
harbor from fear and self
interest of others.

18. Not All Universalists Are Kantian
 Jeremy Bentham is the founder of utilitarianism, but its
best known advocate is John Stewart Mill.
 Utilitarian's think the purpose of moral activity is to
maximize pleasure and to minimize displeasure
Mills Advice For Educators
Teachers – recognize the abilities of each student and push
the students to their full potential
Principals – school should support new and innovative ideas
Superintendents – enforce policies, acts, rules and
regulations to govern schools

19. Universalism Emphasis
Theorist Emphases
 Kant
 Mill
 Rawls
 Rapaport and Axelrod
 Sober, Wilson and Dugatkin
 All should live by legitimate and
moral rules
 Actions are right or wrong based
upon degree of happiness or
unhappiness
 Fairness enables people to be
interested in the well of others
 Cooperation is in the best interest
of all
 Cooperation and altruism
promote evolutionary fitness

20. Social Sympathy and Intuitionism
Theorists Emphases
 Moore
 Hume
 Kierkegaard
 Noddings
 Moral Intuition is a sixth
sense
 Natural impulse to help
others seems right
 Community ideas are
generally right, but faith
comes in
 Teaching and role modeling
can increase human bonding

21. Pragmatism
* Prides itself in being about the
here and now, telling the truth.
Theorists Emphases
 Dewey
 Putnam and Scheffler
 Democratic teaching
environments are important
 Maximization of human
potential and human moral
intuition is crucial

22. Reference
 Wagner, P., Simpson, D. (2009) Ethical Decision
Making in School Administration. SAGE publication,
Inc.