2. DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
DEFINITION
• A self-replicating material that is present in nearly all living organisms as
the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic
Information.
• DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible for carrying and
transmitting the hereditary materials or the genetic instructions from
parents to offspring.”
DISCOVERY OF DNA
• Many people believe that American biologist James Watson and English
physicist Francis Crick discovered DNA in the 1950s.
• In reality, this is not the case. Rather, DNA was first identified in the late
1860s by Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher.
3. STRUCTURE AND FORMS OF DNA
• The following diagram explains the DNA structure representing the
different parts of the DNA.
6. • The two strands of DNA run in opposite
directions. These strands are held together
by the hydrogen bond that is present
between the two complementary bases. The
strands are helically twisted, where each
strand forms a right-handed coil, and ten
nucleotides make up a single turn.
• The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the
distance between two consecutive base
pairs (i.e., hydrogen-bonded bases of the
opposite strands) is 0.34 nm.
7. GENE
DEFINITION
• A gene is a sequence of nucleotides along a strand of DNA that a cell
nucleus uses to produce proteins. Genes determine the specific traits of an
organism.
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a large molecule that is shaped like a double
helix sometimes described as a twisty ladder. The rungs of the ladder are
made of molecules called nucleotides.
• These rungs, or bases, are arranged in a specific order that creates a set of
instructions, which is known as a gene.
• When the body needs to do something or build something, it often requires a
protein. Genes are the instructions that the cells read for how to build
proteins. Proteins have very specific jobs, so scientists name genes based
on what job their linked proteins are designed to do. For example, hair
proteins come from hair genes, while eye proteins come from eye genes.
10. DEFINITION
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures present in the nucleus, which
carries genetic information from one generation to another. They play a
vital role in cell division, heredity, variation, mutation, repair and
regeneration.
• In Eukaryotic cells, genetic material is present in the nucleus in
chromosomes, which is made up of highly organized DNA molecules with
histone proteins supporting its structure.
• Karl Nägeli in 1842, first observed the rod-like structure present in the
nucleus of the plant cell.
• W. Waldeyer in 1888 coined the term ‘chromosome’.
CHROMOSOME
11. CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
• The chemical composition of a chromosome is
histone proteins and DNA. Each cell has a pair of
each kind of chromosome known as a
homologous chromosome.
• Chromosomes are made up of chromatin, which
contains a single molecule of DNA and
associated proteins.
• Each chromosome contains hundreds and
thousands of genes that can precisely code for
several proteins in the cell. Structure of a
chromosome can be best seen during cell
division.
12. • Chromatid: Each chromosome has two symmetrical
structures called chromatids or sister chromatids which
is visible in mitotic metaphase.
• Centromere and kinetochore: Sister chromatids are
joined by the centromere.
• Secondary constriction and nucleolar organisers: Other
than centromere, chromosomes possess secondary
constrictions.
• Telomere: Terminal part of a chromosome is known as
a telomere.
• Satellite: It is an elongated segment that is sometimes
present on a chromosome at the secondary
constriction.
• Chromatin: Chromosome is made up of chromatin.
Chromatin is made up of DNA, RNA and proteins. At
interphase, chromosomes are visible as thin chromatin
fibres present in the nucleoplasm. During cell division,
the chromatin fibres condense and chromosomes are
visible with distinct features.
13.
14. DEFINITION
• “A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible
for all of life’s processes.”
• Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living
beings. A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are
known as the building blocks of life.
• Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a
membrane. Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules
like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids.
• Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in
the cytoplasm.
CELL
15. DISCOVERY OF CELLS
• Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece
of bottle cork under a compound microscope and noticed minuscule
structures that reminded him of small rooms.
• Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells. However, his compound
microscope had limited magnification, and hence, he could not see any
details in the structure. Owing to this limitation, Hooke concluded that these
were non-living entities.
• Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound
microscope with higher magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells
exhibited some form of movement (motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek
concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a
host of other observations, these entities were named as animalcules.
• In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights
into the cell structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the
cells of orchids.
16. CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLS
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an
organism.
• The cell interior is organised into different individual
organelles surrounded by a separate membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information
necessary for reproduction and cell growth
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly
responsible for the energy transactions vital for the survival
of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal
organisation of the cell by synthesising selective molecules
and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.
17. TYPES OF CELLS
• Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments
that work towards a common objective. Various types of cells perform
different functions. Based on Cellular structure, there are two types.
1. Prokaryotic cell
2. Eukaryotic cell
