A composite is usually made up of at least two materials, out of which one is the reinforcement material called as fiber and the other is binding material(matrix). The matrix or binder maintains the position and orientation of the fiber. The fibers provide strength, rigidity and bear the structural load

1. Study On Mechanical, Thermal, Chemical
Properties and Bio-Degradability Of Epoxy
Composites Reinforced With Feathers Of
‘Emu’ Bird
Dr.M. Bala Theja,M.Tech,Ph.D
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
.

2. Abstract
•A composite is usually made up of at least
two materials, out of which one is the
reinforcement material called as fiber and
the other is binding material(matrix).
•The matrix or binder maintains the position
and orientation of the fiber. The fibers
provide strength, rigidity and bear the
structural load.

3. • In the present research work an attempt
has been made to produce composite
materials reinforced with emu feather fiber
in epoxy resin (Araldite LY556).
• Specimens for the tests were prepared by
hand lay-up technique by varying the fiber
length from 1 cm to 5 cm and fiber loading
varies from 1% to 5%. To evaluate
mechanical properties like tensile strength,
flexural strength, and flexural modulus and
impact strength the samples are cut as per
the ASTM standards.

4. • After conducting the experiments, quadratic
response models were developed using
Response Surface Methodology (RSM) for
the observed responses such as
TS,FS,FM,IS.
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to
check the validity of the developed models.
The result shows that the developed models
are fit for the prediction of mechanical
properties.

5. • Thermal stability of composite material was
investigated in terms of Thermo Gravimetric
Analysis (TGA), Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC) and Derivative Thermo
Graph (DTG).
• In this investigation an attempt is made to
study the sustainability of emu fiber
reinforced epoxy composites when exposed
to different mediums like air, and earth.

6. • The resistance of the composites to various
chemicals like Hydrochloric acid (10%),
concentrated Nitric Acid, Acetic Acid (8%),
Sodium Hydroxide, Ammonium Hydroxide (40%),
Sodium Carbonate (20%), Benzene, Carbon Tetra
Chloride and Toluene was measured
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images of
different samples were observed to investigate
the reasons for the variation in mechanical
properties viz, tensile strength, flexural strength,
flexural modulus and impact strength.
• An attempt is made to optimize multiple
responses viz., tensile strength, impact strength,
flexural strength and flexural modulus using
Grey relational analysis combined with Taguchi
method.

7. • Some of the prominent terms used with
composite materials are
• Lamina : Flat or curved arrangement of
unidirectional fibers suspended in a matrix
is called as lamina.
• Reinforcements : To make the composite
structure stronger reinforcements are
added.
• Boron, graphite, glass, and Kevlar are some
of the commonly used reinforcements.

8. • Fibers : Fibers are continuous and the
diameter varies between 120 to 7400 µ Inch
(3-200 µm). They are elastic or perfectly
plastic and stronger than the same material
in bulk form.
• Matrix : Fibers are protected, supported
and separated by a binder material called
matrix. Matrix is used to transfer and
distribute the load to the fibers.
• The most commonly used matrices are
shown in the following figure

9. • Polymer matrix is again classified in to two
types as shown in the following figure

10. CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL FIBERS
The classification of natural fiber is
presented in the following figure

11. Various types of natural fibers obtained
from the plants are
Jute yarn Sisal fiber Hemp fiber
Cotton fiber Coir fiber Bamboo plant Bamboo fiber

12. Various types of Birds and Bird feathers
Pigeon Birds Pigeon feather Chicken birds
Chicken feather ‘Emu’ bird ‘Emu’ feather

13. Literature review
• Agrahari et al. stated that the feathers discarded
from chicken may cause to various human
ailments like chlorosis and fowl cholera.
• Dweib et al. fabricated composite sandwich beams
by using all natural materials. The aim of this team
was to develop 100% natural fiber composite
structural members fit for use in roofs, floors, or
walls of buildings.
• Arunkumar et al. studied on multi layer
composites using chicken feathers and sheep wool
fibers as reinforcement. They were aimed at
eradication of environmental pollution and to study
the possibilities of making chicken feather fiber
products.

14. • Hoi-Yan Cheung et al.[67] worked on
chicken feather fiber (CFF) Poly Lactic Acid
(PLA) composites. The addition of CFF
lowered tensile strength of PLA due to
poor adhesion between the CFF and the
matrix. The failure of the CFF composites is
initiated by the failure of the matrix and
then followed by fiber breakage.

15. • The tensile strength of rice straw
polyester and chicken fiber polyester
composite was compared by Nagaraja
Ganesh and Rekha [109]. Up to 40 %
addition of rice straw to polyester
reduces the tensile strength and after
words tensile strength was increasing.
Up to 40% addition of chicken fiber to
polyester decreases the tensile strength
and after words it is increasing.

16. • Ellyin and Rohrbacher [116] investigated
the mechanical properties of glass fiber
reinforced epoxy composites when
immersed in the water at different
temperatures. It was found that at
temperatures below 350C the glass fiber
epoxy composites absorb maximum of
0.8% of moisture. The mechanical
properties of the composites are not
affected by the moisture absorption at
temperatures below 350C. The ductility
and strength were decreased when the
composites were immersed in water at
900C.

17. • To analyze the mechanical properties,
Ruihua Hu and Jae Kyoo Lim [129] have
produced hemp fiber reinforced polylactic
acid (PLA) composites by varying fiber
volume fraction. The flexural strength,
elastic modulus, and tensile strength of
the composite with 40% treated fiber
are 112.7MPa, 8.5 Gpa, and 54.6 MPa
respectively, which are much higher
than pure PLA.

18. • Rashed et al. [138] used the hot compression
molding technique to produce jute fiber reinforced
polypropylene composites by varying the process
parameters, such as fiber condition (untreated and
alkali treated), fiber sizes (1, 2 and 4 mm) and
percentages (5%, 10% and 15% by weight). The
developed jute fiber reinforced polypropylene
composites were subjected to tensile test, optical
and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The 2
mm length jute fiber composites give better
tensile strength over 1 & 4 mm jute fiber
composites. And 10% (by weight) fiber composites
have better tensile strength compared to 5 & 15
wt. % fiber composites.

19. • Extensive work has been done on polymer
composites using various natural fibers.
• But, there are no traces of attempts made
on the composites using ‘Emu’ bird
feathers as reinforcement. ‘Emu’
feathers are freely and abundantly available
in nature.
• The objective of the research work is as
follows.
THE KNOWLEDGE GAP IN EARLIER
INVESTIGATIONS

20. • To fabricate the Emu feather fiber reinforced epoxy
composites.
• To evaluate the various mechanical properties like
Tensile strength (TS), Flexural strength (FS),
Flexural modulus (FM) and Impact strength (IS).
• To develop a mathematical model for evaluating the
mechanical properties.
• To study the thermal stability.
• To study the biodegradability due to air and soil.
• To study the resistance to various chemicals
including water.
• To optimize the various process parameters
• To interpret the Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) images.
OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT WORK

21. Schematic Diagram of Research work

22. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
The matrix material, used for the fabrication of ‘Emu’ feather
fiber reinforced composites consists of low temperature curing
epoxy resin (Araldite LY-556) and corresponding hardener
(Primary amine HY951).
Property Value
Tensile strength 12-30 N/mm2
Flexural strength 112 N/mm2
Tensile modulus 10,500 N/mm2
Elongation at break 0.8%
Flexural modulus 10,000 N/mm2
Compressive strength 190 N/mm2
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion 34X10-6
Water absorption - 24 hours at 23 oC 5 to 10 mg (0.06 to 0.068%)
Thermal decomposition 350 oC
Glass transition temperature 120 -130 0 C
Mechanical and Thermal properties of Epoxy

23. Property Value
Young’s modulus 50,000 N/mm2
Tensile strength 10 - 70 N/mm2
Moisture content 16 - 20 %
Aspect (l/d)ratio 30 - 50
Specific gravity 0.7 – 1.2
Density 0.8 gr/cm3
Properties of feathers

24. Various methods of
manufacturing composites
1. Hand layup method
2. Spray up process
3. Vacuum bag autoclave
process
4. Filament winding
process
5. Closed mold processes
for fiber reinforced
plastic composites
6. Compression molding
7. Injection molding
8. Compression and
injection molding
9. The sheet molding
compound process
(SMC)
Classification of FRP
manufacturing processes

25. Hand layup process is best suitable for
thermosetting plastics. Epoxy is a thermosetting
plastic. The capital and infrastructural investment is
also less when compared with the other methods. It
is a simple and easy method. Hence, Hand layup
process has been adopted for preparing the composite
specimens for the present investigation.
Hand Lay up process

26. EXTRACTION OF FIBER
The waste ‘Emu’ feathers collected from the local area, is
washed several times with water then soaked in 5% of
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) concentrated solution for 30
minutes. The soaked feathers then washed with
detergent water followed by pure water and then is
dried in sun rays. A clean fiber free from dirt and
impurities are obtained.
PREPARATION OF COMPOSITES
Composites are prepared from epoxy and hardener
mixed in the ratio of 10:1 by weight as recommended.
To prepare the composite specimens, these fibers in pre
determined weight proportion and length(maximum of
05%&5cm) are reinforced into the epoxy resin. Blocks of
size (200 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm) for tensile, (127 mm
x 13 mm x 3 mm) for flexural, (65 mm x 13 mm x 3
mm) for impact test were cast with hand layup
technique in a rubber mould.

27. CURING : The specimens thus prepared were put under
load for about 24 hours for proper curing at room
temperature. After this, the specimens were removed
from the moulds and cured further at a constant
temperature up to 70oC for 3 hours.
. The following tests were conducted on the
prepared composite specimens.
•Mechanical Characterization
•Thermal Analysis
•Environmental degradation
•Chemical resistance
•Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Photograph of a prepared Specimen

28. Flexural strength =
3FL
2bh2
The prepared ‘Emu’ feather reinforced Epoxy
composite specimens were subjected to various
mechanical tests such as Tensile strength (TS),
Flexural strength (FS), Flexural modulus (FM) and
Impact strength test (IS).
Where F = Load applied in Newtons
L = Length of specimen in mm
b = Width of the specimen in mm
h = Thickness of the specimen in mm

29. Flexural Modulus =
L3 x F
4 x bh3 x δf
Where F = Load applied in Newtons
δf = Deflection in mm(From UTM)
L = Length in mm
b = Width of the specimen in mm
h = Thickness of the specimen in mm
THERMAL ANALYSIS
Thermo gravimetric Analysis (TGA) is a
technique used to monitor the mass of a
substance subjected to controlled
temperatures.

30. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
The effect of atmosphere and soil on the composite
specimens has been studied.
Effect of Atmosphere
Pre-measured and weighed
specimens were exposed to
atmosphere at 3 locations
i.e., Anantapur, Nandyal
and at Hyderabad for 3
months.
Effect of Soil
Pre-measured and weighed
composite specimens have
been buried about 30 cm
below the surface of the
earth at 3 deferent places.
Photo of Specimens exposed to Atmosphere
Photograph of specimens buried under earth

31. CHEMICAL
RESISTANCE
Acids :
1) Concentrated Hydrochloric
acid (10% HCl),
2) Concentrated Nitric acid (40%)
3) Glacial Acetic acid (8%).
Alkalis (aqueous solutions) :
1) Sodium Hydroxide (10%)
(NaOH),
2) Ammonium Hydroxide (10%)
(HNO3),
3) Sodium Carbonate (20%)
Solvents:
1) Benzene,
2) Carbon tetra chloride (CCl4)
3) Toluene
Water:
Photograph of specimens immersed in water
Chemical attack will usually lead
to softening of the polymer which
in turn will lower the stress level
for crack generation. Hence the
resistance of the composite was
studied with the chemicals.

32. SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY (SEM)
It will display the spatial
variations in these
properties. The image of
small areas ranging from 1
cm to 5 microns in width
can be obtained using
conventional SEM
(magnification range is from
20X to 30,000X, spatial
resolution of 50 to 100 µm).
One of the suitable systems
of measuring the specimens
is Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM)
The equipment of ‘Scanning
electron microscope’ uses a
focused beam of high-
energy electrons to generate
a variety of signals at the
surface of solid specimens.
A 2-dimensional image is
generated over a selected
area of the surface of the
sample
SEM image of Pure Epoxy
Specimen

33. MODELLING OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
A model has been developed to fit the output
response by Response surface methodology (RSM).
It deals with the development of modelling
equations for the response.
The test results of mechanical properties of the
samples were used as input data for the software
Minitab-14. The following notations were used in
the process of modelling.
Tensile strength . . . TS
Flexural strength . . . FS
Flexural Modulus . . . FM
Impact strength . . . IS
Percentage of fiber . . . P
Length of fiber . . . L

34. Process parameters
with units Notation
Levels
1 2 3 4 5
Fiber loading (Wt.%) P 1 2 3 4 5
Fiber length (cm) L 1 2 3 4 5
Table : Control parameters and their
levels

35. Source DF Seq SS Adj.MS F’ value P’ value
Regression 5 133.430 26.6860 160.62 0.000
Linear 2 131.336 65.6681 395.24 0.000
Square 2 1.754 0.8768 5.28 0.015
Interaction 1 0.340 0.3399 2.05 0.169
Residual 19 3.157 0.1661 --- ----
Total 24 136.587 ---- ---- ---
R2 =97.69
Table : Results of analysis of variance for
Tensile strength.

36. Model summary of mechanical properties
Property Model expression R2
Tensile
Strength (TS)
TS =30.723 -2.699 P -0.617 L+
0.1579 P2 + 0.0116 L2 + 0.0583 PL
97.69
Flexural
Strength (FS)
FS = 23.420 - 0.984 P - 0.545 L
- 0.0883 P2 + 0.0487 L2 - 0.0240 PL
97.41
Flexural
Modulus (FM)
FM = 1586.0 - 189.9 P - 81.1 L +
12.98 P2 - 3.01 L2+ 6.57 PL
99.13
Impact
Strength (IS)
IS =99.32 -4.07 P +4.80 L +1.631 P2
+ 0.560 L2 + 2.91 PL
97.46
Results and Discussions

37. Exp.
No.
Experimental values Computed values RSM predicted values
TS (Mpa) IS in J/m FS (Mpa) FM (Mpa) TS (Mpa) IS in J/m FS (Mpa) FM (Mpa)
1 28.28 106.22 21.88 1335.70 27.64 105.15 21.83 1331.54
2 27.37 112.78 21.27 1257.43 27.11 114.54 21.41 1247.98
3 26.95 127.22 21.12 1182.20 26.61 125.05 21.08 1158.40
4 26.11 136.11 21.30 1063.87 26.13 136.68 20.85 1062.80
5 25.34 145.89 20.67 937.86 25.68 149.43 20.72 961.18
6 24.57 113.33 20.77 1175.96 25.47 108.88 20.56 1187.15
7 24.65 120.67 19.71 1093.39 25.00 121.18 20.11 1110.16
8 24.08 133.22 19.65 1028.39 24.56 134.60 19.76 1027.15
9 23.94 149.67 19.35 947.72 24.14 149.14 19.51 938.12
10 23.81 174.44 18.79 848.03 23.75 164.80 19.35 843.07
11 23.64 116.89 19.48 1045.33 23.62 115.88 19.11 1068.72
12 23.08 125.33 18.40 976.13 23.21 131.09 18.63 998.30
13 22.74 138.44 18.55 925.94 22.83 147.42 18.26 921.86
14 22.79 155.56 18.53 813.91 22.47 164.87 17.99 839.40
15 22.31 184.56 17.67 757.96 22.13 183.44 17.81 750.92
16 22.21 128.56 16.98 1010.85 22.08 126.14 17.48 976.25
17 21.81 142.00 16.72 929.83 21.73 144.26 16.98 912.40
18 21.63 171.00 15.99 852.60 21.41 163.50 16.59 842.53
19 21.53 194.67 17.12 778.05 21.10 183.86 16.29 766.64
20 21.40 203.56 16.48 701.46 20.82 205.34 16.08 684.73
21 21.00 135.89 15.87 913.82 20.86 139.66 15.68 909.74
22 20.63 159.33 15.66 832.03 20.57 160.69 15.16 852.46
23 20.28 187.89 14.63 795.26 20.30 182.84 14.74 789.16
24 19.64 210.67 14.74 735.49 20.06 206.11 14.41 719.84
25 19.30 221.44 14.03 645.02 19.84 230.50 14.19 644.50
Experimental results and RSM predicted values

38. 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Tensile
strength
in
Mpa
Experiment Number
Comparison of Tensile strength (TS)
TS as per Equation TS as per experiment

39. 0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425
Flexural
strength
in
Mpa
Experiment Number
Comparison of Flexural strength (FS)
FS as per Equation FS as per Experiment

40. 0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425
Flexural
Modulus
in
Mpa
Experiment Number
Comparison of Flexural Modulus (FM)
FM as per Equation FM as per Experiment

41. 0
50
100
150
200
250
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425
Impact
strength
in
J/m
Experiment Number
Comparison of Impact strength (IS)
IS as per Equation IS as per Experiment

42. 16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tensile
Strength
in
Mpa
Length in cm
Tensile Strength Vs Fiber length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber 4% fiber 5% fiber

43. • The prepared emu feather fiber epoxy
composites have maximum tensile
strength of 28.28 MPa at 1% of fiber
loading and 1 cm length of fiber.
Minimum tensile strength of 19.30 MPa
can be observed for 5 % of fiber loading
and 5 cm length of fiber.
• Nearly 31.75% drop in tensile strength
was observed by introducing the emu
feather fiber.

44. 12
14
16
18
20
22
24
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Flexural
Strength
in
Mpa
Length in cm
Flexural Strength Vs Fiber length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber 4% fiber 5% fiber

45. • The prepared emu feather fiber epoxy
composites have maximum flexural
strength of 21.88 MPa at 1% fiber
loading and 1 cm length of fiber.
Minimum flexural strength of 14.03
MPa can be observed for 5 % of fiber
loading and 5 cm length of fiber.
• Nearly 35.87 % drop in flexural strength
was observed by introducing the emu
feather fiber. A similar trend has been
observed when chicken feather fibers
were reinforced in vinyl ester and
polyester resins by Uzan et al. [97]

46. 500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Flexural
Modulus
in
Mpa
Length in cm
Flexural Modulus Vs Fiber length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber 4% fiber 5% fiber

47. • The prepared emu feather fiber epoxy
composites have maximum flexural
modulus of 1335.70 MPa at 1% fiber
loading and 1 cm length of fiber. Minimum
flexural modulus of 645.02 MPa can be
observed for 5 % of fiber loading and 5 cm
length of fiber.
• Nearly 51.70 % drop in flexural strength
was observed by introducing the emu
feather fiber.

48. 50
70
90
110
130
150
170
190
210
230
250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Impact
strength
in
J/m
Lengths in Cm
Impact Strength for varying fiber length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber 4% fiber 5% fiber

49. • The prepared emu feather fiber epoxy
composites have minimum impact
strength of 106.22 J/m at 1% fiber
loading and 1 cm length of fiber.
Maximum of 221.44 J/m can be
observed for 5 % fiber loading and 5
cm length of fiber. Nearly 108.47 %
increase in impact strength was
observed by introducing the ‘emu’
feather fiber.

50. 16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tensile
Strength
in
mpa
Length in cm
Tensile Strength Vs Fiber length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber
4% fiber 5% fiber
12
17
22
27
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Flexural
Strength
in
Mpa
Length in cm
Flexural Strength Vs Fiber
length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber
4% fiber 5% fiber
500
700
900
1100
1300
1500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Flexural
Modulus
in
Mpa
Length in cm
Flexural Modulus Vs Fiber length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber
4% fiber 5% fiber
50
100
150
200
250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Impact
strength
in
J/m
Lengths in Cm
Impact Strength for varying fiber
length
1% fiber 2% fiber 3% fiber
4% fiber 5% fiber

51. The decline in tensile strength is due to
the following reasons. One possibility is
that due to the
presence of pores present in the
matrix which were formed during
preparation.
improper interfacial bonding
between the fiber and the matrix due
to the protein present on the surface of
the feathers.

52. • As stated earlier by authors [151] due to
the flexible nature of feathers, the
reinforcement of emu feathers importing
flexibility to the prepared epoxy
composites. Due to this reason, the
flexural strength and flexural modulus
is decreasing with increase of fiber
loading and fiber length.

53. • When the reinforcement fiber is flexible
in nature it acts as a toughening agent.
One can expect increase in impact
strength when we use flexible fiber as
reinforcement. Naturally the pure epoxy
is brittle in nature. By addition of
flexible fibers like feathers makes the
brittle materials in to toughening
materials.
• -As a result impact strength increases.

54. THERMAL ANALYSIS
In the present thermal analysis
the samples are heated at10°C/
min from 50 °C to 600 °C in the
presence of nitrogen gas.
Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis
(TGA) : Thermo Gravimetric
Analysis (TGA) is based on
the measurement of mass
loss of material as a
function of temperature in
the presence of inert gas. In
thermogravimetry, a
continuous graph of mass
change against temperature
is obtained. A plot of
change in mass versus
temperature is the
thermogravimetric curve.
The mass (m) decreasing
downwards on the y- axis
and the temperature is
increasing on the x- axis. DSC, DTG and TGA Analysis of
Pure Epoxy

55. Sl
No.
% Degra-
dation
Temperature in oC
Epoxy
1% of
Fiber
2% of
Fiber
3% of
Fiber
4% of
Fiber
5% of
Fiber
1 5% 200 250 250 250 250 250
2 10% 290 325 325 325 325 325
3 15% 320 340 340 340 340 340
Temperature corresponding to various
percentages of degradation.
A Graphical representation of the above values
150
200
250
300
350
0 1 2 3 4 5
Degradation
Temperature
in
oC
Fiber Loading
Degradation Vs Fiber loading
5% Degradation 10% Degradation 15% Degradation

56. Sl
No.
%Degrada-
tion
Temperature in oC for degradation for
Epoxy
1% of
Fiber
2% of
Fiber
3% of
Fiber
4% of
Fiber
5% of
Fiber
1 Starting 280 300 300 300 300 300
2 Ending 410 450 450 450 450 450
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
0 1 2 3 4 5
Degradation
Temperature
in
o
C
Fiber Loading
Maximum Degradation Range Vs Fiber loading
Startng of Degradation Ending of Degradation
Temperature corresponding to Maximum
degradation for various fiber loading composites

57. Sl
No.
Percentage
Degradation
Temperature in oC for degradation for
Epoxy
1% of
Fiber
2% of
Fiber
3% of
Fiber
4% of
Fiber
5% of
Fiber
1 Maximum 355 368 368 368 368 368
340
350
360
370
380
0 1 2 3 4 5
Degradation
Temperature
in
oC
Fiber Loading
Inflection Point Vs Fiber loading
Inflection Temperature
Inflection point

58. • In this study, the Emu feather fiber plays
a synergistic role in improving the thermal
stability of the composites.
• 1. Covalent bonds are assumed to be
formed in the composite systems.
• 2. Another reason for increase in the
thermal stability of emu feather fiber
epoxy composites is due to the presence
of proteins present in the feathers.

59. DEGRADATION DUE
TO ENVIRONMENT
Effect of Atmosphere :
Environmental
factors will influence
the degradation of
composites. The
effect of degradability
due to environment
like atmosphere and
soil on the
composites has been
studied.
S.
No
On exposure
to
atmosphere
%Variation
in weight
% Variation
in thickness
5%
fiber
Pure
epoxy
5%
fiber
Pure
epoxy
1 At Anantapur - 1.5 - 0.5 - 0.8 - 0.4
2 At Hyderabad - 1.4 - 0.8 - 0.7 - 0.4
3 At Nandyal - 1.5 - 0.7 - 0.9 - 0.4
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
To
atmosphere
at Anantapur
To
atmosphere
at Hyderabad
To
atmosphere
at Nandyal
%variation in weight for 5% fiber
% variation in weight for pure Epoxy
% variation in thickness for 5% fiber
% variation in thickness for pure Epoxy

60. • In General, the effect of atmosphere on all
the samples including pure epoxy is
negligible. The moisture or volatile
fluids present in the voids of the prepared
‘Emu’ feather fiber reinforced epoxy
composites gets evaporated due to
atmospheric conditions like wind,
sunshine etc, when exposed to atmosphere
for a long period. Due to this effect, there is
slight decrease in weight and thickness of
the samples.

61. Effect of Soil
S.
No
Effect of soil
% Variation
in weight
% Variation
in thickness
5%
fiber
Pure
epoxy
5%
fiber
Pure
epoxy
1 At Anantapur 1.7 0.8 0.9 0.5
2 At Hyderabad 1.8 0.8 0.9 0.5
3 At Nandyal 1.8 0.7 0.85 0.45
The effect of soil
on the prepared
emu feather fiber
epoxy composites
have been studied
by burying them
under earth at
about 30 cm depth
at three locations
i.e., Anantapur,
Hyderabad and at
Nandyal.
Details Variation in weight and thickness
of samples due to effect of soil
0
1
2
Effect of Soil
at Anantapur
Effect of Soil
at Hyderabad
Effect of Soil
at Nandyal
% variation in weight for 5% fiber
% variation in weight for pure Epoxy
% variation in thickness for 5% fiber
% variation in thickness for pure Epoxy

62. • The effect of soil on the prepared emu
feather fiber epoxy composites is observed
to be negligible. When the samples were
buried under earth, there might be little
absorption of moisture and as a result,
their weights might have been slightly
increased. The percentage variation in
weight and thickness increases with
the increase in percentage of fiber upto
2 months and after 2 months, the
weight and thickness were almost
stable.

63. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITES
The effect of chemicals on the composite specimens
with various fiber loadings was studied by exposing
to various chemicals like acetic acid (8%), nitric acid
(40%), hydrochloric acid (10%), sodiumhydroxide (10%)
sodium carbonate (20%), ammonium hydroxide(10%)
benzene, toluene, carbon tetra chloride and water.
Each chemical has different minimum concentration to
create the chemical action as per ASTM (American Society
for Testing of Materials) Standards. With this view,
certain chemicals with such concentration have been
selected for chemical resistance test.
The effect of each chemical on the composites has been
observed daily for 5 days and the details are tabulated as
follows.

64. S.
No
Name of the
Chemical
% Variation in
weight
% Variation in
thickness
5%
fiber
loading
Pure
epoxy
5%
fiber
loading
Pure
epoxy
1 Acetic acid 7.0 4.0 3.3 2.3
2 Hydrochloric acid 7.0 5.0 3.0 1.8
3 Nitric acid 5.4 1.5 3.7 2.0
4 Sodium hydroxide 6.0 4.0 2.0 1.1
5 Sodium carbonate 9.0 5.0 4.0 2.0
6 Ammonium hydroxide 3.5 2.2 3.4 2.0
7 Benzene 5.0 2.0 2.0 0.8
8 Toulen -1.8 -0.8 -1.7 -0.8
9 Carbon tetra chloride -1.9 -1.2 -1.4 -0.8
10 Water 1.5 1.0 1.1 0.6
Variation in weight and thickness of samples
subjected to chemicals

65. Graphical representation of the Chemical test results
-5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
%
Variation
% Variation in weight for 5% fiber loading % Variation in weight for Pure Epoxy
% Variation in thickness for 5% fiber loading % Variation in thickness for Pure Epoxy
The Variation in weight and thickness for 1% to 4%
fiber load lies between the Variation in weight and
thickness of pure epoxy and 5% fiber loading for all
the samples.

66. Epoxy will not dissolve in the aqueous solutions. It
swells in the aqueous solutions by absorbing the
chemical. The chemical bond present in the epoxy
composites may get expanded by absorbing the
aqueous solution. As a result, the weight and
thickness are increasing. Epoxy will dissolve in the
organic solvents like benzene, toulen and carbon tetra
chloride. When the prepared samples were treated
with the organic solvents, the composites are loosing
the weight as a result, the thickness is also reduced.
The chemical bond present in the prepared epoxy
composites may assumed to be contracted when the
epoxy composites are treated with organic solvents.

67. SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY (SEM)
One of the sample images
of pure epoxy obtained
from ‘SEM’ has been
presented in the figure
Chemical bonding in pure
epoxy is good which can be
seen in the figure. Hence,
the Tensile strength,
Flexural strength and
flexural modulus are good.
As there is no fiber in Pure
Epoxy to oppose the
sudden loading, the Impact
strength of the specimen
found to be low.

68. A sample ‘SEM’ image of
composite specimen with
2% fiber loading and 4
cm fiber length has been
presented in the figure.
From the figure, it can
be observed that the
bonding between the
matrix and fiber is
moderate. Gap can be
observed around the
fiber stem, which leads
to reduction in Tensile
strength, Flexural
strength and flexural
modulus.
Uniform distribution of fiber
can also be seen in the image
of the composite sample due
to which, the Impact strength
increases.

69. GREY RELATIONAL ANALYSIS
The information that is either incomplete or
undetermined is called ‘grey’. Grey relation means
the information between white and black.
Grey
Relational
Analysis
Multiple
Performance
Single
Result
Schematic Diagram of Grey Relational Analysis
Grey relation is a tool of mathematical and
statistical methods used for modeling,
optimizing, and analyzing engineering
problems

70. PROCEDURE
Steps followed in the process of Grey Relational Analysis

71. Experiment
No.
P/L Ratio Tensile
strength
Impact
strength
Flexural
strength
Flexural
modulus
1 1:1 1.000 0.000 1.000 1.000
2 1:2 0.899 0.057 0.922 0.887
3 1:3 0.852 0.182 0.903 0.778
4 1:4 0.758 0.259 0.926 0.606
5 1:5 0.673 0.344 0.846 0.424
6 2:1 0.587 0.062 0.859 0.769
7 2:2 0.596 0.125 0.724 0.649
8 2:3 0.532 0.234 0.716 0.555
9 2:4 0.517 0.377 0.678 0.438
10 2:5 0.502 0.592 0.606 0.294
11 3:1 0.483 0.093 0.694 0.580
12 3:2 0.421 0.166 0.557 0.479
13 3:3 0.383 0.280 0.576 0.407
14 3:4 0.389 0.428 0.573 0.245
15 3:5 0.335 0.680 0.464 0.164
16 4:1 0.324 0.194 0.376 0.530
17 4:2 0.280 0.311 0.343 0.412
18 4:3 0.259 0.562 0.250 0.301
19 4:4 0.248 0.768 0.394 0.193
20 4:5 0.234 0.845 0.312 0.082
21 5:1 0.189 0.258 0.234 0.389
22 5:2 0.148 0.461 0.208 0.271
23 5:3 0.109 0.709 0.076 0.218
24 5:4 0.038 0.907 0.090 0.131
25 5:5 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000
Preprocessing data of Mechanical properties of ‘Emu’ feather
fiber reinforced epoxy composites.

72. Grey relational coefficients corresponding to the preprocessed data.
Expt.
No.
P/L
Ratio
Tensile
strength
Impact
strength
Flexural
strength
Flexural
modulus
Grey relational
grade
Rank
order
1 1:1 1.000 0.333 1.000 1.000 0.833 1
2 1:2 0.832 0.347 0.865 0.816 0.715 2
3 1:3 0.772 0.379 0.838 0.693 0.671 3
4 1:4 0.674 0.403 0.871 0.559 0.627 4
5 1:5 0.605 0.433 0.765 0.465 0.567 6
6 2:1 0.548 0.348 0.780 0.684 0.590 5
7 2:2 0.553 0.364 0.644 0.588 0.537 7
8 2:3 0.517 0.395 0.638 0.529 0.520 8
9 2:4 0.509 0.445 0.608 0.471 0.508 9
10 2:5 0.501 0.551 0.559 0.415 0.507 10
11 3:1 0.492 0.355 0.620 0.543 0.503 11
12 3:2 0.463 0.375 0.530 0.490 0.465 17
13 3:3 0.448 0.410 0.541 0.457 0.464 18
14 3:4 0.450 0.466 0.539 0.398 0.463 19
15 3:5 0.429 0.610 0.483 0.374 0.474 16
16 4:1 0.425 0.383 0.445 0.515 0.442 20
17 4:2 0.410 0.421 0.432 0.460 0.431 23
18 4:3 0.403 0.533 0.400 0.417 0.438 21
19 4:4 0.399 0.683 0.452 0.383 0.479 14
20 4:5 0.395 0.763 0.421 0.353 0.483 13
21 5:1 0.381 0.403 0.395 0.450 0.407 25
22 5:2 0.370 0.481 0.387 0.407 0.411 24
23 5:3 0.359 0.632 0.351 0.390 0.433 22
24 5:4 0.342 0.843 0.355 0.365 0.476 15
25 5:5 0.333 1.000 0.333 0.333 0.500 12

73. Response table for grey relational grade corresponding to
the various process parameters.
Level 1 Level 2 level 3 level 4 level 5
Factors 1 2 3 4 5 Min-Max
Percentage
of fiber (P)
0.6826 0.5324 0.4738 0.4546 0.4454 0.2372
Length of
fiber (L)
0.5550 0.5118 0.5052 0.5106 0.5062 0.0498
Optimal condition P1L1
Level P L
1 0.6826 0.5550
2 0.5324 0.5118
3 0.4738 0.5052
4 0.4546 0.5106
5 0.4454 0.5062
Delta 0.2372 0.0498
Rank 1 2

74. Mean
of
Means
5
4
3
2
1
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
5
4
3
2
1
P L
Main Effects Plot (data means) for Means
Main effects Plot (data means) for Means

75. Analysis of Variance for Grey
Relation Grade
Factor df SS MS F
%
contribution
P 4 0.192721 0.048180 16.60 77.716
L 4 0.008825 0.002206 0.76 3.558
Error 16 0.046433 0.002902 18.724
Total 24 0.247979

76. Conclusions
•For the prepared emu feather fiber epoxy
composites the mechanical properties like tensile
strength, flexural strength, and flexural modulus are
decreasing with increasing fiber loading and fiber
length.
•The impact strength is increasing with increase in
fiber loading and fiber length.
•The fiber loading has more impact than the fiber
length on the mechanical properties like tensile
strength, flexural strength, flexural modulus and
impact strength.
•The degradation temperature is a material
property and it doesn’t depend on fiber loading or
fiber length.

77. •The developed models for mechanical properties
like tensile strength, flexural strength, flexural
modulus and impact strength using response
surface method are highly adequate as their R2
values are 0.976, 0.974, 0.991 and 0.974 which are
very close to 1 and hence all these models can be
used for reliable prediction.
•The maximum decomposition temperature range
was increased along with inflection point which
indicates that the thermal stability of the prepared
emu feather fiber epoxy composites is higher than
that of the pure epoxy.

78. •The degradation in atmosphere and soil is rapid in
the initial two months and becomes stable in the
third month. In total the effect of atmosphere and soil
on prepared emu feather fiber epoxy composites is
found to be negligible. Hence the prepared
composites show good corrosion resistance.
•Weight and thickness is increasing when the
prepared emu feather fiber epoxy composites treated
with aqueous solutions.
•Weight and thickness is decreasing when the
prepared emu feather fiber epoxy composites treated
with organic solvents.
•The prepared emu feather fiber epoxy composites are
reacting more with the chemicals in the initial two
days and afterwards become stable. The effect of
chemicals is less hence, the prepared composites
show chemical resistance.

79. •It was observed from grey relational analysis that
the combination of process parameters at 1%fiber
loading and 1cm fiber length would maximize the
multiple performance characteristics viz., tensile
strength, flexural strength and flexural modulus.
•From Taguchi’s response table it was inferred that
%fiber loading is the most influencing process
parameter followed by fiber length
•Scanning Electron Microscope images show
moderate bonding between fiber and epoxy.
•Due to improved impact strength, thermal stability,
moderate resistance to chemicals and environment,
the prepared Emu feather fiber reinforced epoxy
composites may be used for manufacturing bumpers
for automobiles, storage tanks for water & chemicals,
water supply and sanitary pipes.

80. SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
•The number of input parameters can be extended and
hence, the data base can be improved by extensive
experimentation.
•The same experimental work can be done by reinforcing
the emu feathers in to other polymers like polyester,
polyurethane and poly propylene etc.
•The same experimental work can be done by reinforcing
the emu feathers (natural fibers) along with synthetic
fibers like glass fibers
•In this work, the experimental data has been modeled
and analyzed by Response surface methodology. The
same problem can be modeled and analyzed by fuzzy
logic.
•Higher percentage of concentration of some of the
chemicals may be selected to test the chemical effect on
the composites.

81. • Explanation to Viva questions-
• Question 1: What prompted the candidate to
investigate with the feathers of ‘Emu’ birds when
feathers of several birds are available? Is there any
literature available on investigations with the feathers
of ‘Emu’ bird?
• But there are no studies on feathers of ‘Emu’ bird.
Hence, present study on “Emu feather reinforced
Epoxy composite” has been carried out.
• The ‘Emu’ bird is a tall and strong bird.
• The feathers of the emu bird also strong.
• Scientists are extracting the oil from the emu bird
which is having the medicinal properties.
• The waste feathers of ‘Emu’ bird are to be disposed off
properly to avoid environmental pollution.

82. • Question 2: Candidate has developed the
composite with a curing time of 24 hours. It is
worthy to point out that the curing time has a
significant role on the properties of the
composite. Why the candidate has not
investigated the effect of variation in curing
time?
• Answer: For proper bonding of epoxy 12 hrs.
is sufficient. The samples were cured at room
temperature for 24 hrs.

83. • Question 3: Candidate has investigated the
degradability of the composite due to soil and
atmosphere at three deferent places. Has he
carried out any analysis using SEM to investigate
this degradability? What are the parameters
influencing this degradability?
• Answer: SEM analysis was carried out to
investigate the effect of fiber volume on
mechanical properties.
• Temperature, humidity, velocity of air and soil
composition will affect the degradability of the
composites.

84. • Question 4: In page 57, candidate has
furnished mathematical models for Tensile
Strength, Flexural strength, Flexural Modulus
and Impact strength (Table 4.7). What is the
interpretation of these mathematical models?
What conclusions can be drawn based on
these models?
• Explanation for the above models was given in
the pages 49-51. If the table is placed in page
51 then it looks good.

85. • Question 5: With all investigations, candidate
concludes that the reinforcement of the feathers
of ‘Emu’ bird would enhance different properties
of epoxy composite. What is cost of the feathers
of ‘Emu’ bird? Are they available in India
reasonably?
• Answer : The ‘Emu’ feather is available
sufficiently in India as a waste and it does not
involve any cost. Even if it involves cost for bulk
requirement, it will be very meager.
• And if these feathers are not disposed properly
may lead to environmental pollution.

86. THANK YOU
V.Chandra Sekhar