2. Why can’t a woman be
more like a man?
- My Fair Lady
3. Reality check (1)
• women - talk more
than men, talk too
much, are more polite,
are indecisive/hesitant,
complain and nag, ask
more questions,
support each other,
are more co-operative
• men - swear more, don't
talk about emotions, talk
about sport more, talk
about women and
machines in the same way,
insult each other frequently,
are competitive in
conversation, dominate
conversation, speak with
more authority, give more
commands, interrupt more.
Living Language (2000) by
George Keith and John
Shuttleworth
4. Women’s language
(Lakoff, 1975)
• Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”,and so on.
• Use (super)polite forms: “Would you mind...”,“I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.
• Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?”
• Speak in italics: intonational emphasis equal to underlining words - so, very, quite.
• Use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable, and so on
• Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear
enunciation.
• Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often.
• Have a special lexicon: women use more words for things like colours, men for sports.
• Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into
questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty.
For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?”
• Use “wh-” imperatives: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”)
• Speak less frequently
• Overuse qualifiers: (for example, “I Think that...”)
• Apologise more: (for instance, “I'm sorry, but I think that...”)
• Use modal constructions: (such as can, would, should, ought - “Should we turn up the
heat?”)
• Avoid coarse language or expletives
• Use indirect commands and requests: (for example, “My, isn't it cold in here?” - really a
request to turn the heat on or close a window)
• Use more intensifiers: especially so and very (for instance, “I am so glad you came!”)
• Lack a sense of humour: women do not tell jokes well and often don't understand the punch
line of jokes.
13. General Styles
• Men tend to be more competitive and
less supportive of others
• Women are more cooperative.
14. Interruptions
• In cross-gender interactions, almost all
the interruptions were from men.
– In meetings
– In doctor-patient interactions
– Parents and children
• Pre-school boys interrupt too.
– Women are socialized from early childhood
to expect to be interrupted.
16. Women’s gossip
• Description
– Easy and idle in-group talk in informal
contexts
• Function
– To affirm solidarity
– To maintain the social relstionships
17. Linguistic features of the gossip
• Propositions which express feelings are
often intensified.
• Complete each other’s utterances,
agree frequently, and provide
supportive feedback.
18. “Gossip is good for women's health.”
• “The research reveals a woman is happier
and healthier if she enjoys a regular chat with
her female friend because it boosts levels of
progesterone, a hormone shown to reduces
levels of anxiety and stress.” (The Telegraph,
June 10, 2009)
– http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/women_shealth/
5496680/Gossip-is-good-for-womens-health-
scientists-claim.html
19. The construction of gender
• Gender identity
– Women adapt to masculine contexts
– Men adapt to feminine contexts.
21. We hold these truths to be
self-evident: That all men are
created equal
- Declaration of Independence, 1776.
22. Sexism in language
• Generic ‘he’ and ‘man’
– Man has been civilized for centuries. He no longer
needs to hunt for food for his women and children.
• The male form is unmarked; the female form
is marked.
– Prince; princess.
• Animal/food imagery
– Bitch, chick,
– Sugar, honey, sweetie
