2. Internetworking Models
In 1977, the International Organization for
standardization (ISO)
created the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model.
OSI Layer is meant for Networking manufacturers and
developers to provide them a standard based on which
they can make their products.
All OSI Layers are independent from each other,
which makes introducing changes easier as no other
layers are effected.
3. Advantages of Reference Models
Advantages of using the OSI layered model include, but
are not limited to, the following:
Allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components.
Allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers,
so it does not hamper development.
4. The OSI Reference Model
The Seven Layers of OSI
Application Layer WWW, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, E-mail,
SNMP, DNS
Presentation Layer PICT, TIFF, JPEG, MIDI, MPEG,
GIFF etc.
Session Layer RPC, SQL, NFS and NetBIOS
Transport Layer TCP, UDP and SCTP
Network Layer IP, ARP and RARP
Datalink Layer LLC (Logical Link Contol)
MAC (Media Access Control)
Physical Layer DCE and DTE
5. IP Subnetting
There are loads of reasons in favor of subnetting.
Some of the benefits include:
Reduced network traffic:- We all appreciate less traffic of
any kind. Networks are no different. Without trusty
routers, packet traffic could grind the entire network down
to a near standstill.
Optimized network performance:- This is a result of
reduced network traffic.
Simplified management:- It’s easier to identify and
isolate network problems in a group of smaller
connected networks than within one gigantic network.
Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances:-
Because WAN links are considerably slower and more
expensive than LAN links, a single large network that
spans long distances can create problems in every arena
listed above.
6. How to Create Subnets
To create subnetworks, you take bits from the host portion of
the IP address and reserve them to define the subnet
address.
To determine your current requirements as well as plan for
future conditions. Follow these steps:
Determine the number of required network IDs:
One for each subnet
One for each wide area network connection
Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
One for each TCP/IP host
One for each router interface
Based on the above requirement, create the following:
One subnet mask for your entire network
A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
A range of host IDs for each subnet
7. Subnet Masks
A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that allows the
recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network ID
portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of
the IP address.
The default subnet masks for Classes A, B, and C.
These default masks cannot change.
Default Subnet Mask
Class Format Default Subnet Mask
A network.node.node.node 255.0.0.0
B network.network.node.node 255.255.0.0
C network.network.network.node 255.255.255.0
8. Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR)
It’s basically the method that ISPs (Internet
Service Providers) use to allocate an amount of
addresses to a company, a home—a customer.
They provide addresses in a certain block size which
looks something like this: 192.168.10.32/28. This tell
you what is your subnet mask.
For example a Class A default subnet mask is 255.0.0.0.
This means that the first byte of the subnet mask is all
ones (1s) or 11111111.
9. RAID Systems
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
Basic idea is to connect multiple disks together to
provide
large storage capacity
faster access to reading data
redundant data
Many different levels of RAID systems
differing levels of redundancy, error checking,
capacity, and cost
10. RAID Level-0 (Striping)
• Take file data and map it to different
disks
• Allows for reading data in parallel
file data block 1block 0 block 2 block 3
Disk 0 Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3
11. Parity
Way to do error checking and correction
Add up all the bits that are 1
if even number, set parity bit to 0
if odd number, set parity bit to 1
To actually implement this, do an exclusive OR of
all the bits being considered
Consider the following 2 bytes
byte parity
10110011 1
01101010 0
If a single bit is bad, it is possible to correct it
12. Mirroring
Keep to copies of data on two separate disks
Gives good error recovery
if some data is lost, get it from the other source
Expensive
requires twice as many disks
Write performance can be slow
have to write data to two different spots
Read performance is enhanced
can read data from file in parallel
13. RAID Level-1
A complete file is stored on a single disk
A second disk contains an exact copy of the
file
Provides complete redundancy of data
Read performance can be improved
file data can be read in parallel
Write performance suffers
must write the data out twice
Most expensive RAID implementation
requires twice as much storage space
14. RAID Level-2
Stripes data across disks similar to Level-0
difference is data is bit interleaved instead of block
interleaved
Uses ECC to monitor correctness of information
on disk
Multiple disks record the ECC information to
determine which disk is in fault
A parity disk is then used to reconstruct corrupted
or lost data
15. RAID Level-3
One big problem with Level-2 are the disks
needed to detect which disk had an error
Modern disks can already determine if there is an
error
using ECC codes with each sector
So just need to include a parity disk
if a sector is bad, the disk itself tells us, and use the
parity disk to correct it
16. RAID Level-4
Still use a single disk for parity
Now the parity is calculated over data from
multiple blocks
Level-2,3 calculate it over a single block
If an error detected, need to read other blocks on
other disks to reconstruct data
17. RAID Level-5
Level-5 stripes file data and check data over all
the disks
no longer a single check disk
no more write bottleneck
Drastically improves the performance of multiple
writes
they can now be done in parallel
Slightly improves reads
one more disk to use for reading
18. Active Directory (AD)
Active Directory (AD) is a Microsoft technology
used to manage computers and other devices on
a network. It is a primary feature of Windows
Server, an operating system that runs both local
and Internet-based servers.
19. Benefits of Active Directory
Hierarchical organizational structure.
Multimaster Authentication & Multimaster
replication (the ability to access and modify AD
DS from multiple
points of administration)
A single point of access to network resources.
Ability to create trust relationships with external
networks running previous versions of Active
Directory and even Unix.
20. DNS
The “Domain Name System”
What Internet users use to reference anything by
name on the Internet
The mechanism by which Internet software
translates names to attributes such as addresses
DNS Port No 53
21. The Name Space
The name space is the structure of the DNS database
An inverted tree with the root node at the top
Each node has a label
The root node has a null label, written as “”
third-level node
second-level node second-level node
top-level node
third-level node third-level node
second-level node
top-level node
second-level node second-level node
top-level node
The root node
""
22. Domain Names
A domain name is the sequence of labels from a node to the root,
separated by dots (“.”s), read left to right
The name space has a maximum depth of 127 levels
Domain names are limited to 255 characters in length
A node’s domain name identifies its position in the name space
dakota
west
tornado
east www
nominum metainfo
com
berkeley nwu
edu gov
nato
int
army
mil
uu
net org
""
23. DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Used for dynamic allocation of IP addresses
used for hosts that run only client applications
Allows for host-specific configuration parameters to
be delivered from a DHCP server to a host
DHCP can also be used to convey permanent
IP address assignments to hosts
Server interfaces need permanent addresses
because clients need to be able to reach them
Also, router interfaces should have permanent
addresses for stability of routing data
24. IOPS (input/output operations per
second)
IOPS is frequently referenced by storage vendors
to characterize performance in solid-state drives
(SSD), hard disk drives (HDD) and storage area
networks. However, an IOPS number is not an
actual benchmark, and numbers promoted by
vendors may not correspond to real-world
performance.