/ FORAGES / 1 Forages David Hannaway Kimberly Japhet / FORAGES / 2 Kimberly Japhet 1255 Bluegrass Blvd Batavia OH 45103 541-609-0939 [email protected] Dr. David Hannaway 125 Crop Science Building Oregon State University Corvallis OR 97331 [email protected] / FORAGES / 3 Forages Contents Foreword Grasslands Forages Grasses Legumes Miscellaneous Forages Forage Identification Growing grass- physiology Establishment Fertility Quality Weeds and Pests Grazing Hay and Silage Selecting the right forage / FORAGES / 4 This document is an effort to supply students beginning their study of forage production. We bring the basics of forage management without the hefty cost of textbook. We want students to have quality resources and materials without the burden of more college costs. We are grateful for those who supported this effort - The Valley Library and Open Oregon State at Oregon State University. We also acknowledge Dr. David Hannaway for his expertise and his persistent work to provide quality educational resources to all interested learners. / FORAGES / 5 GRASSLANDS Overview The purpose of this chapter is to help readers visualize the vast scope of forages in the world by defining, locating and describing the great grasslands of the world. Discussion of general concepts of grasslands also will alert readers to the need for understanding the fragile balance between plants, soils and animals in each grassland location. To feel you have mastered this first chunk of the book, you should be able to name the grasslands of the world and recognize the many terms for grasslands in various countries/ regions. You should have a concise definition of grasslands and how they vary from other vegetative areas. And you should be able to discuss some of the issues grasslands currently face. Definition of Grasslands When visiting the Grand Canyon for the first time it is only natural to wonder what the first explorers must have thought as they strolled through the woodlands and suddenly before them a massive but magnificent ditch came into view. / FORAGES / 6 Similar feelings must have been experienced by those approaching the extensive grasslands of the world. The steppe of Eurasia extends from Europe to China; the prairies of America have been called an ocean of grass, and many settlers were too overwhelmed by its size to venture across it. https://www.freewebheaders.com/wordpress/wp-content/gallery/grass/awesome-green-yellow-grass- field-aerial-background-header.jpg Grassland, land containing mostly grasses, covers about 2/3 of the land masses of the world and makes up 1/4 of the earth's surface. Grassland refers to that biome dominated by grasses, species of the Poaceae family (previously Gramineae). *A biome is “a large geographical area characterized by certain types of plants and animals.” Examples are forest, grassland, freshwater, marine, desert, and tundra. A ...

1. / FORAGES / 1
Forages
David Hannaway
Kimberly Japhet
/ FORAGES / 2
Kimberly Japhet
1255 Bluegrass Blvd
Batavia OH 45103
541-609-0939
[email protected]
Dr. David Hannaway
125 Crop Science Building
Oregon State University
Corvallis OR 97331
[email protected]
/ FORAGES / 3
Forages
Contents

2. Foreword
Grasslands
Forages
Grasses
Legumes
Miscellaneous Forages
Forage Identification
Growing grass- physiology
Establishment
Fertility
Quality
Weeds and Pests
Grazing
Hay and Silage
Selecting the right forage
/ FORAGES / 4
This document is an effort to supply

3. students beginning their study of forage
production. We bring the basics of forage
management without the hefty cost of
textbook. We want students to have quality
resources and materials without the burden of
more college costs. We are grateful for those
who supported this effort - The Valley Library
and Open Oregon State at Oregon State
University. We also acknowledge Dr. David
Hannaway for his expertise and his persistent
work to provide quality educational resources
to all interested learners.
/ FORAGES / 5
GRASSLANDS
Overview
The purpose of this chapter is to help readers visualize the vast
scope of forages in the world by defining, locating and
describing the great grasslands of the world. Discussion of
general concepts of grasslands also will alert readers to the
need for understanding the fragile balance between plants,
soils and animals in each grassland location.

4. To feel you have mastered this first chunk of the book, you
should be able to name the grasslands of the world and
recognize the many terms for grasslands in various countries/
regions. You should have a concise definition of grasslands
and how they vary from other vegetative areas. And you should
be able to discuss some of the issues grasslands currently
face.
Definition of Grasslands
When visiting the Grand Canyon for the first time it is only
natural to wonder what the first explorers must have thought as
they strolled through the woodlands and suddenly before them
a massive but magnificent ditch came into view.
/ FORAGES / 6
Similar feelings must have been experienced by those
approaching the extensive grasslands of the world. The steppe
of Eurasia extends from Europe to China; the prairies of
America have been called an ocean of grass, and many settlers
were too overwhelmed by its size to venture across it.
https://www.freewebheaders.com/wordpress/wp-
content/gallery/grass/awesome-green-yellow-grass-
field-aerial-background-header.jpg
Grassland, land containing mostly grasses, covers about 2/3 of
the land masses of the world and makes up 1/4 of the earth's
surface. Grassland refers to that biome dominated by grasses,
species of the Poaceae family (previously Gramineae). *A
biome is “a large geographical area characterized by certain
types of plants and animals.” Examples are forest, grassland,
freshwater, marine, desert, and tundra.

5. Although grasslands contain mostly grass, they are actually
areas of great variety since there are over 10,000 grass
species, not to mention the 12,000 species of legumes that
/ FORAGES / 7
often grow with grasses. Most natural grasslands exist between
deserts and forests, although man-made grasslands have been
developed on land that would accommodate trees. Grasslands
are usually divided into two categories: tropical (grasslands
located near the equator such as those in Africa, southern Asia,
Australia and northern South America) and temperate
(grasslands located between the equator and the poles
including those in North America, Europe, southern South
America, Africa and Australia). Prairies, savannas, veldts,
steppes, llanos, campos, downs, meadows, moors, pamir,
pampas, pantanals, patanas, punas, pusztas, and sahel all
describe grasslands of the world. Although different countries
and languages have different names for grasslands, all
countries are learning that grasslands are crucial to civilization
as we know it.
http://www.geoknow.net/biosphere/grasslands.html
Location and description of grasslands
and their forages
http://www.geoknow.net/biosphere/grasslands.html
/ FORAGES / 8
https://sites.google.com/site/apesprojectnickzandjennyt/home/gr

6. assland
Tropical Grasslands
Grasslands near the equator produce plants that can withstand
a hot climate through most of the year as well as drought and
fires. The savannas of Africa are probably the best known but
tropical grasslands are also located in South America, India
and Australia. There are llanos in Colombia and Venezuela,
campos of the Brazilian highlands, pantanals of Upper
Paraguay, plains in Australia and the Deccan Plateau of India.
Although all these are hot, their annual rainfall varies.
Australian plains may receive only 18 inches (45.72
centimeters) a year but the savannas of Africa receive over 50
inches (127 centimeters). The llanos and pantanal of South
America are often flooded during a portion of the year. But
rainfall is only one factor in determining whether a grassland is
tropical. Solar irradiance, air humidity, and air temperature all
add to how quickly moisture is evaporated and these factors
have their influence in determining aridity of a tropical
grassland.
http://sites.google.com/site/apesprojectnickzandjennyt/home/gra
ssland
/ FORAGES / 9
http://grasslandspraries.weebly.com/climate.html
Tropical grasslands are often bordered by deserts, seas,
mountains or forests and often have some scattered trees and
shrubs. Grasses on savannas are often tall bunchgrasses to
aid in surviving the extreme climate in reddish, sandy, dusty
soil
that has little humus since the long drought periods do not
promote the decomposition needed for developing fertile soil.

7. The ability of grasses to lie dormant during periods of drought
and other regrowth characteristics, all of which we will study in
this course, allow the grasslands to be continually rejuvenated
but this rejuvenation occurs in short growing seasons.
So the tropical grasslands are close to the equator and hot all
year. Names are different in different countries.
• In Africa they are called “savannas,”
• in Colombia and Venezuela, “llanos,”
• in the Brazilian highlands, “campos,”
• in Upper Paraguay, “pantanals,”
• in Australia, “plains,” and
/ FORAGES / 10
• in India, “the Deccan Plateau”.
Many of the tropical grasslands have been protected from
invasion by man by being the habitat of dangerous wildlife and
numerous pests. Some grasslands today are still sparsely
populated due to tsetse flies. But medicines and other
developments have broken down some of the barriers that
once naturally kept people at bay. Many people who now rely
on the savannas for food are very poor and the soils of the
savannas have been so depleted that using the land for crops
is unprofitable. Allowing animals to forage on the land is their
best way of utilizing the grasses. But poor soil produces little
feed and the animals need a lot of land in order to avoid
starvation. 100 million families are struggling to produce their
food on savannas and watching wild animals forage their lands
is extremely difficult and results in important management
decisions in India and Africa.
Although it may sound as though life is barely possible in a

8. savanna, animal life is actually teeming. On the savannas of
Africa, elephants, zebras, wildebeest, giraffes and other
browsers eat the grasses and are then eaten by cheetah, lions
and other predators. In Australia, emus and other foragers rely
on hot grasslands. But the largest group of animal life in the
savannas is made up of insects. Billions of locust, termites and
flies abound here. How can so many creatures exist on such a
land? Part of the answer lies in the amazing traits of grass
which enable it to withstand fire and drought, and in realizing
that the various animals and insects eat different plants and
perform different functions in the relationship between plant,
soil and animal. Zebras eat more fibrous grass while hartebeest
will consume the stalks of plants left by previous foragers.
Giraffes and elephants crop the trees and carnivorous animals
use the tall grasses to hide in preparation for pouncing.
Termites turn over tons of soil aerating it so rainfall can seep
deeper into the ground. The grasslands are wonderful
/ FORAGES / 11
examples of diversity and synergism.
Beside the natural animal populations, man continues to try to
utilize the tropical grasslands as forage for commercial
purposes. Although many obstacles have been experienced
over the years, such as pests, drought, diseases and
transportation, ranchers now raise livestock on the grasslands
of India, South America, Australia and Africa. The keys to
developing more of the tropical grasslands to feed a growing
population are education about forages and proper
management.
Temperate Grasslands
The main temperate grasslands are the steppe in Eurasia, the

9. prairies of North America, the downs of Australia and New
Zealand and the pampa of Argentina. Temperate grasslands
produce plants with long, extensive roots that dig deep into the
mollisol (soft, nutrient-rich) soil. This type of massive root
structure creates a dense net that develops a sod layer
anchoring plants to the soil, which reduces erosion, retains
water, and was once used to make homes because of its
density. As the roots decay, a dark brown soil (sometimes
called chernozem or "black soil") forms which is very fertile.
/ FORAGES / 12
http://course.cs.uidaho.edu/wiki404/index.php/File:Biome_trian
gle.jpg
Temperate grasslands contain short grasses with few trees.
Rainfall determines plant density, resulting in thick or clumpy
growth. Smooth, fine grasses with lateral growth form a carpet
of grass called a sward and wiry, coarse grasses which grow
upwards form clumps called tussocks.
The temperate grasslands are often very colorful. Most
temperate grasslands are inland and are therefore much
windier with tornadoes, bursters, northers, burans, and
chinooks. Temperature extremes are wider than anywhere in
the world, but annual rainfall averages from 12-20 inches.
Many different types of animals and insects thrive on the forage
in temperate grasslands. Aphids, grubs, grasshoppers, and
caterpillars each enjoy different parts of the local vegetation.
Rabbits, hares, prairie dogs, and countless smaller rodents:
gerbils, hamsters, mice, squirrels, chinchillas and rat kangaroos

10. / FORAGES / 13
forage on the various grasslands. Australian kangaroos, South
American guanacos, North American bison and antelope all
forage, but are also hunted by predators such as wolves. Birds
are consumers of seeds and grasses and also predators to
other foragers. The animals and fowl of the prairies have a
palette of ways to survive the cold winters including burrows,
hibernation, winter coats and migration.
http://www.oddizzi.com/teachers/explore-the-world/physical-
features/ecosystems/temperate-
grasslands/
The temperate grasslands have been utilized by hunters,
herders, and shepherds of the world. Whether Native
Americans, Aborigine gatherers, Maori, Mongol or Bantu
farmers or nomadic Kazak of Afghanistan, people have
benefited from the plains and the animals that forage there.
Although the grasslands have been used by man for thousands
of years, they were not really invaded and transformed until the
late 1800's. Railroads, plows, machinery, and other inventions
finally made the temperate grasslands manageable for more
extensive usage, most of it in cereal crop production. However,
with these tools came near destruction of the natural
grasslands. While killing off wild grazing animals, farmers and
ranchers also misused the land and interrupted the balanced
/ FORAGES / 14
cycle that existed with plants, animals and soil. The most
striking example of how the natural cycle of grasslands can be

11. upset occurred in the early 1900's on the prairies of North
America. The "Dust Bowl" was a term applied to an area
around Oklahoma when severe drought and mismanagement
ruined the crops and eventually the soil. As with the the tropical
savannas, the temperate steppes and prairies can only survive
and benefit mankind if properly managed. Much of the
temperate grasslands have been put into crop farming and
although this has done much to feed the world, the role of
forages in these areas cannot be underestimated. China is
currently working to rejuvenate their grasslands which once
nourished the empires of the Khans and others but have been
mismanaged over time. Grasslands around the world were
created by the relationships between plants, animals and soil
and they will only survive when that continuum is understood
and respected.
Grassland agriculture
The term grassland agriculture is a familiar one in a number of
European countries but perhaps not as familiar in the United
States. What do we mean by the term grassland agriculture?
The American Forage & Grassland Council defines grassland
agriculture simply as:"...the proper use of grass in
agriculture" (American Forage & GrasslandCouncil, 1959.
American Forage & Grassland Council, Its History, Plans,and
Objectives, State College, Pa.). In actual practice, grassland
agriculture includes the proper use of legumes as well as
grasses. Often a proper use of grasses and legumes involves
livestock, wildlife and soils. Farmers busy with crop production
are also often grassland farmers because many farms combine
crops with animals. Successful farming of this type relies on
stewardship of plant, animals and land/soil. These three
components become a system - each contributing and utilizing

12. / FORAGES / 15
the others.
http://cropwatch.unl.edu/2016/does-grazing-cover-crops-cattle-
compact-soil
Grassland ecosystems
Grasses and/or grass/legume mixtures are used to feed
livestock, support wildlife, and to maintain land resources in
good condition. Grasslands occupy about one-half the total
land in the contiguous 48 states although not all the grasslands
are the same. They all deserve attention and proper utilization
by everyone concerned with good stewardship of the earth.
/ FORAGES / 16
https://s-media-cache-
ak0.pinimg.com/736x/94/98/7e/94987eb22e81197ba0be9c3536e
45f31.jpg
https://s-media-cache-
ak0.pinimg.com/736x/94/98/7e/94987eb22e81197ba0be9c3536e
45f31.jpg
/ FORAGES / 17
http://www.fao.org/3/contents/dc0f6569-2a33-5ec2-b635-
e13bc5c787b4/y8344e0d.htm
Integrating grassland agriculture into a farming system provides
a number of important benefits to farmers and to society. The

13. major benefits of grassland agriculture include the following.
• Protects soil from wind and water erosion.
• Provides high quality, relatively inexpensive feed for
livestock and wildlife.
• Provides wildlife habitat.
• Helps maintain soil fertility because it encourages higher
levels of soil organic matter than row crops.
• Filters air and water.
• Sustains levels of soil organic matter.
/ FORAGES / 18
A typical grassland agroecosystem
In recent years, there has been an increasing emphasis on
viewing farming systems as part of the overall ecosystems of
the earth. This is understandable since what happens on the
farm may have a profound impact on the surrounding
environment. For example, the types of vegetation grown on a
farm will impact local wildlife. If permitted, deer or elk will
graze
readily on alfalfa fields in the evening. And improper use of
agricultural chemicals may have detrimental effects on birds or
on fish in nearby streams.
In light of the important relationship between agricultural
production systems (farms) and the surrounding environment,
the term agroecosystem has been created. What do we mean
by the term agroecosystem? An agroecosystem is an
ecosystem that includes a farm or farms and the surrounding
environment. Like any other ecosystem, an agroecosystem

14. / FORAGES / 19
contains both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
components.
Examples of living components of an ecosystem or an
agroecosystem include grasses, cattle, insects, and diseases.
Examples of non-living components of an agroecosystem
would be weather, minerals, or sunlight. The various living and
non-living factors interact with each other in many complex
ways. For example, a bird interacts with an earthworm by
eating it. Fertilizer interacts with grass by increasing its rate of
growth.
One way to begin to visualize and understand an
agroecosystem is to examine a list of the major components of
such a system. Illustrated below is a photo of agroecosystem
and a simplified list of its interacting components all
participating in the circle of life.
/ FORAGES / 20
Cows interact with pastures by eating the forage, urinating and
defecating on the plants and soil; thousands of insects and
bugs of all types exist in the soil, on the land, and in the air;
trees and other plant life utilize the moisture and nutrients
found
in the soil, and air; evaporation and other weather factors
impact the plants, livestock, and geology of the region; humans
interact with the livestock, plants, and other life forms by
eating,
trampling, spraying, hitting, or planting; sun energy is utilized
by

15. plants, animals, and humans; the water is a home for some life,
refreshment for others, and nutrients for plants; and although
not detectable on the photo, other factors are brought in by
wind, tires, winter feed and so forth. All these players interact
and influence each other. The goal of sustainability is harmony
among the players.
Sustainable agriculture and how forages
are a key component
The term "sustainable agriculture" is based on the word
sustain. Thus, before discussing the term"sustainable
agriculture" it is helpful to examine a definition of the word
sustain. Sustain includes the idea of "keeping up", "supporting"
"enduring" and prolonging". Thus, sustainable agriculture
implies an agricultural system that will be prolonged, that is, it
will continue to operate over a long period of time.
There are many ways to describe how agriculture can be
sustainable. The following list summarizes key components of
sustainable agricultural systems that have been suggested by
various authors.
• a careful stewardship of the earth
• the maintenance of the earth's biological systems
• the maintenance of nutrient cycles
• an ability to meet the need for food indefinitely
• a system that produces food at a socially acceptable
/ FORAGES / 21
environmental cost
• an acceptable balance of environmental and economic
concerns

16. • an incorporation of biological processes such as: nitrogen
fixation and beneficial insects into food production
• minimal use of off-farm inputs
• use of crop rotations to control weeds, diseases and
insect pests
• the use of integrated pest management
• the use of no-till or minimum-tillage cropping systems
The American Society of Agronomy has developed the
following definition of sustainable agriculture:
" A sustainable agriculture is one that, over the long term,
enhances the environmental quality and the resource base on
which agriculture depends; provides for basic human food and
fiber needs; is economically viable; and enhances the quality of
life for farmers and society as a whole." (Francis, C.A., and G.
Youngberg. 1990. Sustainable Agriculture--an overview. In C.
A. Francis, C.B. Flora, and L. D. King (eds.), Sustainable
Agriculture in Temperate Zones. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, pp.1-23.)
A properly managed system where forages are fed to livestock,
like the type described in the previous paragraph, has a
number of features that develop sustainability. As indicated in
the previous section, sustainable agriculture implies limited
outside inputs and minimum tillage. Forage-livestock systems
often incorporate both of these features. Unlike agricultural
systems in which crops are grown and harvested within a single
growing season, maintaining forages in pastures involves much
less disturbance of topsoil. Because this generally results in
lower rates of soil erosion, the sustainability of soil as a
resource can be greatly improved. In addition, the maintenance
of forages in pastures over long periods of time enhances the

17. / FORAGES / 22
build up of soil organic matter and humus, which in turn help
sustain soil fertility. Legumes, crops that are able to extract
nitrogen from the air and add it to the soil, are often included as
forages in pastures. The presence of legumes provides an
input of nitrogen into the system that can make up for nitrogen
removed from the system within animal products like milk and
meat. Thus, including legumes in the system helps make the
system more of a sustainable system.
The recycling of nutrients is a vital part of sustainable
agriculture. When animals eat forages, they consume nutrients
and utilize some of the nutrients to grow, produce milk and
maintain body functions. But significant quantities of nutrients
are deposited onto the ground in waste products. The waste
products are recycled immediately into the soil in a form that
can be readily used by forage plants. This natural recycling of
nutrients lessens the need for off-farm fertilizer nutrients,
which
is an important component of sustainable agriculture. It has
been predicted that there will be an increase of five billion in
world population over the next 40 years so learning to recycle
the existing nutrients is crucial (Council for Agricultural
Science
and Technology, 1994).
Grassland organizations
• International Grassland Congress
: (1920) This organization started by European scientists
and dealt primarily with northern and central European
countries for many years but now has expanded to include
other land areas. This group encourages the interaction of
scientists and technicians to address the improvement,

18. management, use and better production of grasslands.
• International Rangeland Congress
: Begun in the United States in the 1970's, this
organization promotes better understanding and
appreciation of rangeland ecosystems.
• Society of Range Management
http://www.internationalgrasslands.org/
http://www.rangelandcongress.com/
http://www.rangelands.org/
/ FORAGES / 23
: This United States based group promotes teaching and
research in the area of range management.
• American Forage and Grassland Council
: This organization seeks to be the voice of forage-based
agriculture. It promotes research and education in the
area of forage and grassland.
• American Society of Agronomy
: This organization promotes research, teaching and
extension activities in the area of forages.
• American Society of Animal Science
: This group promotes the teaching, research and
extension activities in the area of animal science.
Issues affecting grasslands
The formation of natural grasslands occurred over millions of
years as plants and animals grew, died and decomposed into a
soil that was largely undisturbed. The plants provided food and

19. nourishment for animals and the animals, in turn, stimulated
growth in the plants, fertilized and distributed seed over the
soil.
The soil gave nourishment and a safe place for seeds to
develop. This process, over a long period of time, created some
of the most fertile areas in the world.
The influences of drought and fire are also important. Both
sound devastating but they actually provide positive effects to
the development of grasslands. The ability of grass to endure
through periods of drought; to lie dormant in the soil or grow
beneath the soil gives grass its greatest advantage. Fire can kill
many plants and animals but this is a natural way to kill pests
and weaker plants and replenish the soil with decomposed
matter to form better soil. Fire has also been used to extend the
boundaries of grasslands by removing trees to allow more
grass to grow. Trees do not tolerate fire, drought or grazing as
well as grasses.
http://www.afgc.org/
http://www.agronomy.org/
http://www.asas.org/
/ FORAGES / 24
http://emilyrosebiomes.weebly.com/uploads/2/4/3/6/24368118/4
12830561.jpg
Other factors that greatly influenced the grasslands came as
man tried to conquer these magnificent oceans of grass. Some
grasslands were too overwhelming for man for a long time.
Their vast acreage, the grasses that grow to be over 10 feet
tall, their climate characteristics, and the animals that forage on
them have all been natural protectors of the grasslands. But
when man has finally been able to conquer the grasslands with

20. the help of inventions, new medicines, better nutrition, and
improved transportation, the cycle of give-and-take between
soil, plants and animals has been interrupted. The near
extinction of the buffalo (bison) from the prairies of North
America has greatly altered the life on that grassland area.
Without the benefits that the buffalo (bison) gave with their
selective grazing, fertilizing with dung and urine, and treading
seeds down into the soil, the prairies today are not as they
were at the turn of the century. The grasses that seem native to
an area today are not necessarily what grew there 100 years
ago. The arrival of railroads in the 1800's also greatly changed
the massive grasslands in Eurasia and North America.
Ranching and farming became much more manageable with
railroads to carry goods to market. They also increased the
number of people living on the grasslands.
/ FORAGES / 25
http://cwf-fcf.org/assets/images/resources/newsletters/wildlife-
update/2009/wu-feb09/grass-lg.jpg
Tractors, plows, railroads and other inventions forever changed
life on the grasslands. The plant, soil, animal balance is natural
but easily upset. The most striking example of how the natural
cycle of grasslands can be upset occurred in the early 1900's
on the prairies of North America. The "Dust Bowl" was a rude
wake-up call that mismanagement can quickly bring destruction
to the grassland continuum.
/ FORAGES / 26
https://timedotcom.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/01_00976648.j

21. pg?quality=85&w=728
Many factors impacted that disaster but better knowledge and
management of the plant, soil, animal cycle would have been
very valuable. But the central issue is whether society
(governments and their peoples) values these grasslands
enough to protect them through sustainable management.
Today more issues loom over the grasslands. Residential
encroachment, desertification, grazing practices, water rights,
plant selection, and suitable land usage all must be considered
in properly maintaining the immense value of grasslands. One
reason the Extension Service exists is to connect the science
with the citizen to properly manage our lands.
/ FORAGES / 27
https://baynature.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/11-319.jpg
Remember grasslands provide valuable benefits. Healthy
grasslands can provide numerous environmental services,
including: sequestering CO2, giving O2, forming and protecting
fertile soils, providing forage for domestic and wild animals,
providing habitat for numerous creatures, providing recreational
surfaces, cleaning our air and water, adding to the visual
beauty of scenery, and calming some weather.
Matching grassland use with its biological capacity will
result in:
• Conserving land, soil, water, and biological diversity.
• Regenerating the productivity potential of plants and
animals.

22. • Restoring the beauty of the landscape and clean water.
• Improving people’s lives, both those living on the land and
those benefitting from the improved ecological services
provided.
/ FORAGES / 28
In summary, grasslands are valuable to all life. They provide so
many important benefits that it behooves us to understand
them, cherish them, be good stewards of them and be visionary
about our connections and interactions with them.
Forage-related terms can be accessed at: http://
forages.oregonstate.edu/search/glossary
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/search/glossary
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/search/glossary
/ FORAGES / 29
FORAGES
Overview
The purpose of this lesson is to help students comprehend the
role of forages in the United States. The role of forages in
agriculture's framework, nationally and locally, is not well
understood for two main reasons. Forages are often produced
and consumed on individual farms and ranches and never
enter the marketplace as most commodities do. Forages also
include a variety of plant species and are harvested as different
products including pasture, hay, silage, and greenchop. This
module will present the impact of forages both historically and

23. currently.
Define forages and differentiate between
forage types
Forages are plants or parts of plants eaten by livestock and
wildlife.
/ FORAGES / 30
There are many different types of forages. Some of the most
important are listed in the table below.
Table 1. Forage types and definitions.
Vegetati
on
Terms
Definitions
Forage Edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that
can
provide feed for grazing animals, or that can be harvested for
feeding. Includes browse, herbage, and mast.
Browse Leaf and twig growth of shrubs, woody vines, trees,
cacti, and
other non-herbaceous vegetation available for animal

24. consumption.
Herbage The biomass of herbaceous plants, other than separated
grain,
generally above ground but including edible roots and tubers.
Forbe Any herbaceous broadleaf plant that is not a grass and is
not
grass-like.
Legume Members of the plant family Fabaceae.
Grass Members of the plant family Poaceae.
Grass-like Vegetation that is similar to grass in appearance and
is usually a
member of the plant family Cyperaceae (sedges) or Juncaceae
(rushes).
Pasturage Not a recommended term.The recommended
definition of pasture
refers to a specific kind of grazing management unit, not that
which is consumed, which is forage. Thus, pasturage is not a
useful term.
Mast Fruits and seeds of shrubs, woody vines, trees, cacti, and
other
non-herbaceous vegetation available for animal consumption.
Forage
crop
A crop of cultivated plants or plant parts, other than separated
grain, produced to be grazed or harvested for use as feed for

25. animals.
Aftermath Forage grown following a harvest.
Residue Forage remaining on the land as a consequence of
harvest.
Silage Forage preserved in a succulent condition by partial
anaerobic,
acid fermentation.
Hay Grass or other plants, such as clover or alfalfa, cut and
dried for
fodder.
Haylage Product resulting from ensiling forage with around
45% moisture,
in the absence of oxygen.
/ FORAGES / 31
Fodder Coarse grasses such as corn and sorghum harvested with
the
seed and leaves green or alive, then cured and fed in their
entirety as forage.
Green
chop
Fresh cut forages.
Explain how forages have been and are

26. essential to civilization
About 2/3 of the world's land mass contains predominantly
grasses. Since humans cannot beneficially consume the
cellulose within grasses, what is the best way to utilize this
common plant component? The best way that civilization has
developed is to allow ruminant animals to feed on the cellulosic
plants and convert the grasses into energy producing other
very beneficial products to mankind. Man can wisely use the
plants of the earth by feeding them to animals and then
consuming the animal products.
In the world of agriculture, forages are the unappreciated and
sometimes forgotten plants that make the management of
livestock possible supplying food for us but also serve as the
foundation of recreational and conservation areas. Some have
stated that without grasslands, civilization would still be
extremely primitive since gathering food from other sources
would require most of each day. And most land would be
uninhabitable without the soil-binding capabilities of grasses.
So, let’s take a closer look at what forage plants do for all of us.
a. Products
It is likely that the typical American consumer does not
appreciate the vital role forages play in everyday life. A wide
variety of products and services are directly dependent on
/ FORAGES / 32
successful forage production.
Historically, the majority of American consumers lived and
worked on farms. Thus the connection between forages and
everyday products such as milk and leather were well known by

27. much of American society. At the turn of the century, more than
75% of the country's gross national product and 85% of its
employment opportunities were associated with agriculture. Of
late, there are 2.2 million farms in the US, creating ~ 6% of the
gross national product and 9% of employment opportunities are
agricultural related. Presently, 3.2 million (less than 2% of our
population) are classified as farmers but are working over 900
million acres creating over $133 billion in product. Thus many
modern consumers are usually not directly connected with
farming and, thus, are not familiar with the whole process of
how common foods or fabrics are manufactured. Many of us
are largely unaware or forgetful that the source of the daily
products we take for granted are agricultural raw materials.
Products such as leather, meat, milk and wool are commonly
used by millions of Americans. What is the ultimate source of
these valuable products? It would be correct to say that they
are derived from animals. But what enables animals to produce
any of these products? Their source of energy for living and
producing is found in the food they eat. Much of the food of
animals is forages - plants and plant parts.
The table below summarizes the source of a number of
important forage-based products.
/ FORAGES / 33
Table 2. Important forage-based products.
Products Source
Milk, Cheese, Butter, Cream,
Ice cream

28. Milk from dairy cows that eat FORAGES.
Wool Shearings from sheep that eat FORAGES.
Leather Hides from animals that eat FORAGES.
Beef, Mutton, Lamb, Venison Meat from beef cows, sheep, and
deer that
eat FORAGES.
Biomass Fuels Fiber from switchgrass, alfalfa, corn and
other FORAGES.
Medicinal Products Biochemical intermediates from FORAGES.
b. Environmental benefits
Forages are extremely important in the production of food and
fiber. However, forages also play a vitally important role in
maintaining a good natural environment. Specifically,
communities of forage plants produce oxygen for clean air, help
to reduce soil erosion aid in keeping sediment out of
waterways, capture and filter pollutants from the air and water,
provide food and shelter for wildlife, create recreational surface
for all sorts of human activity and beautify our surroundings
with a variety of foliage and flowers. When livestock and
wildlife
are considered then manure as fertilizer is also a benefit. Row
crops are 10-50% more likely to exhibit erosion than pastures
and meadows of forages so their stabilizing efforts are
significant.
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/sites/forages.oregonstate.edu/file
s/nfgc/images/CD1/img42.jpg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/sites/forages.oregonstate.edu/file

29. s/nfgc/images/CD1/img42.jpg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/sites/forages.oregonstate.edu/file
s/nfgc/images/CD1/img43.jpg
/ FORAGES / 34
c. Economic benefits
Forages, whether they exist on farms, grasslands and
rangeland, make up one half of the total land in America. Here
is a summary of Dr. David’s Hannaway's work with Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) http://
www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/usa/usa.html.
Rangelands
Rangelands, pasturelands, and meadows, together comprise a
great portion of the land in the mainland US. It is a bit difficult
to determine all the land that is used as forage because
forests and other lands can be deemed as forage depending
on the management. Yet, rangeland and pastures represent
the largest and most diverse land resources in the US.
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/usa/usa.html
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/doc/Counprof/usa/usa.html
/ FORAGES / 35
Rangelands and pasturelands include the annual grasslands
of California, the tundra rangelands of Alaska, the hot arid
deserts of the Southwest, the temperate deserts of the Pacific
Northwest, the semi-arid cold deserts of the Great Basin, the
prairies of the Great Plains, the humid native grasslands of the
South and East, the pastures and meadows (natural or semi-
natural grasslands often associated with the conservation of

30. hay or silage) within all 50 states from Hawaii to Maine and
Alaska to Florida.
/ FORAGES / 36
These grasslands are the primary forage base for the livestock
grazing
industry in the US. They are utilized by millions of cattle and
sheep and
support a livestock industry that contributes billions every year
in farm
sales to the US economy. The estimated value of hay production
alone
is $17 billion. Nearly 70% of dietary protein and 35-40% of
dietary
calories for the US inhabitants are of animal origin, and forage
resources are vital for sustained production of animal-based
products.
The functions of these lands are of increasing importance as
watersheds and as habitats for biologically diverse plants and
animals,
for maintaining adequate supplies of clean water for urban areas
and
irrigated agriculture, and to meet environmental needs, and
critical
functions of grassland ecosystems. Grasslands also provide
forage and
habitat for numerous wildlife species, including deer, pronghorn
antelope (Antilocapra americana), elk, and feral horses (Equus
ferus
caballus) and burros (Equus africanus asinus). Wildlife benefit
from
their grassland habitats but also give nitrogen back to the health

31. of the
plants and soil. Associated with these functions is an array of
additional
demands placed on these natural resources, such as camping,
hiking,
fishing, hunting, and other sometimes deleterious recreational
activities
involving motorized vehicles.
Harvested and conserved forages provide a dietary resource for
continuity of livestock sustenance. This is especially important
during
periods of cold temperatures or drought when grazable forage is
not
available. Harvested and conserved forages also provide an
important
source of fibre (and cellulose) and nutrients for dairy cattle in
confined
animal feeding operations. To meet this demand, millions of
metric
tonnes of forage crops are harvested each year from millions of
acres,
about a quarter of the US cropland. The value of forage crops
harvested as hay or silage is difficult to calculate because most
hay and
silage are grown, harvested and utilized on the same farm, half
of
which provides the forage requirements of dairy cattle. The
remainder,
along with rangeland and pastureland, supplies the forage needs
of
beef cattle, sheep, horses, and other livestock. It is interesting
to think
how forage is consumed by different animals. Half the hay and
silage
produced goes to dairy cattle but most of all forage is consumed
by

32. cattle (as pastures) and yet most of all the food consumed by
sheep/
lambs is forage because they do not receive supplemental feed
as
often as dairy cows or cattle or horses. So, each has a different
connection to forages.
/ FORAGES / 37
Historical perspective of forages in
America
Forages, made up of mostly grasses and legumes, are the
most important plants on earth. Forages are feed or fuel for
animals. The domestication and utilization of animals for food,
clothing, products, work, and protection have changed the way
mankind lives. No longer do we need to spend most of the
daylight hours foraging for berries, roots, and edible plants.
Forages are the fuel allowing animals to do our work for us
which directly leads to more time to think, create, work, and
play.
Historians estimate that major grassland areas, such as the
prairies of the United States, the pampas of South America, the
steppes of central Asia, and the velds of Africa, began
developing millions of years ago. Because of the natural life
and death cycle, over long periods of time, the undisturbed
grasslands produced a deep, fertile topsoil. These very fertile
grassland areas are still used today but often cultivated for
production of major food crops like wheat and corn (both also
of
the grass family), as well as for forages. Before human activity
began to alter grasslands, they were naturally maintained as
productive grasslands by favorable climate, grazing wildlife and
natural fires.

33. Early in human civilization, grasslands were not intensively
managed in the sense that they are today. They were utilized
by wandering animals and by people who used those animals
for food and other products. As civilization continued to
develop, humans began a process of domesticating or taming
some of the wandering animals and more intensive
management of livestock on forage lands developed. Gradually
a distinction evolved between grassland developed by man and
natural grasslands. This distinction is important in studying the
types of grasses grown. Man wants grasslands that produce
/ FORAGES / 38
plants more palatable, more versatile and more useful for their
specific goals. Grasslands may produce grass but some
grasses are tastier to animals, produce more grain, persist
longer or are more easily managed and harvested. This is key
to which grasses and legumes are favored for forage today.
Further changes in the principles and practices of producing
forages began to roughly parallel historical developments in
agricultural technology in general. For example, crop scientists
began to search for and to breed higher yielding varieties of
crops. This process eventually was used to discover and breed
higher yielding and higher-quality forage crops. This process of
discovery and breeding superior forage plants has played a key
role in the development of highly productive forage growth.
Although there are 10,000 species of grasses, only about 40 -
50 are used on grasslands developed by man. And none of
these come from the world's natural grasslands. In many
cases, grasses from various forest edges and woodlands
around the world have ultimately become more important
forage species than the species that are considered native.

34. Sometimes very important forage species were carried
intentionally or unintentionally by immigrants to their new
homes. For example, alfalfa, one of the most important forages
in the U.S., originated in the area of modern-day Iran and
Turkey. Bermudagrass, a very important forage in the southern
U.S., was apparently brought to the country inadvertently by
African slave ships. It was said to be stuffed into mattresses as
bedding and eventually some of the seed ended up in places
where it grew successfully. Kentucky bluegrass, a well known
pasture grass, was apparently introduced to America from
England as part of the sweepings of cattle boats.
/ FORAGES / 39
The table below highlights key events in the history of
agriculture and forage production.
Table 3. Important forage-related historical events.
TIME
PERIOD
EVENT
circa 10,000
BC
Domestication of animals
circa 500 -
150 BC
Alfalfa

35. introduced as a cultivated crop in Greece and Rome
800 AD Clover
used as a forage by Saxons
Early 1600's Sir Richard Weston introduces red clover
into pastures in England
Mid 1600's Forage grasses introduced in North America
Late 1600's Native Americans raise cattle from colonists
Late 1600's Bermudagrass
imported from Northern Africa
1720 Timothy
brought to North America
1800's Fertilizers
introduced in Europe
Mid 1800's Johnsongrass introduced in southern U.S.
1862 Morrill Act established U.S. Land Grant Universities
1873 Construction of first silo in U.S.
1886 Discovery of nitrogen fixation in legumes by Hellriegel
and Willfarth
1931 Tall fescue
discovered in eastern Kentucky
1940 Development of self-tying hay bale
mid 1900s Green Revolution
2000 Precision agriculture, GIS tools, GMOs, satellite
observations

36. http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/alfalfa.jp
g
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/clover1.jp
g
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/bermuda1
.jpg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/timothy.j
pg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/fertilizer.
jpg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/CD1/img3
1.jpg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/CD1/img5
0.jpg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/CD1/img5
0.jpg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/tallfesc1.j
pg
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc//files/nfgc/images/CD1/img2
5.jpg
/ FORAGES / 40
When our forefathers began building the foundation for this
nation, they were directly linked to the land for food, clothing,
shelter, and protection. We are familiar with some of the
agriculture of first settlers, most Americans recall being told the
pilgrims learned about growing corn, a warm-season grass.
However, we are not often reminded about how the early
Americans used plants and soil for hundreds of daily items.
Clothes were made of wool, flax, or hides from animals who
had eaten forages. Sod homes were used in certain areas until
log homes could be built. Forts, fencing, and other structures
were made from plants and timber. Toys, utensils, and books
were developed from plant products. It would be interesting to

37. experience one day in the lives of early settlers and find the
number of items directly linked to agriculture and animal
husbandry. Their link to the land helped them to see how
important forages are and they focused on learning how to
manage the environment. Early American agriculture was
aware of how legumes and grasses could be utilized to build
soil, add nitrogen, filter the water, clean the air, reduce losses
of nutrients, reduce erosion, and reduce the danger of fires.
Legumes were often rotated with crops to rebuild the soil.
During the 1920's and 1930's, many people made a living using
an animal. Horses and horse-driven carriages were used for
more than transportation. New inventions of various types
required an animal fueled by forages.
/ FORAGES / 41
https://cccooperagency.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/sheep-
with-shepherd.jpg
As technology developed, our country prospered and now the
US does not use animal-powered vehicles or machines very
often. Cultural changes have taken place and we have
substituted yogurt for creams, soda for milk, synthetic fabrics
for wool, white meat for red, synthetic fertilizers for legumes,
and margarine for butter. Some of these changes are shown to
use up resources. But these changes are not all for the better
and many, including the government, have tried to change the
tide of some substitutes. Various farm bills and other legislation
has tried to encourage a society that returns something back to
nature instead of depleting the many resources. The 1985
Farm Bill encouraged pastures, permanent grass, legume
production, forbs, shrubs, and trees instead of crops that take
so much from the soil. Unfortunately, society usually only

38. responds when emergencies arise. The gas lines of the 70's
were not severe or long lasting, so many ideas about how to
better utilize grasses and legumes as fuels were not put into
practical use. Recycling efforts are improving but still not
/ FORAGES / 42
automatic.
About half of the US is covered with grasslands. This does not
include the crop land which produces enough food for
Americans with more to export. The grasslands should not be
turned into crop land which extracts so much from the soil and
returns nothing. Instead, grasslands should be cared for wisely
to play their role in sustaining agriculture. Much of grasslands
are only harvestable by animals because of the topography, but
all the grasslands could be a valuable resource if understood
and managed wisely. Historically, Americans have become less
and less involved in nurturing the land. We are further and
further removed from the real role forages play in agriculture
and our society. We do not see clear connections between our
food, clothing, shelter, and utensils and the plants of the land
because we do not have a part in each step of production. We
just like to taste a great steak, wear a warm sweater, heal with
the aid of an effective medicine, and play golf on a plush
course. We do not often ponder the words of William Cotter
Murray: "Grass - putting down its roots four, even six feet into
the soil, improving its structure, ventilating it, letting water
penetrate it , keeping moisture loss low - held its power and
kept the environment from destroying itself." People used to
know and understand.

39. / FORAGES / 43
It is difficult to imagine that one half of the land in the US is
grassland. Cities and housing developments seem to sprawl
out everywhere. But a closer look will show that about 1.2
billion acres (486 million hectares) of US soil is grassland.
Much of the land rising up in elevation is covered with grasses
and other forages. Although in smaller sections, the area along
roadsides and between homes and business complexes are
grassy and recreational facilities, parks, and preserves are all
grasslands. More than 60% of farms are producing forages.
Since we see them every day, grasses are often taken for
granted. But visit a third-world country and the difference is
obvious. Instead of green, lush growth, a barren and stark
horizon appears. Many think of row crops as the main
component of American agriculture but most of it is grassland.
America's forage regions
Considering all the lands in the US, 59% are privately owned,
6% are owned by state and local governments, 2% are tribally
owned, and ~ 30% are federally-owned, much of which is land
in the west. The land of the US is varied and vast and naturally
the plant species suited for the many climates and
/ FORAGES / 44
topographies differ. There are some species that can be grown
in most states but there are many forages that grow in certain
regions of the country. The main regions in the US are
sometimes classified as the West, Southeast, Northeast, Corn
Belt, and the Lake States. Other more specific labels exist for
various regions.

40. From H.J. de Blij and Peter O. Muller, Physical Geography of
the Global Environment, Figure
52-1, 1st Ed. © 1993. Reproduced by permission of John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York. (http://
rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect6/Sect6_1.html
There are certain distinctions that need to be clarified before
discussing the forages of the West. The word "range" is a
common western term but uncommon in the east. Range is
land supporting indigenous (native) vegetation that is grazed or
has the potential to be grazed, and is managed as a natural
ecosystem. Range can include forestland and rangeland.
Rangeland is land on which the indigenous vegetation is mainly
grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, or shrubs and is managed as a
natural ecosystem. Introduced plants are managed like
indigenous species. With these definitions in mind, other
regions will have range and rangeland besides the West.
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect6/Sect6_1.html
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect6/Sect6_1.html
/ FORAGES / 45
The West has millions of acres in 19 states that are considered
rangeland. Some calculations list 53% of the West as
rangeland. Much of the rangeland is dry and production is low,
but it would be foolish not to wisely manage 815 million acres
(330 million hectares). Parts of the Pacific Northwest, however,
receive lots of rainfall and can produce an abundance of high-
quality forage. Wildlife and the environment benefit from
attention paid to rangeland forage production. Due to various
conservation efforts, 54% of the range in the West is federally
owned. About 25% is forest land that grows forage and could

41. benefit grazing animals. So the West has great potential, but
specific difficulties, like who can graze the federally-owned
land
and at what price, cause continued disputes and inefficient
utilization. The variance of precipitation from 3-40 inches
(7.6-101.6 centimeters) coupled with evaporation and
transpiration of 20-150 inches (50.8-381 centimeters) per year
causes quite a variety of possible species. Yields vary widely
due to geophysical and management inputs. The most common
management practice is varying the number of livestock on the
land. But applying plant growth and regrowth principles and
fencing options could be very helpful.
The Southeast, from Florida to Kentucky, is largely privately
owned. It contains native pasture, improved pasture, and, with
the above definition, open rangeland and forested rangeland.
The humid conditions allow for more forage per acre production
than the West. Certain areas like Kentucky, Tennessee,
Virginia, and West Virginia are very productive. Other areas
require more supplements to support a herd. With proper
management, the Southeast could be much more productive.
The Northeast, consisting of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Connecticut,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Maryland, and Delaware, has
pasture, forest, and range. This 7 million acres (2.8 million
hectares) has some serious limitations and restrictions due to
/ FORAGES / 46
slope and elevation. Livestock operations are important to the
region. Forests and animals can benefit from allowing livestock
to graze with proper management.

42. The Corn Belt states are Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and
Ohio. This region is well-known for crop production. But
forages
should play an important role in sustaining the health of the soil
where crops deplete nutrients or erosion is a difficulty. And
corn
residue left after grain is removed can be utilized as a forage.
The Lake States region consists of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
Michigan. Forages play an active role in dairies and other
livestock systems of the region but can be even more
productive.
Here is an aerial view of Kansas' tall grass prairie.
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/04/tallgrass-
prairie/klinkenborg-text
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/04/tallgrass-
prairie/klinkenborg-text
/ FORAGES / 47
Forages are key to animal survival
Since the definition of forage is “edible plant parts that provide
feed to animals”, forages and livestock go hand in hand. But
the degree to which an animal obtains its nutrients from forages
varies. Dairy cows expected to produce massive amounts of
milk are most intensely monitored. Providing feed to dairy cows
is the key to milk production which links to cream, cheese, ice
cream and many other products. Sheep are next in the line for
needing attention to forage nutrient needs followed by beef,
horses, and wildlife. Though dairy cows need significant feed,
the largest overall market is beef because they provide so
many products and cannot produce on a continuous nature as

43. milking cows can. About 30% of consumer expenditures are
spent on beef and dairy products. The changes in society
leading to new products (synthetic fabrics instead of natural
fibers, cars instead of animal powered machines, and such)
have caused the decrease in sheep and horse industries.
Swine could be larger consumers of forages if the industry
utilized free range feeding, but swine cannot as efficiently
handle forages because of their mono-gastric digestive
systems.
Another way to look at how forages and livestock go hand in
hand is to look at the percentage of nutrients each type of
livestock receives from forages with much of the remaining
percentages being grain products which are also from the grass
family. Sheep get 91% of their nutrients from forages, beef get
83%, horses 72%, dairy 61% and swine get 15%. These figures
reveal several things. Swine handle other types of feed better
because of their stomachs but utilize some grasses and
legumes. Dairy cows need feed high in nutrients and need it
provided in concentrated amounts for abundant milk production
so grasses and legumes are supplemented with rations. Beef
cattle can do quite well on grasses and legumes but the
industry "finishes" cattle with grain to answer the demand of
the
/ FORAGES / 48
public for tender meat with more, whiter fat which results when
cattle are restricted from exercise and fed grain rations. This
preference is changing as we learn more about effective diets.
Horses are used more as recreation animals or racehorses and
often are given a more pampering diet.
The value of forages can only be determined by livestock

44. consumption and utilization which is very difficult to translate
into a dollar amount. But it is clear that forages are not only
crucial for life but also add comfort and beauty while allowing
humans to do many other things besides gathering of food. It is
important to view forages with an integrated perspective.
Forages are a part of other things: filtering the water, cleaning
the air, feeding livestock, reducing erosion, beautifying the
surroundings, and providing habitat for wildlife. Those benefits
are difficult to put a dollar amount to their value.
Key forages in America
Traditional Forage Grasses
/ FORAGES / 49
Kentucky
bluegrass
Common in the entire state. Not recommended for new
seedings as it is drought intolerant and low yielding.
Orchardgra
ss
Adapted statewide. Select varieties with leaf disease
resistance.
Redtop Adapted statewide, but not recommended for livestock
purposes because of poor palatability.
Reed
canarygras

45. s
Adapted statewide. Only low-alkaloid varieties should be
used. Excellent choice on poorly drained areas. Viewed
as invasive without proper management
Perennial
ryegrass
Restrict use to soils not prone to being droughty.
Smooth
bromegras
s
Most successful in northern IN. Palatable grass but
adapted to fewer than 3cuttings in a year.
Sorghum x
sudangras
s
Summer annual that is adapted statewide. Best used for
grazing or haying.
Sudangras
s
Summer annual that is adapted statewide. Best used for
grazing purposes.
Tall fescue Adapted statewide. Only low-endophyte varieties
should
be utilized.

46. Timothy Adapted statewide. Later to mature than other
traditional
cool-season grasses. Low production after spring growth.
Traditional Forage Legumes
Alfalfa Best adapted to soils that are well drained and have a
pH
greater than 6.7.
Alsike
clover
Should only be used on soils that are poorly drained.
Horses should not be fed alsike clover as it can cause
poisoning.
Annual
lespedeza
Adapted statewide with most assurance of developing a
seed crop for longevity beyond one year in very southern
IN.
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sorghum_nex.html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sorghum_nex.html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sorghum_nex.html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sorghum_nex.html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Sorghum_nex.html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Medicago_species_
nex.html
/ FORAGES / 50

47. Birdsfoot
trefoil
Best adapted to northern IN, although it has been used
successfully in southern IN. Subject to foliar diseases in a
high humidity environment.
Crownvetc
h
Adapted statewide. Best used for soil conservation
purposes and not as feed for livestock.
Ladino
clover
Adapted statewide with greater success on soils less
prone to drought. Should be used for pasture only in
combination with forage grasses.
Red clover Adapted statewide. Excellent pasture renovation
legume
and short term hay rotation crop.
Sericea
lespedeza
Better adapted to soils with acid subsoils in southern IN.
Its inferior forage quality as compared to more commonly
used legumes (eg alfalfa and red clover) limits its utility.
Sweetclov
er
Adapted to soils greater than pH 6.7. Best used as a soil
improvement crop.

48. White
Dutch
clover
Adapted statewide with greater success on soils less
prone to drought. Not recommended for use because of
poor yield potential.
Recommended Forage Grasses
Big
bluestem
Adapted statewide on soils that are at least moderately
well drained. Complements cool-season grass-legume
pastures in a rotational stocking system.
Caucasian
bluestem
Not native to the USA as are big and little bluestems.
Inferior forage quality as compared to other viable options
when used by livestock. Possible consideration as a
warm-season grass for erosion control purposes.
Indiangras
s
Adapted statewide on soils that are at least moderately
well drained. Complements cool-season grass-legume
pastures in a rotational stocking system. In general, later
to mature than big bluestem.

49. Little
bluestem
Adapted statewide on soils that are at least moderately
well drained. Lower yield potential as compared to tall-
growing perennial warm-season grasses suggests that it
best be used for wildlife purposes.
Pearl millet Adapted statewide. A summer annual that has no
prussic
acid potential. Best used as pasture.
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pennisetum_glaucu
m_nex.html
/ FORAGES / 51
Side-oats
grama
Adapted statewide on soils that are at least moderately
well drained. Lower yield potential as compared to tall
growing perennial warm-season grasses suggests that it
best be used for wildlife purposes.
Switchgras
s
Adapted statewide. Able to grow on wetter sites than big
bluestem or switchgrass. In general, earlier to mature than
big bluestem and indiangrass.
Triticale A man-made cross between wheat and rye. Adapted to

50. soils capable of producing wheat or rye. Similar uses as
other small grains used for forage purposes.
Recommended Forage Legumes
Hairy vetch A winter-annual legume that has uses as a cover
crop and
an organic source of nitrogen. Best utility is in southern IN
because of longer growing season.
Field peas Used in combination with spring oats or spring
triticale as
a companion crop with perennial forage crop seeding.
High cost warrants careful evaluation of cost:benefit ratio.
Recommended Forbs
Forage
turnips
Adapted statewide. Excellent doublecrop to consider that
has very high-energy value.
Experimental Forage Grasses
Annual
ryegrass
Adapted to soils that are at least moderately well drained.
Not as winterhardy as winter wheat, but has worked well
as a potential cover crop and early spring pasture.
Eastern
gamagrass
Adapted statewide. Originally found in areas subject to

51. flooding and wetter environments. A very high quality
perennial grass that is best used for pasture.
Meadow
bromegras
s
Has performed well in a producer's forage evaluation plots
in Ripley County, IN. Appears to have potential in a
rotational stocking program.
Experimental Forage Legumes
Kura clover Has good persistence once established as it is
rhizomatous, but its vigor during establishment is a
weakness.
Not Recommended Forage Grasses
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Triticum_spp_nex.
html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Vicia_villosa_nex.
html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Pisum_sativum_ne
x.html
https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cropfactsheets/KuraClove
r.html
/ FORAGES / 52
Johnsongr
ass
Once considered a warm-season perennial grass forage,

52. its aggressive growth habit caused it to be classified as a
prohibited noxious weed.
Quackgras
s
Once considered a cool-season perennial grass forage, its
aggressive growth habit caused it to be classified as a
prohibited noxious weed.
Not Recommended Forage Legumes
Kudzu Its aggressive nature in the southeastern USA suggests
that it should not be utilized as a forage.
The Forage listing was compiled and written by Dr. Keith
Johnson,
Professor of Agronomy and Forage Crops, Purdue University, ©
1998.
Questions related to these crops should be addressed to Keith
Johnson at [email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
/ FORAGES / 53
https://www.freewebheaders.com/wordpress/wp-
content/gallery/grass/beautiful-green-tall-grass-field-
illustration-background-header.jpg
GRASSES
Overview
We will now take a closer look at grass, the main plant used as

53. forage. To best utilize grasses we need to understand their
physiology, types, life cycles and nutritional traits.
Grass
In the previous chapter, we noted that forage plants play a key
role in our lives. Grass is the main forage plant and it is often
taken for granted and overlooked. As fewer and fewer in
society are directly connected to the land, more and more tend
to pay little attention to the role of grass in our daily lives. But
in
early times, when people were directly connected to the land
for their daily needs and pleasures, some folks deeply
respected grass. Below are portions of John James Ingalls’
address In Praise of Bluegrass.
Grass is the forgiveness of nature -- her constant benediction.
/ FORAGES / 54
Fields trampled with battle, saturated with blood, torn with the
ruts of cannon, grow green again with grass, and carnage is
forgotten. Streets abandoned by traffic become grass-grown
like rural lanes, and are obliterated. Forests decay, harvests
perish, flowers vanish, but grass is immortal.
Beleaguered by the sullen hosts of winter, it withdraws into the
impregnable fortress of its subterranean vitality, and emerges
upon the first solicitation of spring. Sown by the winds, by
wandering birds, propagated by the subtle horticulture of the
elements which are its ministers and servants, it softens the
rude outline of the world. Its tenacious fibers hold the earth in
its place, and prevent its soluble components from washing into
the wasting sea. It invades the solitude of deserts, climbs the
inaccessible slopes and forbidding pinnacles of mountains,

54. modifies climates, and determines the history, character, and
destiny of nations. Unobtrusive and patient, it has immortal
vigor and aggression. Banished from the thoroughfare and the
field, it bides its time to return, and when vigilance is relaxed,
or
the dynasty has perished, it silently resumes the throne from
which it has been expelled, but which it never abdicates. It
bears no blazonry or bloom to charm the senses with fragrance
or splendor, but its homely hue is more enchanting than the lily
or the rose. It yields no fruit in earth or air, and yet should its
harvest fail for a single year, famine would depopulate the
world.
One grass differs from another grass in glory. One is vulgar and
another patrician. There are grades in its vegetable nobility.
Some varieties are useful. Some are beautiful. Others combine
utility and ornament. The sour, reedy herbage of swamps is
baseborn. Timothy is a valuable servant. Redtop and clover are
a degree higher in the social scale.
The primary form of food is grass. Grass feeds the ox: the ox
nourishes man: man dies and goes to grass again; and so the
tide of life, with everlasting repetition, in continuous circles,
/ FORAGES / 55
moves endlessly on and upward, and in more senses than one,
all flesh is grass. But all flesh is not bluegrass. If it were, the
devil's occupation would be gone.
This snippet of Ingalls' view of grass is from his address "In
Praise of Bluegrass". His eloquent words offer a more
appreciative view of the American prairie. For the entire poem
and historical setting see Deep Roots.

55. “Walt Whitman also looked upon grass with more reverence - “I
believe a leaf of grass is no less than the journey-work of the
stars,” wrote Walt Whitman, observing that grass blades were
star-like not only in their twinkling but also in their longevity.
They assured him of something close to immortality. He praised
“the good green grass, that delicate miracle the ever-recurring
grass.”
For the poet who wrote of multitudes, grass was an irresistible
emblem. Ingalls shared Whitman’s faith in the everlastingness
of grass and …both men believed in the strength of the
American natural world as evidenced by the vitality of its grass.
The vitality of the grass, in turn, guaranteed the vitality of the
American experience as it was unfolding.”
http://deeprootsmag.org/2015/03/03/grass-forgiveness-nature-
constant-benediction/
Grasses are very common but very
important
Next in importance to the profusion of water, light, and air,
those three great physical facts which render existence
possible, may be reckoned the universal beneficence of grass.
Some have speculated that without grass man would be just a
beast of burden, the great conquests of Attila, Genghis Khan,
or Caesar would never have occurred and wars would be
constant tribal feuding to avoid starvation.
http://deeprootsmag.org/2015/03/03/grass-forgiveness-nature-
constant-benediction/
/ FORAGES / 56

56. Forages are plants or parts of plants eaten by livestock and
wildlife and the variety of plants that are eaten is amazing. It is
helpful, therefore, to classify those plants into groupings. The
major group of forages are grasses (75% of all forages), but
there are also legumes, forbes, shrubs, brassicas, and some
trees. Ten of the fifteen crops that keep mankind from
starvation are grasses (grain, cereal crops). There are around
10,000 species, though only about 1400 are seen in the United
States, covering almost half of the nation. Only orchids and
daisies have more species that grasses. There are grasses for
almost every temperature and precipitation range. Only lichens
and algae extend to wider climate zones. Because of the wide
range of adaptation for many grasses, they are often introduced
into new areas. Many of the common grasses used today for
forage in the U.S. are not native and scientists throughout the
world work to breed grasses to thrive in varying places.
Learning to manage native, imported or new species is a part of
current grassland management. Grasses are often taken for
granted but actually are the most important plant group.
Grasses belong to the Poaceae family which was earlier and
maybe still listed as Gramineae. Grasses are usually
herbaceous which indicate that they produce a seed, do not
develop woody tissue, and die down at the end of a growing
season. Grasses have jointed, slender, sheathed leaves. They
are monocotyledonous which means one leaf sprouts from the
seed at emergence. A cotyledon is the first leaf to emerge from
a seed. Legumes are dicotyledons, meaning two leaves
emerge from the soil surface. Grasses can be large, like
bamboo or corn, or small like annual bluegrass.
/ FORAGES / 57
http://lh4.ggpht.com/-

57. WYDiVJlT_tk/U1kMJ0MvH5I/AAAAAAAABRo/8Ms46cHzD18
/monocotyledon
%252520vs%252520dicotyledon%25255B11%25255D.gif?imgm
ax=800
Grass plants develop fruit called grain which feed much of the
world and yet have green leaves and stems not digestible for
humans that are the main food source for animals. Grasses can
also be used for building materials, medicines, and biomass
fuels.
http://lh4.ggpht.com/-
WYDiVJlT_tk/U1kMJ0MvH5I/AAAAAAAABRo/8Ms46cHzD18
/monocotyledon%252520vs%252520dicotyledon%25255B11%2
5255D.gif?imgmax=800
http://lh4.ggpht.com/-
WYDiVJlT_tk/U1kMJ0MvH5I/AAAAAAAABRo/8Ms46cHzD18
/monocotyledon%252520vs%252520dicotyledon%25255B11%2
5255D.gif?imgmax=800
/ FORAGES / 58
http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/media/american_eng
lish/fullsize/c/cer/cerea/cereals.jpg
It is helpful to consider how grasses differ from other types of
plants. Grasses are so common that it is good to review the
distinction. Remember, grasses are monocots, plants with
slender, veined leaf blades that sheath around a stem (culm),
with bland flowers, seeds with non-woody cells.
/ FORAGES / 59

58. http://rangelandarchive.ucdavis.edu/files/188986display.jpg
Differentiating grasses
About 2/3 of the world's land mass contains predominantly
grasses but there are many species and types. Their
morphology and physiology are key concepts to understand.
Morphology refers to growth habits and structure while their
physiology refers to growing and metabolic processes. To
better understand grasses, it is appropriate to begin to
distinguish between warm-season and cool-season grasses.
C3 and C4 grasses
Although animals eat all year round, there is no "all season"
plant to use as forage. Knowing that some plants are C3 (cool
season) and some plants are referred to as C4 (warm season)
/ FORAGES / 60
is a basic key to having quality forage for animals to eat all
year
long. But understanding the physiology (internal chemical
changes) of both can even further improve the management of
forages. A simplistic version is provided here.
The an introduction to the science:
C4 and C3 plants both utilize photosynthesis, which is a
chemical process in which light energy from the sun is captured
and mixed with water and carbon dioxide to make sugars which
are used as food for chemical energy.
Carbon dioxide + water + sun light energy -------> sugars +
water + oxygen

59. Chemically, 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + sun light energy ----->
C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
Sugars become energy. The water is used for cell function and
the oxygen is plant waste.
But C3 and C4 plants use different leaf anatomies to carry out
photosynthesis. The differences are reflected in how plants
take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use the
components for plant functions. But it should be noted that
photosynthesis is also influenced by solar radiation,
temperature, water stress, and mineral nutrition. Khan
Academy has a good presentation on photosynthesis to solidify
your understanding.
C3 plants
The science:
C3 plants are called temperate or cool season plants and
reduce (fix) CO2 directly by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase in the chloroplast. The reaction between CO2 and
ribulose bisphophate, a phosphorylated 5-carbon sugar, forms
two molecules of a 3-carbon acid. This 3-carbon acid is called
/ FORAGES / 61
3-phosphoglyceric acid and explains why the plants using this
chemical reaction are called C3 plants. The 3-phosphoglyceric
acid molecules move out of the chloroplast to the cytoplasm
and are used to make hexose, sucrose and other compounds.
The enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase also triggers a
reaction where oxygen splits ribulose bisphophate into a 2-
carbon acid and a 3-phosphoglyceric acid. The 2-carbon acid is
respired to carbon dioxide and basically a loss to plant function.
15-40% of the light energy taken into the C3 plants is lost in

60. this
process called photorespiration. The percentage goes up in
higher temperatures, so C3 plants use more available oxygen
in cooler environments.
The ramifications:
C3 plants have an optimum temperature range of 65-75
degrees F (18.3-23.9 degrees C). Growth may begin when the
soil temperature is 40-45 degrees F (4.4-7.2 degress C).
C3 plants become less efficient as the temperature increases
but have higher protein quantity. The lower temperatures in
early spring also affect the existence of other organisms so
C3 plants need nitrogen in the spring because of low microbial
action in the soil.
(Alfalfa, a legume, has a faster photosynthesis rate than most
other C3 plants. The protein content of alfalfa leaves is very
high and most of the protein is ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase.)
C3 plants can also be annual or perennial. We will investigate
life cycles below. But annual C3 plants include wheat, rye, and
oats. Perennial C3 plants include orchard grass, fescues, and
perennial regresses. The degradation of C3 grasses in the
rumen of an animal is often faster than C4 grasses because of
the thin cell walls and leaf tissue and they are therefore often of
higher forage quality.
/ FORAGES / 62
C4 plants
The science:
C4 plants are often called tropical or warm season plants and

61. reduce carbon dioxide captured during photosynthesis to
useable components by first converting carbon dioxide to
oxaloacetate, a 4-carbon acid. This gives the reason for the
plants being referred to as C4 plants. Photosynthesis then
continues in much the same way as C3 plants. But during this
type of photosynthesis, the process is very efficient and little
oxygen is lost to the environment.
The ramifications:
C4 plants are more efficient at gathering carbon dioxide and
utilizing nitrogen from the atmosphere and recycled N in the
soil. They also use less water to make dry matter. They grow
best at 90-95 degrees F (32.2-35 degrees C). They begin to
grow when the soil temperature is 60-65 degrees F (15.5-18.3
degrees C). Forage of C4 species is generally much lower in
protein than C3 plants, but the protein may be more efficiently
used by animals since a portion of the protein may bypass
degradation in the rumen where microbes would utilize some of
the protein. Post-rumen degradation of protein (bypass or
escape protein) is an important part of ruminant nutrition and
production.
C4 plants can be annual or perennial. Annual C4 plants
include corn, sudangrass and pearl millet. Perennial C4 plants
include big bluestem, indiangrass, bermudagrass, switchgrass
and Old World Bluestems.
All of the information about warm and cool season plants
provides a foundation to forage management decisions. With
this understanding, managers can know when they will have
peak pasture growth, what and when to plant supplemental
crops, when to harvest, how to prepare the fields for winter, and
/ FORAGES / 63

62. how and when plant regrowth can be best utilized.
The Table summarizes the features and effects of
photosynthetic pathway on plant adaptation to different
environments, growth and productivity.
Characteris
tic C3 Species C4 Species CAM Species
Leaf
anatomy
No distinct bundle
sheath cells Bundle sheath cells No distinct bundle sheath cells
Stomata Open during the day Open during the day
Usually open at night and
closed during the day
Transpiratio
n ratio* 350 - 1000 150 - 300 50 to 100
Opt. temp,
oC 15 to 25 25 - 35 25 - 35
First
product
3-phosphoglyceric
acid
oxaloacetic acid
(converted to malic or

63. aspartic acid)
oxaloacetic acid (converted to
malic acid)
Location of
photosynthe
sis
Entire leaf Bundle sheath cells Entire leaf
Light
response**
Saturated at half of
full sunlight
Not saturated at full
sunlight
Saturated at one fourth of full
sunlight
Photorespir
ation & CO2
compensati
on point
Yes, 50 ppm No, 10 ppm or less Yes, 50 ppm in light
Photosynth
esis rate,
umoles m-2
s-1

64. 6 to 40 14 - 64 1.5 to 6
Maximum
growth rate,
g d-1
34 - 39 50 - 54 ~15, up to 20
Average
productivity,
ton ha-1 yr-1
~40 60 to 80 >40
Climatic
adaptation
Temperate to
tropical Tropical Arid tropical to Mediterranean
/ FORAGES / 64
Crops
rice, wheat, barley,
soybean, peanut,
potato, sweet
potato, taro,
banana, bean,
most vegetables,
beet, cabbage,

65. sunflower, all fruit
trees studied, etc
corn, sugarcane,
sorghum, millets,
tropical grasses,
Chinese spinach (an
amaranth)
pineapple, prickly pear cactus,
many orchids, sisal and other
agaves, other cactus, etc.
*The ratio kg water transpired per kg dry weight produced (low
values indicate high water
use efficiency)
**Light saturation of a single leaf is indicated by failure of the
CO2 assimilation rate to
increase with an increase in light intensity
Adapted from Sherman. 2002. Lecture notes for Agron./Hort
200. University of Hawaii.
See also http://eee.uci.edu/99w/07350/Doc/C3C4CAM.html
http://www.coolbean.info/img/small_grains_images/top_header_
img_small_grains.png
Life cycles of grasses
So, we know that there are warm and cool season grasses and
they interact differently in capturing solar energy.
Grasses are also broadly classified by their life cycles as

66. annuals (completing it life from germination to seed and dying
in the year) or perennials (lasting for more than a year). But the
more accurate classifications would be summer annuals, winter
annuals, or perennials. Summer annuals germinate during
spring or early summer and mature by autumn of the same
year. Winter annuals germinate in autumn, live through the
winter and produce seed and die in the following season. There
are no biennial grasses. The intended use dictates which group
may prove most suitable for a given situation.
http://eee.uci.edu/99w/07350/Doc/C3C4CAM.html
/ FORAGES / 65
Annuals
Annual grasses are represented by the major grain crops (corn,
sorghums, wheat, rye, barley, oats), and by many weedy types
which infest fields and pastures. Broad categories include:
1. winter annuals: cool-season species which germinate in late
summer or fall,
2. summer annuals
• cool-season species seeded in the early spring, and
• warm season species seeded in late spring or early
summer.
Annuals complete their growth cycle in a single growing season
and reproduce only by seed whereas perennial grasses
reproduce vegetatively (rhizomes, stolons, tillers) as well as by
seed. Seeds represent the major storage organ for excess
photosynthate. With no storage organs, such as rhizomes,
stolons, or tubers, there is no means for vegetative
reproduction. Annuals usually grow back after mowing or

67. grazing. Regrowth arises from buds found on the lower nodes
of the stem. This type of regrowth is called aerial branching
because the new shoots arise from adventitious buds on stems
as opposed to basal buds in the crown zone. Aerial branching
is an efficient regrowth mechanism though. The focus is not on
storing away reserves. For example, annual ryegrass and
sudangrass, which exhibit this growth habit, can be grazed
several times during the summer. This type of growth can also
be used my unwanted species. Many weedy grasses are noted
for their ability to recover from defoliation too. Controlling
these
usually involves use of selective herbicides.
Winter Annuals
Ideal forage is the leafy, green tender growth. This stage of life
is high in
quality and very palatable and digestible for animals. There are
grasses
that are grown for other reasons - grown all the way to
reproductive
/ FORAGES / 66
stages where the seeds are harvested as a product - grain.
Winter-hardy
varieties of common cereal grains can be planted in late-summer
or fall,
sufficiently early to allow seedlings to develop a crown and
produce
winter-hardy shoots (tillers). With resumption of growth in the
spring,
additional tillers are produced. These grasses can be good
grazing and

68. perhaps removed as hay. With environmental conditions
favoring floral
induction, the shoot apex of each tiller produces a floral bud.
The
developing seedhead becomes a storehouse for sugars not
needed to
support further vegetative growth. As with annual grasses,
winter
annuals do not develop organs for storing food reserves;
therefore, with
advancing maturity the plant becomes senescent and dies.
Winter-
annual cereal grains are often harvested for hay or silage when
seedheads emerge from the boot. As seedhead development is
disrupted, new tillers may arise from lower stem nodes as
previously
described with annual grasses. This recovery growth may
represent an
important source of forage.
http://www2.ca.uky.edu/grazer/2013_Newsletters/October/small
-grain-stages.png
There are several winter annual brome grasses that are
http://www2.ca.uky.edu/grazer/2013_Newsletters/October/small
-grain-stages.png
/ FORAGES / 67
troublesome to many forage managers; hairy chess, downy
brome, and cheat. These grasses grab up nutrients and water
yet do not produce a quality forage for various reasons. Proper
management can serve to reduce these unwanted species.
More on forage quality later.

69. http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
YAWbXnF4irQ/U87_sWYISQI/AAAAAAAABoI/HwCeVggDCp
w/s1600/
smooth+bromegrass+in+lawn.jpg
Summer Annuals
Summer annuals are species that are planted in the spring and
complete their growth by the autumn. Summer annuals can be
cool-season or warm-season. In northern latitudes, where cold
temperatures threaten winter survival of fall-seeded cereals,
growers select cultivars that are adapted to spring seeding (for
example: spring wheat, spring oats, and spring barley). When
seedheads ripen in early summer the plant becomes senescent
and dies. However, if seed head development is disrupted by
grazing or mechanical harvesting, further growth may follow
due to aerial branching. In simple language, the plant is
redirected from developing a mature seedhead to sending out
new tillers via aerial branching. Wise managers can use this
habit to their advantage.
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
YAWbXnF4irQ/U87_sWYISQI/AAAAAAAABoI/HwCeVggDCp
w/s1600/smooth+bromegrass+in+lawn.jpg
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
YAWbXnF4irQ/U87_sWYISQI/AAAAAAAABoI/HwCeVggDCp
w/s1600/smooth+bromegrass+in+lawn.jpg
/ FORAGES / 68
Forage type sorghums and millets (including the weedy types)
represent warm-season annuals. Seed germination is favored
by relatively warm soil temperatures, thus maximum vegetative
growth occurs in late spring and early summer. Again, if

70. seedhead development is disrupted which can be sometimes
done as we will see later on, regrowth arises by virtue of aerial
branching where new shoots arise from buds located in basal
stem nodes. Sudangrass, related forage sorghums and various
millet cultivars provide mid-summer growth for managers who
wish to calendarize their grazing systems.
https://i2.wp.com/onpasture.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/11/d3382-1.jpg
Biennials
Biennials are plants that take two entire seasons to reach the
reproductive stage. The first year is a time for accumulating
food reserves in storage organs. The second season produces
reproductive flowers and seeds. This is in sharp contrast with
winter annuals which germinate in the fall and die the following
season when seeds ripen.
/ FORAGES / 69
There are no true biennial grasses. Nevertheless, in some
climate zones, species like annual ryegrass may behave like a
biennial, producing forage for two seasons when planted in the
spring because the climate does not kill them over the winter so
they continue to grow.
Although there are no biennial grasses, there are biennial
forage crops. These include the Brassica family (turnips, rape,
kale, etc.) and some legumes such as sweet clover
(Melilotus spp.). Horticultural root crops, such as beets, carrots,
and parsnips, some vegetables like onions and cabbage, and
some ornamental shrubs like hollyhock, are true biennials.

71. Perennials
Perennials are plants that continue to grow indefinitely or that
regrow each year. Most of the commonly used forage grasses
function as perennials, reproducing vegetatively as well as by
seed. With perennials, vegetative reproduction involves
development of winter-hardy crown tissue which contains buds
and tillers (shoots) that resume growth with the onset of spring
temperatures.
Short-lived Perennials
Forage grasses which perenniate (survive from one growing
season to another) for 3-5 years are typically referred to as
short-lived perennials. Perennial ryegrass is an example of a
short-lived perennial forage grass. However, any perennial that
is mismanaged will be short lived. Perennial grasses are
generally not divided into summer and winter perennials.
Basically, perennial grasses are used for spring and summer
forages. They may persist over winter and even grazed in the
fall and early winter if conditions permit and again in the
spring
but not viewed as winter perennials - just perennials as they
/ FORAGES / 70
survive into the next season.
Life Cycles of Common Forage Grasses
The following are examples of annual and perennial grasses:
Annuals: annual ryegrass, annual bluegrass, pearl millet, corn,
and sorghum X sudangrass.

72. Perennials: orchardgrass, tall fescue, perennial ryegrass,
Kentucky bluegrass, smooth bromegrass, meadow foxtail,
timothy, colonial bentgrass, bermudagrass, reed canarygrass,
wheatgrasses, big bluestem, switchgrass, and indiangrass.
Practical Implications
Annuals
Annual species are by nature short-lived plants and must be
planted each year. Most are planted in the spring. Winter
annuals are planted in the fall, early if you want fall grazing or
greenchop feed (greenchop implies you are cutting the forage
in the field and bringing it to livestock).
Winter annuals such as wheat, rye, winter oats, and winter
barley are cereal gain crops. However, they can be used as
cover crops or as nurse crops for new seedings of perennial
grasses and legumes.
Cover crops vs companion or nurse crops?
A cover crop is typically seeded in the fall to prevent erosion
during the winter and to add organic matter to the soil. The
cover is normally plowed or otherwise tilled into the soil in the
spring prior to planting a crop such as corn, soybeans,
vegetables and such. When tilled into the soil, cover crops may
/ FORAGES / 71
be called green manure crops-being used to improve soil
fertility. Cover crops follow a crop.

73. Companion or nurse crops are used concurrently. When used
as a companion crop, the winter annual is seeded in early-fall
together with a perennial grass and legume. The companion
crops provides benefits to the grass/legume mixture - thus it is
said to nurse the desired crop. The following spring, the
companion crop is cut for hay and silage and the perennials
species takes over. What great tag teamwork!
Perennials
Perennials have an obvious advantage over annuals, they
continue to grow without the cost and work in establishing a
new crop. In crop production/rotations the crop may be plowed/
replanted after only two or three years. But with livestock as the
major enterprise, the intent might be to maintain the sod for an
indefinite period, to be reseeded only when the desirable
species disappear. Optimal management seeks highly
nutritious, palatable, fast growing, and high regrowth rates after
defoliation for an extended time.
Morphology
To have a pasture persist well over years, morphology needs to
be well understood. The study of the physical features (external
structure) of plants is referred to as morphology. Morphology of
grass plants is not just a biological pursuit but can aid in many
everyday decisions for the forage manager. Morphology is the
key to getting the most growth from forage plants. Each grass
plant may look the same to the untrained eye but there is a
wealth of different plant parts to notice for identifying the plant
and maximizing its growth and forage potential.
The distinctive physical characteristics of grasses

74. / FORAGES / 72
Grasses, whether annual or perennial, are mostly herbaceous
(not woody), monocotyledon plants with jointed stems and
sheathed leaves. They are usually upright, cylindrical, with
alternating leaves, anchored to the soil by roots. Grasses have
leaves (blades that narrow into a sheath), a stem (culm), a
collar region (where leaves attach to the stem), roots, tillers,
and during the reproductive stage an inflorescence or
seedhead develops. Grasses may have rhizomes or stolons
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/sites/forages.oregonstate.edu/file
s/nfgc/images/grass_diagram1.jpg
/ FORAGES / 73
and the collar regions have differing variations of ligules,
auricles, and blades (laminas). Inflorescences of grasses also
vary widely and be helpful for identification but during
vegetative stages, the collar and leaves help in proper
identification and during reproductive stages the inflorescence
is very helpful.
See the University of Mississippi Extension's booklet.
https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/simple/
Inflorescences are an arrangement of many spikelets
composed of individual florets. Grasses have a few main
inflorescence (seedhead) types: panicle (a few different looks),
spike, finger-like and raceme.
http://weedscience.missouri.edu/publications/ipm1024.pdf

75. / FORAGES / 74
http://www.tombio.uk/?q=grassesblog
From a seed, primary (seminal) roots develop to nourish and
anchor the seedling, the first is the radicle. Eventually fibrous
or
adventitious roots develop from lower stem nodes. Some
grasses have underground stems called rhizomes which grow
horizontally before pushing above ground to a new shoot.
Some grasses have stolons which are above ground, trailing
stems that produce leaves, roots, and flowering shoots from the
nodes. Some grasses have both while some have neither.
http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/WEEDS/grass_preview.html
http://www.tombio.uk/?q=grassesblog
/ FORAGES / 75
http://www.home.earthlink.net/~fredsheepbreeders/_Forest_thm/
global_genericAnatomy.jpg
Stems or culms are really a series of sections called
internodes which are separated by nodes. This is why
grasses are referred to as jointed or as "joints" (during
the proliferation of marijuana - grass). The internodes or
sections are very close together near the stem and but
lengthen or stretch out as the plant matures. The
internodes are most often hollow but a few grasses have
internodes of white pith, such as sorghum. The
branching of leaves always occurs at the nodes and
develops from a bud that is between the leaf-sheath and
the stem. When branching results from nodes at the
base of the plant it is called tillering (suckering, stooling).

76. http://www.home.earthlink.net/~fredsheepbreeders/_Forest_thm/
global_genericAnatomy.jpg
/ FORAGES / 76
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/sites/forages.oregonstate.edu/file
s/growing_point_diagram.jpg
/ FORAGES / 77
https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/media/images/18-
parts_of_grass_plant2.jpg
All grasses have a distinctive collar region. Proper
identification
requires a look at this area where the leaf blade wraps around
the stem. If the leaf blade is pulled back, the collar region
reveals a unique combination of ligule, auricle, and
/ FORAGES / 78
meristematic tissue (growth tissues). Barnyardgrass has no
ligule or auricles. But other grasses will have a ligule (hairy or
membraneous growth at the blade-sheath junction). Ligules
vary in size, shape, and type. Many grasses will also have
distinctive auricles (appendages that wrap the blade around the
stem). The meristematic tissue will appear whitish and is the
area of leaf blade growth and expansion.

77. / FORAGES / 79
https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/media/images/18-
parts_of_grass_plant2.jpg
Here is a bit of a synopsis of grass parts.
Rhizome — An underground stem that produces a new plant.
Rhizomes are present or absent, strong or weak.
Stolon — A horizontal, above ground stem that takes root at
various intervals and gives rise to new plants.
Crown — The area at the base of the plant where all growth of
the grass stems. The grass will survive as long as the crown is
/ FORAGES / 80
not damaged.
Sheath — The tubular portion of the leaf which wraps around or
encloses the stem. Edges of the sheath may join, overlap or be
closed. They are also rough or smooth, cylindrical, flattened or
compressed.
Node — A bulbous joint found on the stem. There are several
nodes on a stem.
Collar — The area on the outer side of the leaf where the blade
and the sheath join. It is generally much lighter in color and
varies in size and shape from species to species.
Blade — The upper portion of the leaf, which is divided from
the
sheath by the collar and the ligule. The length, width, type of
tip
roughness or smoothness are a few characteristics of various
species.

78. Tiller — a secondary shoot that grows from the crown and
helps the lawn thicken. Tillers are most common in fescues and
ryegrass.
Secondary Shoot — Similar to the primary shoot, it develops
from a rhizome or stolon.
When learning about grasses, it is helpful to learn how certain
physical characteristics can affect other features. For example:
meadow foxtail can be described as a cool-season, pasture
grass. But its physical trait of having few leaves means it would
not make a great hay and even as pasture, protein content may
be a concern. Corn is a common warm-season grass but it is
too tall for a pasture. How high a grass can grow or other
unpalatable features will enter into forage-livestock decisions.
Whether a grass is an annual or perennial will determine many
forage-related decisions. Annual species usually have
inflorescences on more stems. Annual species typically require
annual re-establishment costs and labor. This also may lead to
erosion hazards. Most annuals grow during the spring and
summer but some grasses are winter annuals and when used
carefully can add flexibility to a grazing system. Wheat, annual
/ FORAGES / 81
ryegrass, and barley can extend the grazing seasons and
reduce winter feed costs. Perennials have inflorescences on
some stems but also produce vegetative tufts which will wait for
two years or more to produce an inflorescence. Perennials
reduce the yearly cost and labor or reseeding but must be
managed to thrive or may not be as productive.
Each grass has its own list of environmental characteristics as
well. The following traits should be considered by forage

79. managers: winter hardiness, drought tolerance, salinity
tolerance, soil pH tolerance, production potential, and livestock
suitability.
Different grasses have different palatability, digestibility, and
sometimes harmful effects on certain livestock. Livestock do
have preferences and will be choosy, so careful management is
necessary to ensure the best animal nutrition and pasture
longevity and yield. Understanding grass formation and
structure can help managers wisely use the vast variety of
grasses available.
Jointing and Non-jointing Grasses
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/sites/forages.oregonstate.edu/file
s/nfgc/images/horse2.jpg
/ FORAGES / 82
Rationale for Creating This Distinction
Grasses are defined as herbaceous, monocotyledons
with jointed, flowering culms. Some texts also use ‘jointed’ and
classify grasses as being jointed or nonjointed with respect to
how they regrow. Grasses that produce jointed culms again
when they regrow are called jointed grasses. Grasses that
regrow without elevating a flowering culm are called
nonjointed.
Understanding this distinction in regrowth habit is important in
developing successful management practices because jointed
grasses are more easily damaged. They elevate their apical
meristems (cells that grow into a flowering head) several times
in a year. Damage occurs from untimely removal of this apical
meristem (main growing tissue). Defoliation is untimely when

80. regrowth mechanisms are removed or immature. Some grass
seed mixtures contain one or more of each type (jointed and
nonjointed) making management of such mixtures complicated
because grazing and/or mowing removes both types and
jointed ones cannot respond as well.
All Grasses
The flowering stems of all grasses pass through a gradient of
developmental phases commencing with vegetative shoots and
ending with seed production.
/ FORAGES / 83
/ FORAGES / 84
Germination
Although we cannot see what is going on in a seed below the
ground, it is wise to unstained what is happening. All grass
seed germinates in a similar way. A grass seed is an embryo
and stored food inside a protective covering. In grasses, the
ovary covering fuses with an outer protective layer and this
formation is called a caryopsis. Other seed groups have
different types of coatings and layers. The endosperm is the
starchy food providing fuel for germination. This may seem
large in the diagram below but it is relatively small and limited
so grass seeds cannot be planted too deeply where getting the
cotyledon up to the soil surface takes more energy than the
seed holds before photosynthesis can make new fuel. The
embryo has a few parts. The cotyledon (also called a
scutellum in grass seeds because it is slightly different than