Nutrition_in_Football_ebok.pdf

© 2017 Bangsbosport
ISBN: 978-87-994880-4-9
Orders and contact:
www.bangsbosport.com
www.soccerfitness.com
Mail: info@bangsbosport.com
Author: Jens Bangsbo
Design: Catharina Grahn, ProduGrafia
Edition: first edition 2017
Books in the series of fitness training:
‘Aerobic and Anaerobic Training in Football’ by Jens Bangsbo (C-, B-, A- and Prof-level)
‘Fitness Testing in Football’ by Jens Bangsbo & Magni Mohr (B-, A- and Prof-level)
‘Exercise and Training Physiology – A Simple Approach’ by Jens Bangsbo (A- and Prof-level)
‘Power Training in Football’ by Jens Bangsbo & Jesper L. Andersen (A- and Prof-level)
‘Individual Fitness Training in Football’ by Jens Bangsbo & Magni Mohr (A- and Prof-level)
‘Nutrition in Football’ by Jens Bangsbo (A- and Prof-level)

5
Preface
This book is the last in the series of six books covering all aspects of fitness training
in football. These books and the Yo-Yo test package constitute an educational
foundation for individuals seeking an AFC license as a coach or fitness coach at
the C, B, A, and Professional level.
I am a thorough believer that knowledge can improve the performance of football
players, and my experience as a consultant for various top teams in Europe and
as assistant coach for the successful Juventus FC team in 2001–2004 as well
as assistant coach for the Danish national team at the major tournaments, has
shown me the value of using scientific knowledge. I am not the only one. Sir
Alex Ferguson expressed his view in an interview a few years ago: ‘Sports science,
without question, is the biggest and most important change in my lifetime’.
The present book provides players and coaches with simple guidelines and
knowledge about nutrition to optimise the effect of training and performance in
football. There is no such thing as a magic diet or food. However, there are many
ways in which eating and drinking can allow players at all levels of performance
to achieve the special goals of their training and competition programmes
without compromising the enjoyment of food and social eating occasions. I have
also experienced how the confidence of being well-prepared for match play and
consistency in achieving high-level performance in matches through the right diet
has benefitted the players.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank the co-authors of some of the books,
Magni Mohr and Jesper Andersen, for their valuable contribution both due to
their great scientific knowledge and their significant practical experience. I would
also like to thank Professor Ron Maughan, a top international expert in nutrition,
for providing valuable input to the present book.
Good luck and happy meal!
Jens Bangsbo

7
Content
Preface...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.
Physical and metabolic demands of training and match play................................... 13
Match activities.............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Energy production in football.......................................................................................................................................... 15
Substrate utilisation during a football match.................................................................................................... 17
Carbohydrate utilisation................................................................................................................................................... 17
Fat utilisation.............................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Fatigue during a football game........................................................................................................................................ 20
Temporary fatigue during match play................................................................................................................. 21
Training load..................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Summary ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Review questions........................................................................................................................................................................... 25
2. Macronutrient....................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Carbohydrates.................................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Proteins................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Fats.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Alcohol.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Fibres........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Water........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
3.
Dietary energy intake for training and recovery....................................................................... 33
Rebuilding of muscle glycogen after a match................................................................................................... 33
Optimising the muscle glycogen levels.................................................................................................................... 37
Meal time during the week................................................................................................................................................. 40
Alcohol after a game and training .............................................................................................................................. 40
Changing dietary habits......................................................................................................................................................... 41
Non-professional players....................................................................................................................................................... 41
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
4. Nutrition for match preparation ................................................................................................................... 45
Effect of carbohydrate diet on long-term intermittent exercise performance................... 45
Carbohydrate loading in the days before the game..................................................................................... 48

8
CONTENT
Nutrition on match day.......................................................................................................................................................... 49
Match day meals .................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Drinking before the game.............................................................................................................................................. 52
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
5. Protein intake........................................................................................................................................................................ 55
Daily protein needs ................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Protein powders and supplements.......................................................................................................................... 56
Protein intake after training............................................................................................................................................... 56
When and how much protein to take................................................................................................................. 57
Type of protein.......................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
6.
Nutrition strategies to promote adaptations to training................................................ 61
Importance of carbohydrate availability before training ....................................................................... 61
Carbohydrate availability during and after training.................................................................................... 63
Carbohydrate intake after training.............................................................................................................................. 66
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
7.
Body fluid balance and fluid intake ......................................................................................................... 69
Effect of fluid loss on the body and performance......................................................................................... 69
Fluid and salt loss during a game and training session............................................................................ 70
Measuring individual needs................................................................................................................................................ 72
What to drink.................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
How much to drink.................................................................................................................................................................... 77
When to drink................................................................................................................................................................................. 78
During training......................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Before a match........................................................................................................................................................................... 79
During a match......................................................................................................................................................................... 79
After a match.............................................................................................................................................................................. 80
After training.............................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 81
8. Controlling body weight.......................................................................................................................................... 83
Strategies for reducing body fat...................................................................................................................................... 83
No supplements to reduce body fat............................................................................................................................. 84
Off-season challenges............................................................................................................................................................... 84
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 85

9
9. Environmental challenges...................................................................................................................................... 87
Hot and humid environment............................................................................................................................................ 87
Playing in cold environment.............................................................................................................................................. 89
Playing at altitude........................................................................................................................................................................ 90
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
10. Vitamins and minerals............................................................................................................................................. 93
Vitamins................................................................................................................................................................................................ 94
Vitamin A...................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Vitamin B1.................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Vitamin B3.................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Vitamin B5.................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Vitamin B6.................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Vitamin B12................................................................................................................................................................................ 95
Vitamin C ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Vitamin D...................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Vitamin E....................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Vitamin K....................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Minerals................................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Calcium............................................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Chromium..................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Iron........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
Magnesium.................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Potassium........................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
Sodium.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Selenium.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Zinc...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Iodine.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 98
Phosphorus.................................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
11.
Ergogenic aids to improve performance........................................................................................101
Caffeine...............................................................................................................................................................................................101
Effect of caffeine on performance........................................................................................................................102
How to take caffeine.........................................................................................................................................................103
Side effects of caffeine intake...................................................................................................................................104
Creatine...............................................................................................................................................................................................104
Effect of creatine on performance.......................................................................................................................104
How to take creatine.........................................................................................................................................................105
Side effects of creatine intake...................................................................................................................................105
Sodium bicarbonate................................................................................................................................................................105
CONTENT

Effect of sodium bicarbonate on performance........................................................................................105
How to take sodium bicarbonate..........................................................................................................................106
Side effects of sodium bicarbonate intake....................................................................................................106
Nitrate – beetroot juice........................................................................................................................................................107
Effect of nitrate on performance...........................................................................................................................107
How to take beetroot juice..........................................................................................................................................108
Alternatives to beetroot juice....................................................................................................................................108
Antioxidants...................................................................................................................................................................................109
Risk of doping..............................................................................................................................................................................109
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................109
Review questions........................................................................................................................................................................110
12.
Specific populations and conditions...................................................................................................111
Female player.................................................................................................................................................................................111
Iron deficiency.........................................................................................................................................................................111
Young players.................................................................................................................................................................................112
Need of macronutrients.................................................................................................................................................112
Need of micronutrients..................................................................................................................................................112
Developing proper eating habits...........................................................................................................................113
Vegetarian and vegan.............................................................................................................................................................114
Cultural and regional issues.............................................................................................................................................115
Ramadan............................................................................................................................................................................................115
Diet and training during Ramadan....................................................................................................................115
Develop strategies to cope with Ramadan..................................................................................................116
Travelling...........................................................................................................................................................................................116
Planning........................................................................................................................................................................................117
Eat and drink well while on the move.............................................................................................................117
Adapt to the local conditions...................................................................................................................................117
Be aware of food and water hygiene..................................................................................................................117
Bring supplies from home...........................................................................................................................................118
Eating away...............................................................................................................................................................................118
Summary............................................................................................................................................................................................118
Review questions........................................................................................................................................................................119
References and recommended reading.....................................................................................................121
Index.....................................................................................................................................................................................................127

11
Introduction
Eating and drinking form part of the daily life and influence our health and
performance. Therefore, it is worthwhile considering what benefits a well-chosen
diet can offer. It can maintain an ideal body weight, increase recovery within and
between training sessions, optimise gains from training programmes, and reduce
the risk of injury and illness. Nevertheless, many players do not meet nutrition
goals. There may be many reasons for this, including little knowledge about food,
drink, and sports nutrition, poor choices when shopping or dining out, inadequate
cooking skills, limited availability of good food and drinks, inadequate finances,
and busy lifestyle leading to inadequate time to obtain or consume appropriate
foods. Often, players compensate with the intake of supplements and believe they
have covered their needs, which is not the case. It makes no sense to train hard if
the benefits that follow from good food choices are ignored.
This book will cover all the important aspects related to nutrition in football.First,
the need of energy for training and match will be covered.Then,the macronutrients
in the diet will be described followed by recommendations for a daily diet and
preparation for a match. A chapter about protein intake will be presented because
it is important and warrants special attention among players. A chapter will also
describe recent findings related to how reducing carbohydrate intake before,
during,and after training may have a positive effect on one’s adaptation to training.
Minerals and vitamins are essential parts of a diet, and the effects of some of the
most important are described. A chapter presents how some supplements may
at times improve performance if handled the right way. Because environmental
factors such as altitude and heat affect performance, a chapter describes how
nutritional strategies are needed to diminish the negative environmental effects on
performance.Finally,advice for various specific populations,such as youth players,
female players, and vegetarians, are presented.

13
1.
Physical and metabolic demands
of training and match play
To provide nutritional strategies for a player, it is important to understand the
energy demand and which substrates are utilised during match play and training.
Research studies have examined changes in both performance and physiological
response throughout a game with a special focus on the most demanding activities
and periods. Attention should be paid to information regarding individual
differences in the physical demands to which players are exposed in games and
training.These differences are not only related to the training status of the players
and their playing position, but also to the specific tactical role of the player. This
chapter deals with current knowledge of the demands of the game mainly at a top-
class level, but provides insight into training both at an elite and non-elite level. It
forms the basis for deciding nutritional strategies for players.The chapter will deal
with both male and female players.
Match activities
For an outfield male player at a top-level, the typical distance covered during
a match is 10–13 km; female players cover about 1 km less. For recreational
players, a typical distance is 6–7 km. Most of the distance is covered by walking
and low intensity running, which require a limited energy turnover. Regarding
energy production, the high-intensity exercise periods are important. Thus, the
amount of high-intensity exercise separates the top-class players from players at a
lower level. Computerised time-motion analysis demonstrated that international
top-class players performed 28% more high-intensity running (2.43 vs. 1.90 km)
and 58% more sprinting (650 vs. 410 metres) than professional players at a lower
level (see Figure 1.1, page 14). It should be emphasised that the recordings of
high-intensity running do not include many energy-demanding activities such
as a short acceleration, tackling, and jumping. The number of tackles and jumps
depends on the individual playing style and position in the team and at a top level
has been shown to vary between 3–27 and 1–36, respectively.

14
1. Physical and metabolic demands of training and match play
Figure 1.1. Time-motion analysis demonstrated that international top-class players (red bars)
performed 28% more high-intensity running (2.43 vs. 1.90 km) and 58% more sprinting (650 vs.
410 metres) than professional players at a lower level (blue bars).
There are major individual differences in the physical demands on players related in
part to their position in the team (see Figure 1.2).The central defenders accumulate
less total distance and high-intensity running than players in the other positions,
which probably is closely linked to the tactical roles of the central defenders and
their lower physical capacity. Full backs cover a considerable distance at a high
intensity by sprinting, whereas they often carry out fewer headers and tackles
than players in the other playing positions.The attackers have been shown to cover
a high-speed running distance equal to the full backs and midfield players, but
they sprinted more than the midfield players and defenders. Also, the attackers
had a more marked decline in sprinting distance than the defenders and midfield
players. Thus, it appears that the modern top-level attacker needs a high ability
to perform high-intensity actions repeatedly throughout a game. The midfield
players perform as many tackles and headers as central defenders and attackers,
and they cover a total distance and distance at a high-intensity like the full backs
and attackers, but they are sprinting less.
Individual differences are related not only to position in the team. Within each
playing position,there is a significant variation in the physical demands depending
on the tactical role and the physical capacity of the players. For example, in the
same game, one midfield player covered a total distance of 12.3 km, with 3.5 km
conducted at high speed, while another midfielder covered a total distance and
high-intensity distance of 10.8 and 2.0 km,respectively.The individual differences
in playing style and physical performance should be considered when planning
the training and nutritional strategy.
metres High Speed Running
Time (minutes)
0
100
200
300
400
500
75–90
60–75
45–60
30–45
15–30
0–15
Top class
Elite

15
Figure 1.2. Amount of high-speed running for professional players during a match in relation to
position in the team. Individual values within each position are also provided. Note the marked
differences not only between positions but also within the same position.
3000
2500
2000
metres
0
Central
defender
Full back Central
midfield
External
midfield
Atacker
500
1000
1500
High Speed Running
Energy production in football
Football is an intermittent sport in which the aerobic energy system is highly
taxed with average and peak heart rates during an elite game around 85 and 98%
of maximal values, respectively (see Figure 1.3, page 16). The average value
corresponds to an oxygen uptake of around 70% of maximum oxygen uptake. A
value like the one observed during a marathon for a moderate-trained runner.
Elite football players perform 150–250 brief, intense actions during a game.
Part of the energy for these activities comes from the breakdown of creatine
phosphate in the muscles, which to a major extent is rebuilt in the subsequent low-
intensity exercise periods. Another source of anaerobic energy is the breakdown
of carbohydrate (glycogen) in the muscle leading to production of lactate in the
activated muscle fibres. Part of the lactate is leaving the muscle and entering
the blood. At rest, the blood lactate concentration is around 1 mmol/litre and
during a game blood lactate concentrations of 2–10 mmol/litre have often been

16
observed,with individual values above 12 mmol/litre.The rather high blood lactate
concentrations in football indicate that the rate of anaerobic energy production
through the breakdown of glycogen is high during parts of a match, which has
been confirmed by findings of high lactate concentrations in the muscles during
a game.
The physical demands during a game vary greatly between players
and are related to physical capacity and tactical role in the team.
200
180
160
beats/minute
0 100
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
20
10
Time (minutes)
Second half
First half
100
120
140
Heart Rate
Figure 1.3. Heart rate for a professional player during a game. Maximum heart rate is indicated
by the red line and average values with black lines. Note that the heart rate is above 170 beats/
minute for a significant part of the game.

17
Substrate utilisation during a football match
To provide nutritional strategies for a football player,it is important to understand
to what extent the various substrates are utilised during a game.
Carbohydrate utilisation
Carbohydrate, which is stored in the muscles (300–600 g) and the liver (around
100 g) as glycogen, is a crucial fuel for energy production during a match.There is
a marked drop in muscle glycogen during a game, and some players may have low
levels at the end of the game (see Figure 1.4).
15
10
grammes/kg
of muscle
Before match Half-time
First half Second half
After match
5
0
Muscle Glycogen
Figure 1.4. Average and individual muscle glycogen levels for players before, during, and after a
match. Note that the players had rather low muscle glycogen levels at the end of the match.

18
Figure 1.5. Muscle glycogen in slow (A) and fast (B) twitch fibres before (red bars) and after (blue
bars) a game. Note, that both for slow and fast twitch muscle fibres almost half of the fibres were
partly or completely depleted of glycogen at the end of the match.
Even though there is still glycogen available, many fibres are almost depleted or
depleted of glycogen (see Figure 1.5).
The liver delivers glucose to the blood during exercise, and the blood glucose
concentration often increases during a game and stays higher than before the
game (4–5 mmol/litre), even though carbohydrates are not taken during the
game (see Figure 1.6). However, in some instances, very low values (around 3
mmol/litre) are reached towards the end of the game, which requires immediately
supplemental carbohydrates.
100
70
80
90
60
50
40
30
20
%
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
Slow twitch muscle fibres
10
0
100
70
80
90
60
50
40
30
20
%
Pre Post
Full Partly full Almost empty Empty
Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
Fast twitch muscle fibres
10
0
Muscle Glycogen
Pre game
Post game
A
B

19
Figure 1.6. Blood glucose before, during, and after a match. In most cases, blood glucose is elevated
during a game and does not reach critical low levels.
Fat utilisation
The amount of fat in the blood – the so-called free fatty acids – increases during a
game, and more so during the second half (see Figure 1.7, page 20). Hormonal
changes, with a lowering of insulin and higher adrenaline concentration, play a
major role in the progressive increase in the free fatty acids level.The frequent rest
and low-intensity periods of a game allow for a significant blood flow to adipose
tissue, which promotes the release of free fatty acids.This is also the reason the free
fatty acids concentrations become high at half-time and after a game. The higher
free fatty acids during a match cause a higher uptake and utilisation of free fatty
acids by the muscles, especially during the recovery periods in a game. Also, there
is progressively higher utilisation of muscle triglycerides in the second half due
to elevated adrenaline concentrations (see ‘Exercise and Training Physiology’). In
this way, the body tries to compensate for the progressive lowering of muscle
glycogen and is favourable in keeping the blood glucose concentration high.
6.0
5.5
5.0
mmol/litre
-15 120
30 45 60 75 90 105
15
0
Time (minutes)
Second half
First half
3.5
4.0
4.5
Blood Glucose

20
Figure 1.7. Blood (plasma) free fatty acids before, during, and after a match. Note the progressive
increase in free fatty acids during the second half.
Fatigue during a football game
A relevant question when discussing nutritional strategies is whether fatigue occurs
during a football game and what is causing the fatigue. Many research studies, it
has been observed that players, independent of team position, had a significant
decline in high-intensity running towards the end of the match,with the attackers
having a more marked decline in sprinting distance than defenders and midfield
players. Furthermore, intermittent exercise, jump, and sprint performance are
lowered after a football game as compared with before a game (see Figure 1.8).
Thus, a player´s ability to perform high-intensity exercise is often reduced towards
the end of the game in both elite and sub-elite football.
It is likely to be caused by depletion of glycogen stores. If even a few muscle fibres
are fatigued and unable to contract,then maximum sprinting ability is reduced,and
skill may also be impaired. Accordingly, it has been demonstrated that elevating
muscle glycogen before exercise through a carbohydrate diet elevates performance
during prolonged intermittent exercise (see page 45).
2000
μmol/litre
-15 120
30 45 60 75 90 105
15
0
Time (minutes)
Second half
First half
500
0
1000
1500
Free Fatty Acids

21
Figure 1.8. Performance (% of the best sprint) of five 30-m sprints separated by a 25-s period of
recovery before (red circles), at half-time (blue circles), and after (green circles) a game. Note that
performance was not changed after the first half, but markedly reduced at the end of the match.
100
98
96
%
1 5
4
3
2
Number of sprints
Before game
Half time
After game
88
0
90
92
94
Performance
Temporary fatigue during match play
In both elite male and female football, the amount of high-intensity exercise after
the most intense period is reduced to levels below the game average. This may be
due to temporary fatigue. Similarly, it has been observed that after intense periods
in the first half, the players’sprint performance was significantly reduced, whereas,
at the end of the first half, the ability to perform repeated sprints had recovered
(see Figures 1.8 and 1.9, page 22). It may be due to low muscle creatine
phosphate concentrations since performance in intense intermittent exercise has
been demonstrated to be elevated after a period of creatine supplementation. It
has also been suggested that the development of fatigue during high-intensity
exercise is related to an accumulation of potassium around the muscle fibres,
which is reduced by stimulation of the so-called Na+/K+ pumps (see ”Exercise
and Training Physiology”). Apparently, players can experience fatigue temporarily
during the game.

22
Figure 1.9. Performance (% of the best sprint) of five 30-m sprints separated by a 25-second period
of recovery before (red circles), after an intense period in the first (purple circles), and second half
(orange circles) of a game. Note that performance was reduced already in the first half and more
markedly during the second half.
How much food a player needs will depend on the total energy needs.
Training load
Based on the analysis of the game, the training should focus on improving the
players´ ability to perform intense exercise and to recover rapidly from periods
of high-intensity exercise. This is achieved by regularly performing aerobic and
anaerobic training (see ‘Aerobic and Anaerobic Training in Football’),which require
high energy turnover.
In a typical week for a professional football team with one match, the players have
six training session in five days, with one day including two sessions and the day
after the match kept free.If there is a second match in mid-week,the team is often
100
98
96
%
1 5
4
3
2
Number of sprints
Before game
During first half
During second half
88
0
90
92
94
Performance

23
training once per day the other days.However,there are great variations depending
on the approach of the coach. Table 1.1 presents examples of programmes for an
international top-class team during the season.
Table 1.1. Examples of programmes for an international top-class team during the season with one
(A) or two (B) matches.
A. One match a week
Sunday Match
Monday Free
Tuesday Warming-up – 15 min
Technical-Tactical – 30 min
Aerobic high intensity training – 23 min
Play – 15 min
Wednesday Morning: Strengt training – 60 min
Afternoon:
Warming-up – 15 min
Speed endurance production training – 20 min
Thursday Warming up – 15 min
Play – 30 min
Friday Warming-up/Technical – 25 min
Speed training (long) – 20 min
Saturday Warming-up/Technical – 25 min
Speed training (short) – 20 min
Play – 30 min
Sunday Match
B. Two matches a week
Sunday Match
Monday Aerobic low/moderate intensity training – 30 min
Strength training – 30 min
Tuesday Warming-up – 15 min
Play – 15 min
Wednesday Match
Thursday Aerobic low/moderate intensity training – 40 min
Strength training – 30 min
Friday Warming-up/Technical – 25 min
Speed training (long) – 10 min
Saturday Warming-up/Technical – 25 min
Speed training (short) – 20 min
Play – 30 min
Sunday Match

24
To obtain information about the loading of the players, heart rate determinations
can be used. Table 1.2 shows the heart rate of three Danish players during all
training sessions during a two-week preparation period for the World Cup, 2010.
The midfield player had a mean heart rate of 146 and 143 b.p.m., respectively,
during the training sessions in week 1 and 2, corresponding to 78% and 76% of
maximum heart rate,with heart rates between 90–95% and 95–100% of maximum
heart rate for 144 and 12 minutes, respectively, in week 1, and 135 and 9 minutes,
respectively, in week 2. The estimated mean energy expenditure was 7.6 and 7.5
MJoule/day in week 1 and 2, respectively. In comparison, the attacker had a lower
relative mean heart rate (~70% of maximum heart rate) and an estimated mean
energy expenditure of 5.6 and 6.3 MJoule/day, in week 1 and 2, respectively. Note
the great individual differences in heart rate distribution and energy demand
among the players (see Table 1.2). Such differences should be considered when
planning training and nutritional strategies for individual players.
Table 1.2. Training frequency, duration, heart rate response and estimated energy expenditure
during two weeks for a defender, a midfield player and an attacker in the Danish National team
in the first part of the preparation period for the World Cup 2010. Note the great individual
differences in heart rate distribution and energy demand among the players.
Number
of
training
sessions
(n)
Time
per
session
(min)
Total
training
time
(min)
Mean
heart
rate
(b.p.m.)
Mean
heart
rate
(% of
max)
Heart
rate zone
80–90%
HRmax
(min)
Heart
rate zone
90–95%
HRmax
(min)
Heart
rate zone
95–100%
HRmax
(min)
Energy
expendi
ture per
week
(MJ)
Energy
expendi
ture per
day
(MJ)
Defender Week 1 9 83.5 751 143.1 71.9 76.9 31.3 10.1 42.9 6.1
Week 2 11 82.3 905 142.5 71.6 67.4 53.7 3.9 51.3 7.3
Midfielder Week 1 10 85.3 853 146.4 77.5 156.3 143.5 11.5 53.4 7.6
Week 2 11 79.0 869 143.1 75.7 133.7 135.5 8.5 52.6 7.5
Attacker Week 1 8 85.9 687 129.8 68.3 63.3 52.1 16.2 39.0 5.6
Week 2 9 80.9 728 136.0 71.6 104.4 60.1 21.9 44.4 6.3
Energy demands in a training session focused on
fitness may exceed those of a hard game.
Most serious players play one or two competitive games per week for a large part
of the year and will train most days of the week,sometimes twice a day,throughout
this time. The energy demands of training must be met to maintain performance
capacity and prevent the development of excessive fatigue.Those who play for fun
and train occasionally will obviously not face the same nutritional challenges.

25
Summary
In football, the players perform intermittent work with an average oxygen uptake
around 70% of maximum oxygen uptake. The top-class player performs 150–
250 brief, intense actions during a game, where the utilisation rates of creatine
phosphate and glycogen are high. Muscle glycogen is the most important
substrate for energy production, and fatigue towards the end of a game is related
to depletion of glycogen in some muscle fibres. The blood’s free fatty acid levels
increase progressively during a game, partially compensating for the progressive
lowering of muscle glycogen. These values suggest that the total energy cost of a
game for a typical player weighing about 75 kg would be about 1,800 kcal (about
5.5 MJoule). The value for players at lower levels of the game is somewhat less
because they have lower maximum oxygen uptake.
Fatigue also occurs temporarily during a game, which may be related to low
muscle creatine phosphate levels or accumulation of potassium outside of the
muscle fibres, which are restored in subsequent recovery periods. There are major
individual differences in the physical demands of a player during a game related
to physical capacity and tactical role in the team. Similarly, the loading of players
during training does vary significantly. These differences should be considered in
the training and the nutritional strategies for the player who has a significant
requirement for energy intake during a week.
Review questions
1. How much distance with high speed does a player cover in a game?
2. How does the position in the team influence the total energy utilisation in a
game?
3. What is the average heart rate during a game?
4. What is the main energy source (substrate) during a match?
5. What happens with the free fatty acids concentration in the blood during a
game?
6. How much glycogen is stored in the muscles?
7. What is the cause of fatigue towards the end of a game?
8. What are the indications that fatigue occurs temporary during a game?
9. What is the energy utilisation during a training day and during a match day?

27
2. Macronutrient
To understand how to achieve an optimal diet, it is fundamental to know the key
substances in food and drink.This chapter presents the main macronutrient, such
as carbohydrate, fat, and protein, and their function. It will also briefly describe
alcohol, fibres, and water.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are found in the diet in a variety of forms, including simple
sugars such as glucose and fructose. Disaccharides consisting of two joined sugar
molecules such as sucrose (table sugar) are one molecule of glucose and one of
fructose. Lactose is one molecule of glucose and one of galactose. Maltose is two
glucose molecules and bigger molecules consisting of long chains of joined sugar
(usually glucose) molecules. Starch is the storage form of carbohydrate found in
many plants, including cereals. Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose molecules
found in plants where it forms a major part of cell walls. Unlike starch, it is poorly
digested in the human gut but provides bulk to the faeces and is important for
gut health. In the human body, glucose is used as a fuel by many tissues, especially
the central nervous system including the brain. It is also an important fuel for
energy production in muscle during exercise. The storage form of carbohydrate is
glycogen, which is stored primarily in the liver and in the muscles. One gramme
of carbohydrate contains approximately four kilocalories of energy.
Typical carbohydrates are presented in Table 2.1 (see page 28) divided into
low, moderate, and high glycaemic index. An index that measures how much of a
given intake of carbohydrate influences blood glucose. A substance with a high
glycaemic index means that the increase in blood glucose is rapid and high,whereas
carbohydrates with low glycaemic index lead only to a minor increase in blood
glucose. Often, the carbohydrates are taken in combination with other nutrition,
that is, in meal combinations in. Examples of nutrient-rich carbohydrate foods
are breakfast cereals with milk, stir-fry with noodles and sandwich with meat and
salad filling.

28
2. Macronutrient
Table 2.1. Examples of foods with different glycaemic index.
Carbohydrate foods with high glycaemic index
• Low-fat confectionery (sweets/candy)
• Cakes
• White sugar
• Jam (fruit spread) and honey
• Sport and soft drinks, e.g. Coca-Cola.
• Fruit
Carbohydrate foods with moderate glycaemic index
• Breakfast cereals
• Tropical fruits and juices
• White and brown breads
Carbohydrate foods with low glycaemic index
• Potatoes
• Grain, e.g. oatmeal
• Vegetables
• Pasta
All type of carbohydrates can be used for the rebuilding of muscle and liver
glycogen stores. In the first few hours following exercise, consumption of simple
carbohydrates results in a faster storage of glycogen than the intake of the complex
carbohydrates with low glycaemic index. However, the sources of complex
carbohydrates usually have a higher nutritional value as they also contain minerals,
vitamins, and fibre.Therefore, they should be preferred.
Proteins
Proteins play key roles in the body as some are structural components of cells,
some are enzymes that catalyse chemical reactions, and others are hormones.
Many,such as the actin and myosin (see ‘Exercise and Training Physiology’),which
allow muscle contraction to take place, have both structural and functional roles.
Chains of amino acids construct proteins. Of the 20 amino acids that make up
almost all proteins, nine cannot be synthesised by the body and must, therefore,
be supplied by the diet. On average, about 0.5% of the body’s proteins are broken
down and resynthesised every day.This means that the body tissues are completely
renewed in about six to eight months. Proteins in the muscle turn over faster than
average,with muscle renewed every two to three months.One of the primary aims
of training is to change the balance and to make more of the proteins that aid
performance while breaking down some of the proteins that are not needed.Thus,
alterations in proteins are essential in the adaptations that take place in response
to training. Amino acids from proteins form building blocks for the manufacture
of new tissue, including muscle, and the repair of old or damaged tissue.They are

29
2. Macronutrient
also the building blocks for hormones and enzymes that regulate metabolism and
other body functions. Chapter 5 describes these processes in more detail. Protein
provides a small source of fuel for the exercising muscle. One gramme of protein
provides four kilocalories of energy.
Fats
Fats have many functions in the body. Fat is an energy store, and fatty acids are
an essential fuel for muscle cells, especially during low and moderate intensity
exercise, and they become increasingly more important as the duration of exercise
increases. Fats also have a key role in the structure of cell membranes, especially in
the cells of the nervous system.
Fat is necessary to absorb the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, to provide
essential fatty acids, protect vital organs and provide insulation. Fat also provides
the feeling of satiety. Fat is an effective way of storing energy, as one gramme of
fat contains about 17 kilocalories of energy.
Fat exists in a saturated or unsaturated form. The saturated fats are solid at room
temperature (butter, margarine, and fat in meat) while unsaturated fats are liquid
or soft at room temperature (vegetable oil, vegetable margarine, and fat in fish).
Intake of unsaturated fats are essential for the body, and in contrast to saturated
fat, unsaturated fats aid in lowering the amount of cholesterol in the blood,
thereby, reducing the risk of heart disease. The total content of fat in the average
diet of a football player is often too high (see Table 2.2), and a general lowering
of fat intake is advisable. It is also important that saturated fat is replaced with
unsaturated fat where possible. The advice presented in Table 2.3 (see page 30)
can help reduce the total amount of fat in the diet and lower the ratio between
saturated and unsaturated fat.
Table 2.2. Total energy intake (MJoule) per day and macronutrient intake (grammes/kg of body
weight) for English Premier League players during match and training day as well as Dutch
professional adult and youth players.
English Dutch
Match day Training day Adults Youth
Total energy intake
(MJoule)
16.0 12.4 12.4 12.6
Carbohydrate
(g/kg of body weight)
6.4 4.2 4.7 6.0
Protein
2.5 2.5 1.9 1.7
Fat
1.4 1.2 1.3 1.2

30
2. Macronutrient
Table 2.3. Strategies to reduce fat intake and ingestion of saturated fat.
Limit the intake of French fries, potato crisps,
etc.
Replace with boiled or baked potatoes
Limit the use of butter Replace with vegetable margarine
Limit the intake of whipped cream, cream
cheese, etc.
Replace with low-fat substitute, e.g. low-fat
yoghourt
Limit the use of butter and margarine for
baking and frying
Replace with vegetable oil
Limit the intake of meat, sauces, and other
fatty foods
Limit the intake of whole fat milk Replace with low-fat or, preferably, skimmed
milk
Energy content in one gramme
Carbohydrate: 4 kilocalories
Protein: 4 kilocalories
Fat: 17 kilocalories
Alcohol
Alcohol (ethanol) is not an essential nutrient. As well as supplying energy, alcohol
acts like a drug and has effects on metabolism and behaviour. Although not
harmful in small amounts, at least to those habituated to its use, acute alcohol
intoxication impairs most functions.
Alcohol intake may be measured in grammes or ml of ethanol, or in units of
alcohol, where each unit of alcohol contains approximately 8 grammes (10 ml) of
ethanol.Table 2.4 provides information about the alcohol content in various types
of alcoholic drinks.
Table 2.4. Examples of items with one unit (~ 8 grammes) of alcohol.
500 ml standard low alcohol beer (2% alcohol)
250 ml standard beer (4% alcohol)
250 ml alcoholic soft drinks or wine coolers
100 ml wine or champagne
60 ml port wine
25 ml liquor

31
2. Macronutrient
Alcohol is metabolised primarily in the liver,and the rate of metabolism varies greatly
between individuals. Alcohol can be oxidised at a rate of about 100 mgrammes/kg
of body mass per hour, which is equivalent to about one unit of alcohol per hour
for most people. Despite popular belief, the clearance of alcohol from the system
cannot be enhanced by drinking coffee, showering or other practices believed
to help an intoxicated person ‘sober up’. The actions of alcohol on the central
nervous system result in decrements in skill and in behavioural changes that may
have adverse effects on performance. There is also evidence of dose-dependent
decrements in aerobic capacity.
Fibres
Fibres are indigestible forms of carbohydrates, but they are neither a nutrient nor
an essential dietary component. However, fibre intake is essential to keep the gut
healthy and gives a feeling of fullness. Soluble fibre components regulate blood
cholesterol levels, and the insoluble fibre component helps prevent constipation
and other digestive problems. However, too much fibre can reduce the uptake of
vitamins and induce constipation if fluid is not taken at the same time. Fibres are
found in vegetables and fruit.
Water
Water is the largest component of the human body accounting for about 55–70%
of total mass, depending on body-fat levels. It is the essential component of the
diet. Humans can survive for many days and even weeks without food, but short
periods without water will reduce performance, and survival beyond a few days
without water is unlikely.
Summary
The major nutritional elements in food are carbohydrate, fat, and protein, which
are all needed for maintaining health and performance. Alcohol also provides
energy, but it is not essential. Fibres are not a nutrient, but they help prevent
constipation. Water constitutes a significant part of the body mass and is essential
for all functions in the body.

32
2. Macronutrient
Review questions
1. What is glycaemic index?
2. What types of carbohydrates do we have and what are the differences between
the various carbohydrates?
3. Describe the main functions of fat in the body!
4. What are the differences between saturated or unsaturated!
5. Where is alcohol metabolised?
6. What are the functions of fibres?
7. What is the energy content in one gramme of fat, carbohydrate and protein?
8. What is the content of water in a 70-kg person?

33
3.
Dietary energy intake for
training and recovery
This chapter provides dietary recommendations to accommodate nutritional
requirements after a game and for training, but first, it describes the resynthesis of
muscle glycogen after a match.
Rebuilding of muscle glycogen after a match
Some scientific studies have looked at the rebuilding of muscle glycogen after
a football match. All studies have demonstrated that the resynthesis of muscle
glycogen is a slow process and slower among football players than observed in
other sports. Thus, often the muscle glycogen levels are not fully restored by 48
hours after a match (see Figure 3.1).
80
0
20
10
40
50
30
60
70
90
Muscle Glycogen
Time (hours)
Before 0 24 48
100
%
Figure 3.1. Muscle glycogen content before and during the first 48hours after a competitive
match. Note, that the glycogen synthesis was slow, and muscle glycogen had not returned 48
hours after the game

34
3. Dietary energy intake for training and recovery
Glycogen rebuilding occur in both slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibres (see
‘Exercise and Training Physiology’), but in a study of semi-professional players
full replenishment had not occurred in fast-twitch muscle fibres two days after a
match (see Figure 3.2),which means that the players are not optimally prepared for
training sessions during the days after a match. Thus, speed and speed endurance
training (see ‘Aerobic and Anaerobic Training in Football’) should be avoided.
80
0
20
10
40
50
30
60
70
90
Muscle Glycogen
Time (hours)
Before 0 24 48
100
A
%
Slow twitch muscle fibres
80
0
20
10
40
50
30
60
70
90
Time (hours)
Before 0 24 48
100
B
%
Fast twitch muscle fibres
Figure 3.2. Glycogen content in slow-twitch (A) and fast-twitch (B) muscle fibres before and during
the first 48hours after a competitive match. Note, that the resynthesis of glycogen 48 hours after
the game was not complete in neither slow- nor fast-twitch muscle fibres.

35
It is well known that a high-carbohydrate diet after running and cycling enhances
the rate of glycogen resynthesis, but that does not appear to be the case in
football. Furthermore, it has also been proposed that if carbohydrate ingestion is
combined with protein intake, which through an increase in the insulin response
can stimulate muscle glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis is enhanced. However,
glycogen resynthesis after a game was the same, whether players were ingesting a
normal or a protein – and a carbohydrate-enriched diet (see Figure 3.3).
80
0
40
50
60
70
90
Muscle Glycogen
Time (hours)
Before 18
0 42
100
%
Normal diet
Carbohydrate and protein diet
Figure 3.3. Muscle glycogen content before and after a game (green bars) as well as during the
first 48hours after a competitive match ingesting a carbohydrate and protein enriched (red bars)
or normal (blue bars) diet. Note the glycogen synthesis was slow and not accelerated significantly
by intake of carbohydrates and proteins after the game.
Thus, it is interesting that the resynthesis of muscle glycogen after a match is
slower than expected, and that players 48hours after a match may not have
replenished muscle glycogen stores, even when a diet rich in carbohydrate and
protein has been consumed. It is known that eccentric exercise (see ‘Power
Training in Football’) can significantly impair post-exercise glycogen rebuilding.
Thus, it may be that many activities during match play, such as brakes and sudden
changes in direction, have a high eccentric component which, together with
the physical contact between the players, may lead to muscle damage and local
inflammation, thereby, impairing muscle glycogen synthesis. In keeping with this,

36
players often experience significant muscle soreness and reduced performance in
the days after a match. It is possible that the duration of the match also plays a
role, as many muscle fibres are expected to be glycogen-depleted towards the end
of a game.To study these aspects,simulated matches with different durations were
carried out to compare the effect on glycogen synthesis to that observed after a
competitive match. To conduct these studies, the Copenhagen Football Test was
used to simulate the match. The study showed that the rate of muscle glycogen
synthesis after a 90-min simulated match was similar to that observed after a
competitive match and higher compared to a 60-min simulated match (see Figure
3.4). Thus, the impaired resynthesis of muscle glycogen does not appear to be
related to specific activities during a match, such as body contacts or the length of
the match, but it may rather be due to intense intermittent characteristics of the
match with the turning and sprinting probably having a great impact.Nevertheless,
it is important to consume a diet high in carbohydrates to avoid that delivery of
carbohydrates causing a limitation in the rebuilding of glycogen.
300
0
100
200
400
Muscle Glycogen
Time (hours)
Before 24
0 48
24
0 48
500 60-minute 90-minute
mmol/kg dry weight
Figure 3.4. Muscle glycogen content before (green bar) and during the first 48hours after a 60-
(blue bars) and 90-min (red bars) simulated match. Note that the muscle glycogen stores were not
fully replenished 48 hours after the simulated games.

37
Optimising the muscle glycogen levels
Carbohydrate is an important fuel for exercise,but the body can store only enough
to last for one day of hard training. Thus, the players need to provide enough
carbohydrate to fuel their training programme and to optimise the recovery of
muscle glycogen stores after matches and between training sessions. The target
for carbohydrate requirement is based on the player’s size and the demands of
the training programme and must be fine-tuned to take into account the total
energy need and specific training goals. It is important to get feedback from
performance in training and match play to assess whether there is a problem
with fuel availability. An inadequate carbohydrate intake will lead to early fatigue
during a subsequent training session or match.
Guidelines for carbohydrate should not be provided in terms of percentage
contributions to total dietary energy intake,for example,stating that carbohydrate
should provide 50% of total energy intake. Such recommendations are hard for
most players to follow since they require both carbohydrate and energy intake to
be tracked.They can also be misleading when energy intakes are particularly high
or low.The carbohydrate recommendation should rather be expressed in grammes
per kg (g/kg) of body weight and in relation to the activity level (see Table 3.1).
Table 3.2 (se page 38) provides an example of how an intake of approximately
9 grammes/kg of body weight can be achieved during a day.
Before certain training sessions, it is important that muscle glycogen is at the
highest level. Thus, the amount and type of carbohydrate, as well as the time of
ingestion, should be considered to achieve an optimal result. If the player trains
several times a day and would like to perform optimally,it is especially important to
eat fast-acting carbohydrates immediately after training. The muscles are namely
responding optimally just after training. This is partly due an increase in insulin
sensitivity, an increase in glucose transport proteins in the muscle cell surface, as
well as increased permeability of the muscle cell membrane. Thus, players should
eat or drink a liquid with fast-absorbing carbohydrates (high glycaemic index,
Table 3.1. Recommendations for carbohydrate intake.
Carbohydrate intake
Immediate after training (0-4 hours) about 1 g per kg body weight per hour,
consumed at frequent intervals
Day with a moderate duration and low-intensity
training session
5–7 g per kg of body weight per day
Day with moderate-heavy and long-lasting training 7–10 g per kg of body weight per day
Day with two heavy training sessions 10–12 g per kg of body weight per day

38
see page 27) as soon as possible after training or match. Studies have shown
that consuming carbohydrates such as those found in sugar and cornflakes results
in a faster rebuilding of muscle glycogen than slowly absorbable carbohydrates
such as found in rice and pasta. There may also be some advantages in meeting
carbohydrate targets through a series of snacks during the early recovery phase.
An interesting observation is that accompanying the carbohydrate ingestion with
creatine intake increased the rebuilding of glycogen (see Figure 3.5).
Table 3.2. Example of one day of a carbohydrate loading diet providing about 600 grammes of
carbohydrate, i.e., about 9 grammes per kg of body weight for a player weighing 70 kg.
Food intake
Early morning 150 g = 2 cups cereal with milk + 250 ml fruit juice + 1 banana + 2 thick slices
toast + thick spread of jam
Late morning 50 g = 500 ml soft drink or 750 ml sports drink
Lunch 150 g = 1 large bread roll + 1 medium muffin + fruit smoothie
Snack 50 g = 200 g flavoured yoghurt + 250 ml fruit juice
Dinner 200 g = 3 cups cooked pasta + 2 cups fruit salad + 2 scoops ice cream +
500 ml sports drink
Snack 30 g = 50 g chocolate
300
0
100
200
400
Muscle Glycogen
Time (hours)
0 72
24
600
500
mmol/kg dry weight
Control
Creatine
Figure 3.5. Muscle glycogen after exercise with carbohydrate ingestion with (red bars) and without
(control, blue bars) supplementary creatine intake. Note that the muscle glycogen rebuilding was
faster when also creatine was taken.

39
If the player is training only once a day, the timing and type of carbohydrates is
less decisive and can be organised according to what is practical and comfortable
for each player. There is no difference in glycogen synthesis when carbohydrate is
consumed in liquid form or as solid foods. Given the amount of carbohydrate to
be consumed, high carbohydrate foods will need to be spread out over the full 24
hours.
Carbohydrate is an important fuel for exercise, but the body
can store enough to last for only one day of hard training.
It is valuable to choose nutrient-rich carbohydrates and to add other foods to
recovery meals and snacks to provide protein and other nutrients.These nutrients
may assist in other recovery processes, and in the case of protein, may promote
additional glycogen recovery when carbohydrate intake is below targets or when
frequent snacking is not possible. These foods should form the major part of
recovery meals. Adequate energy intake is also important for optimal glycogen
recovery. Restrained eating practices of some players, particularly females, can
make it difficult to meet carbohydrate intake targets and to optimise glycogen
storage from this intake.
Proper nutritional strategies are particularly challenging after matches that finish
late in the evening,with further complications if there is a homeward journey after
the match. Neglecting an adequate carbohydrate intake after the game will delay
recovery,and it is important that carbohydrates are consumed before setting off on
the journey home and before going to bed. A solution often used by the Danish
national team is to serve a pasta dish in the changing room after the game to be
eaten before departure. Snacks after training and matches are an easy way to get
carbohydrates – see examples of snacks in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3. Snacks after training or matches. Each item provides ~50 grammes of carbohydrate as
well as some proteins and other nutrients
60 g sports bar + 250 ml sports drink
250–350 ml fruit smoothie or liquid meal
200 g carton of yoghurt + cereal/breakfast bar
150 g thick crust pizza – lean meat and vegetable toppings with small amount of cheese
60 g (1–2 cups) breakfast cereal + milk + 1 fruit meat/cheese and salad sandwich or roll +
250 ml fruit juice

40
Factors influencing rate of synthesis of glycogen after match and training
• Presence of damage caused by the training or match
• Amount of carbohydrate intake
• Timing of carbohydrate intake
• Type of carbohydrate eaten
Meal time during the week
In general, a player should eat three main meals per day – one in the morning,
one in the middle of the day and one in the evening. Each meal should constitute
about 25% of the total energy intake, but when training during the day time, the
first meal after the training should have larger energy content than the others.
The remaining 25% of the total energy intake may come from two or three snacks
between meals.
The amount of carbohydrate in the diet should be increased a couple of days
before a match. For example, if the game in on a Sunday, the carbohydrates of
6–7 grammes/kg of body weight during the first days could increase to about
9 grammes/kg of body weight Friday and Saturday. To get enough minerals and
vitamins, is it advisable that the intake of carbohydrate is mainly in the form of
complex carbohydrates.
Alcohol after a game and training
Intake of alcohol after a game or training may cause problems, as alcohol can
delay recovery by causing dehydration. Excessive consumption of alcohol after
match may disinhibit the players and distract them from making good choices.
Often, players forget to eat properly after drinking too much alcohol, and alcohol
can cause slow injury repair by causing more bleeding. Thus, before consuming
any alcohol after a match, the player should consume a meal or snack to replace
carbohydrates and proteins.Food intake will also help to reduce the rate of alcohol
absorption and, thus, reduce the rate of intoxication.
Alcohol intoxication may make the player forget about following sound recovery
practices such as appropriate treatment for injuries, adequate sleep, or optimal
eating and drinking. Alcohol may displace carbohydrate from the diet at a time
when restoration of glycogen stores should be a priority. The need for other
important nutrients may be neglected while the player is consuming large amounts
of alcohol, or sleeping off the hangover next day. An intoxicated athlete often

41
succumbs to high-risk activities leading to accidents, violence, or other anti-social
behaviour. Negative outcomes range from the tarnishing of a reputation to serious
injury.
The player should certainly avoid a heavy intake of alcohol on the night before
a match. Nevertheless, the intake of 1–2 standard drinks may not have negative
effects in habitual drinkers.
Changing dietary habits
For the elite player, the training load is high, and there are no easy games, and
each game is played at a physically demanding high pace. The elite player’s club
will usually provide support and advice, but most meals will be taken away from
the club, so players must take responsibility for meeting their nutrition needs.
However, the normal diet of a football player is often too low in carbohydrates
and too high in fat (see Table 2.2, page 29), particularly in periods with many
matches and heavy training loads.Table 3.4 presents some suggestions for how to
increase the daily intake of carbohydrates.
Table 3.4. Strategies to improve the content of carbohydrate in the diet.
Eat a large portion of potatoes, pasta, or rice with a hot meal
Eat large portions of vegetables
• Boiled or raw vegetables with a hot meal
• Raw vegetables as snack between meals and as a supplement to meals
Eat a lot of bread
• Cut thick slices
• Make sandwiches
• Eat bread with a hot meal
Eat a lot of fruit
• As a snack between meals
• As dessert
• With cereals
Non-professional players
Non-professional players do not have the dietary support that is available to
professional players. Some will have to make all their purchasing, preparation,
selection, and timing decisions, while others will rely on partners or parents for
most of their meal preparation.Those who provide meals may have little awareness
of the nutrition requirements of a serious player. This is further complicated by
the need to balance dietary demands with the challenges of work, training, and

42
matches. These players need to educate themselves about the details of sports
nutrition. The pre-match meal for a midweek game may need to be eaten during
their workday, and the timing may not always coincide with the normal midday
meal. A weekend match could follow the timing and selection guidelines for the
professional if job demands are not a factor. Players should follow the hydration
guidelines for the professional player regarding timing, type, and volume of
replenishment. Players should strive to restrict fluid losses to not more than 2%
of body weight.
The scheduling of matches and training at this level is probably not as dense as at
the professional level, meaning the player has more time to refill the muscles of
depleted glycogen.They should use days with light or no football commitments to
get on top of the nutrition plan.They may do the shopping and cook meals ahead
of need. Refrigerate or freeze one-portion servings of meals for a pre-game meal
at work, or a quick meal after training or matches.
Nonetheless, most players are still very committed to their play and will do
everything possible to ensure they can play at the level they desire. Generally, the
players may need to change eating habits. One way to make them aware of their
dietary habits is to record what they are eating. Furthermore, it is advisable that
the player,or the person who prepares the food for the player,read the information
label on food packaging where nutritional composition and energy content of the
food is given.
Summary
Dietary carbohydrate is the key to replacing muscle and liver glycogen.Controlling
the amount, type, and timing or carbohydrate is essential to maximise recovery
after training and before a match. Recommendations for macronutrient should
not be expressed as a percentage of total energy intake, but rather as grammes of
carbohydrate per kg of body mass per day.

43
Post-match recovery
• Carbohydrate should be consumed as soon as possible to promote recovery
of glycogen stores
• Carbohydrate-containing drinks are effective to support glycogen
resynthesis and also and replace fluid loss
• When sweat losses are very large, salt should be added to food or drinks
• Recovery plans will depend on the time available before the next game or
training session
Review questions
1. How long does it take to rebuild muscle glycogen after a football match?
2. What is the reason for slow resynthesis of muscle glycogen after a game?
3. Why is the muscle particularly sensitive for glucose uptake immediately after
exercise?
4. What foods are good sources of carbohydrate,and what are the advantages and
disadvantages of these various foods?

45
4. Nutrition for match preparation
This chapter will discuss how the diet can be optimised in preparation for a game.
Firstly, it will describe the importance of ingesting a carbohydrate-rich diet for
intermittent exercise performance, and how the diet in the days before a match
can optimise performance.Then, the chapter will consider nutritional strategies in
the days before and during match day.
Effect of carbohydrate diet on long-term
intermittent exercise performance
For many years, it has been well established that performance during long-term
continuous exercise is improved by intake of a carbohydrate-rich diet in the days
before the exercise. To evaluate whether a high-carbohydrate diet also affected
performance during prolonged long-term intermittent exercise, which is inherent
to football, a study of eight professional Danish players was conducted.
A football-specific intermittent exercise test was used to examine performance.
The test consisted of two parts. In the first part, the players performed 45 minutes
of standing, walking, and running at different speeds with and without the ball
on a grass field according to a standardised protocol. The players covered 6,856
metres. After a 15-minute break, the players carried out the second part, which
consisted of intermittent running on a motor-driven treadmill (see Figure 4.1,
page 46). The players first ran in seven five-minute periods at varying speeds
(see Figure 4.1A), during which they covered a total distance of 5,677 metres.
Then, they performed intermittent running, alternating between high-speed
running for 15 seconds and low-speed running for 10 seconds (see Figure 4.1B).
The players continued until they were exhausted, and the test result was the total
distance covered.The average exercise during the test corresponded to about 75%
of maximum oxygen uptake,which resembles the average intensity during a match
(see page 15).
The players performed the test on two occasions separated by 14 days. On one
of the occasions, the test was carried out with the players having consumed their
normal diet during the days before the test, and on the other occasion, the players
performed after having consumed a high-carbohydrate diet in the days before the
test. Both tests were performed three days after a completive match in the Danish

46
Figure 4.1. Protocol of the football-specific intermittent exercise test used to evaluate performance
in a dietary study with Danish professional players. First, the players performed controlled
movements specific for football with and without the ball for 45 minutes. The players then rested
for 15 minutes followed by intermittent running on a motor-driven treadmill. In the first 35
minutes, the players performed seven five-minute intermittent exercise bouts as shown in A. The
players then alternated between low-intensity running (8 km/hour) for 10 seconds and high-speed
running (18 km/hour) for 15 seconds, and after 18 minutes, the lower speed was increased to 12
km/hour (B). The players continued in this manner until they were exhausted.
12
0
6
8
15
Muscle glycogen
Time (minutes)
0 5
4
3
2
1
25
0 45 60 95
18
km/hour
12
0
8
Time (minutes)
Time (minutes)
0 32
25
18
14
7
18
km/hour
Break
Football activities on the field Treadmill running
A
A B
B

47
Premier League. To control the food intake, each player was given a selection of
foods and a list of instructions explaining which type of food to consume. From
this information, the nutritional and energy content of the diets was ascertained.
Figure 4.2 shows the relative carbohydrate intake with the two diets.
The test leaders were not aware of which diet the players had been given until the
entire study was completed. Neither were the players told of the purpose of the
study until after the second test. To minimise any other sources of experimental
error, the players were randomly assigned to the two diets, so that during each test
occasion half of the players had consumed the high-carbohydrate diet while the
other half had their normal diet.
The results of the study showed that after following the high-carbohydrate diet,
the players ran, on average 1 kilometre more compared to after the normal diet
(see Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2. The figure shows the carbohydrate content (expressed as a percentage of the total
energy intake) of food ingested during the ‘normal’ (blue bars) and high-carbohydrate (yellow
bars) diet before the tests (left), and the average running distance covered in the tests (right). Note
that after ingesting the high-carbohydrate diet, the players ran about one km longer than after
consuming the ‘normal’ diet.
80
0
40
20
60
17
0
15
16
Ingestion of
Carbohydrates
Performance
Normal diet High carbo-
hydrate diet
Normal diet High carbo-
hydrate diet
%
km

48
Individual values are illustrated in Figure 4.3.Three of the players ran approximately
the same distance in both tests, whereas five obtained a considerably better result
after consuming a high-carbohydrate diet. Thus, a high-carbohydrate intake in the
days before prolonged intermittent exercise, as in a football match, appears to have
a positive effect on performance for most of the players.
Since the study of the professional football players, several other scientific studies
have demonstrated that a high-carbohydrate diet improves performance during
long-term intermittent exercise.
Carbohydrate loading in the days before the game
From the previous section, it should be clear that the players can benefit from
topping up the muscle glycogen levels before a match. One way is to limit the
use of glycogen in the days before the game, which can be done by reducing
17
0
15
16
18
20
19
km
High carbohydrate diet
Normal diet
Distance (km)
0 19
18
17
16
15
Performance
Figure 4.3. The figure compares the individual distances covered during the tests after the ‘normal’
(x-axis) and high-carbohydrate (y-axis) diet in the dietary study with the Danish professional
players. Values above the oblique line indicate that a player covered a longer distance after the
high-carbohydrate diet. Note that five players ran a considerably greater distance after the high-
carbohydrate diet, whereas three players covered almost the same distance in the two tests.

49
the volume and intensity of training, and another is to eat a large amount of
carbohydrate (about 8–10 grammes/kg of body weight per day).
During the days before a competition,a player’s need for protein and fat,as well as
most other nutrients, is not higher than during the other days. However, attention
should also be given to optimise water and salt levels in the body and drink
sufficient fluid on the day before competition to ensure they are well-hydrated on
the morning of the match.
Carbohydrate is the key energy providing nutrient that must be optimised
during the days leading up to and including the day of competition.
Nutrition on match day
Nutrition on match day is all about performance, and there is no need to focus on
healthy eating and balanced diet.
Match day meals
Carbohydrate is the key energy-providing nutrient that must be optimised during
the match day.Thus,on the day of a match,the intake of fat and protein,especially
derived from meat, should be restricted as these nutrients reduce the intake of
carbohydrates and require a relatively long time to be digested. The supposed
beneficial effect of eating a big steak is not accurate. In fact, such a meal has a
detrimental effect on performance. On the day of the match, food should not
differ from the food consumed in the normal diet,but significant amounts of meat
and food with strong species should be avoided.
The last meal before the game should be a familiar routine.The focus should be on
optimising performance during the game and top-up liver and muscle glycogen
stores, which can be done by carbohydrate-rich foods to provide a total of
1–4 grammes carbohydrates per kg of body weight during the last approximately
six-hours before exercise. Thus, the carbohydrate content should be high, and the
items should be easily digested with low fat and fibre content.The players should
find favourite pre-competition meals, which provide not only extra energy during
the match but also feel good in terms of curbing hunger, quieting their stomach,
and being convenient and practical. Thus, players should be encouraged to find
out what works for them and to stick with this. Furthermore, hydration should be
ensured.

50
The last meal before a match should be eaten 3–4 hours before kickoff.If too much
food is ingested after this time, there may still be undigested food in the stomach
and intestine when the match begins. A snack high in carbohydrate, for example,
bread with jam, may be eaten 1–1.5 hours before the match. However, the time
references given are only guidelines. There are great individual differences in the
ability to digest food. It is advisable for players to experiment with a variation of
food at different times before training sessions. Undigested food in the stomach
and the intestine can cause problems during the game. Blood is diverted to the
stomach region and exercising muscles,resulting in reduced supply of blood to the
brain. This can cause the common experience of feeling dizzy when running or
playing immediately after eating. Other possible side effects caused by digestion
of food during exercise include upset stomach and diarrhoea.
6.5
5.5
5.0
mmol/litre
-45 15 45 60 75 90
-15 0
Time (minutes)
Rest Exercise
2.5
-30 30
6.0
3.5
4.5
4.0
3.0
Blood Glucose
Ingestion of
carbohydrates
Exhaustion
No intake
Ingestion of carbohydrates
Figure 4.4. The figure shows the effect of a large intake (70 grammes) of carbohydrates 45
minutes before exercise. Time to exhaustion for the exercise was determined and blood glucose
was measured before and during the exercise on one occasion with (blue circles) and on another
occasion without (red circles) carbohydrate intake before the exercise. Note that the ingestion
of carbohydrate caused the blood glucose to rise at rest and to fall drastically when the exercise
began. The resultant effect was that exhaustion occurred at an earlier point. Thus, intake of large
amounts of carbohydrate just before exercise can impair performance.

51
In theory, it should seem beneficial to consume large amounts of carbohydrates
during the last hour before a match to increase the size of the carbohydrate
storage. However, doing so has a negative effect. An increased concentration of
carbohydrates in the stomach stimulates the body to release the hormone insulin.
Insulin slowly drains glucose from the blood by stimulating the uptake of glucose
in all tissues. At rest, this is positive, since it reduces the increase in glucose in the
blood, but problems may arise if high insulin levels are combined with exercise.
When exercising with a high insulin concentration there is an abnormally large
loss of glucose, resulting in low blood glucose concentration (see Figure 4.4).
Consequently, the muscles and the brain gradually become starved of glucose,
which eventually leads to fatigue. A large carbohydrate intake just before a match
will also result in fluid from the blood passing into the stomach and intestine.
Apart from the accompanying unpleasant feeling of having the stomach filled with
fluid,there will be negative effects on physical performance due to the reduction in
blood volume. Thus, one should not ingest large amounts of carbohydrate during
the last hour before a match; instead, only consume fluids with a low content of
sugar.Table 4.1 provides examples of pre-match meals.
Pre-game meal
• High carbohydrate content
• Easily digested food
• Low fat and fibre content
• Sufficient fluid
Table 4.1. Examples of high-carbohydrate meals before a match.
Breakfast
• Toast and jam/honey
• Breakfast cereal and milk, fresh or canned fruit
• Fruit-flavoured yoghurt
• Pancakes and syrup
• Baked beans or tinned spaghetti on toast
• Liquid meal supplement or fruit smoothie
• Fruit juice or sports drink
Lunch and dinner
• Pasta and light sauce
• Bread, including rolls and sandwiches
• Rice dishes – risotto, fried rice, paella
• Fruit and fruit-based desserts
• Rice pudding

52
Table 4.2 provides examples of foods that each provide about 150 g of carbohydrate
corresponding to about 2 grammes/kg body weight for a 70-kg player
Table 4.2. Foods providing about 150 g of carbohydrate in a pre-competition meal
• 2.5 cups breakfast cereal + milk + large banana
• Large bread roll or 3 thick slices bread + thick spread honey
• 4 stack pancakes + ½ cup syrup
• 2 cups boiled rice + 2 slices bread
• 60 g sports bar + 500 ml liquid meal supplement or fruit smoothie
Drinking before the game
The players may drink water or carbohydrate-containing fluids during the hours
before a game. A fluid intake of approximately 500 ml should be drunk during
the last 60–90 minutes before the start of the game.This will allow sufficient time
for urination of excess fluid before the game begins. In games that cause heavy
sweating without sufficient opportunity for fluid intake, players can often benefit
by drinking 300–600 ml of fluid during the 15-minute period immediately before
the start of the event.These volumes should be scaled down for female and youth
players with a smaller body size.
The player should not drink as much as possible in the pre-match period, since
excessive drinking may have some negative effects. Thus, it is difficult to provide
exact guidelines for fluid intake that suit all players. All recommendations should
be treated as a starting point and adjusted for body size. There are factors that
influence fluid needs such as environmental conditions. For example, in hot
weather, players should try to avoid too much exposure to outdoor temperatures
in the hours before the game.
Summary
Before a match, it is important to top-up muscle and liver glycogen storages to
full. On the match day, the meals should be easily digested and be low in fat and
fibre. The meals should be part of a familiar routine. There is no need to focus on
healthy eating/balanced diet; focus should be on performance.The players should
also ensure hydration.

53
Review questions
1. Why does a carbohydrate diet increase long-term intermittent exercise
performance?
2. What should be eaten in the days before a game?
3. When should the last meal before a game be ingested? Provide an example of
the meal.
4. What should be taken in the last hour before a match?

55
5. Protein intake
Protein is considered a key nutrient for success in sport, and it has been believed
that a beefsteak would optimise the effect of training. Furthermore, players
ingest a vast array of protein and amino acid supplements to help them increase
their protein intake; they believe it helps them to build their muscles. This is
unnecessary, but there may be conditions in which a high protein intake can be
useful. This chapter will cover the needs for proteins and provide guidelines on
how to optimise the intake of proteins.
Daily protein needs
When proteins are consumed, for example, in the form of meat or vegetables, they
are broken down in the gut to amino acids.Then, the amino acids are taken up in
the blood and are distributed and absorbed into the tissues, which require amino
acids to build proteins.
The recommended daily protein intake is 0.8 g/kg of body weight for a sedentary
person. However, it may be higher in a training period, and it has been suggested
that the intake should be 1.2–1.6 grammes/kg of body weight when doing
endurance and power training. Therefore some power-trained athletes and
bodybuilders consume very large amounts of protein, but there is no evidence that
such dietary patterns enhance the gains in muscle mass and strength. While such
diets are not necessarily harmful, they are expensive and can fail to meet other
nutritional goals, such as providing enough carbohydrate to optimise training and
performance.
Dietary surveys show that players often consume more than 1.2 grammes protein
per kg of body weight daily, even without the use of protein supplements (see
Table 2.2, page 29). Therefore, most players do not need to increase their protein
intakes. Rather, anyone who consumes adequate energy intake from a variety of
nutrient-rich foods should be confident of meeting their protein needs, including
any increases that could arise from intense training. Nevertheless, there may be
players at risk of failing to meet their protein needs if they restrict their energy
intake or lack dietary variety.Regarding the intake of proteins,it is more a question
about the timing of the ingestions as discussed below.

56
5. Protein intake
Protein powders and supplements
Protein supplements,high protein bars,and amino acid preparations are among the
biggest selling sports nutrition products. Although an adequate intake of protein
is essential for muscle growth and repair, this can easily be achieved from everyday
foods, and extra protein is seldom required. Protein-carbohydrate supplements
may have a role as part of a post-exercise recovery plan,but the whole proteins that
are found in foods generally have advantages over individual amino acids.
Protein intake after training
Protein intake after training can have a positive effect. Thus, in one study, it
was found that the ingestion of half a litre of cocoa-milk, corresponding to 16
grammes of protein, increased the rate of synthesis of muscle contractile elements
in subjects in a negative whole-body protein balance (see Figure 5.1).
0
Protein Synthesis
Placebo Cacao milk
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
%/hour
0.03
Figure 5.1. Rate of muscle protein synthesis after exercise either with consumption of cacao milk
(blue bar) or a beverage without proteins (placebo, red bar).

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