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1. CHAPTER 2
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

2. SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
• Managerial decisions based on the results of
scientific research tend to be effective.
• Research is defined as an organized,
systematic, data-based, critical, objective,
scientific inquiry into a specific problem that
needs a solution.
• Decisions based on the results of a well-done
scientific study tend to yield the desired
results.

3. Scientific Research
• Scientific research focuses on solving problems by
following a logical, organized, and rigorous method to
identify the problems, gather data, analyze that data,
and draw valid conclusions from it.
• Thus, scientific research is not based on hunches,
experience, and intuition (though these may play a part
in final decision making), but is purposive and rigorous.
• Decisions based on scientific research are purposive,
rigorous and effective.
• Scientific research applies to both basic and applied
research

4. • Scientific research enables all those who are interested in
researching and knowing about the same or similar issues
to come up with comparable findings when the data are
analyzed.
• Scientific research also helps researchers to state their
findings with accuracy and confidence.
• Furthermore, scientific investigation tends to be more
objective than subjective, and helps managers to highlight
the most critical factors at the workplace that need specific
attention so as to avoid, minimize, or solve problems.
• Scientific investigation and managerial decision making are
integral aspects of effective problem solving.

5. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
• Let us consider the case of a manager who is
interested in investigating how employees‘
commitment to the organization can be
increased.
• We shall examine how the eight hallmarks of
science apply to this investigation so that it
may be considered “scientific”.

6. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
1. Purposiveness
• Scientific research has a specific goal and well
defined purpose
• E.g. The focus is on increasing the commitment of
employees to the organization, as this will be
beneficial in many ways.
• An increase in employee commitment will
translate into high turnover, less absenteeism,
and probably increased performance levels, all of
which would definitely benefit the organization.
• The research thus has a purposive focus.

7. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
2. Rigor
• A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design
would add rigor to a purposive study.
• Rigor means carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of
exactitude in research investigations.
• In the case of our example, let us say the manager of an
organization asks 10 to 12 of its employees to indicate what
would increase their level of commitment to it.
• If, solely on the basis of their responses, the manager
reaches several conclusions on how employee commitment
can be increased, the whole approach to the investigation
would be unscientific.
• Reasons???

8. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
3. Testability
• If, after talking to a random selection of
employees of the organization and study of the
previous research done in the area of
organizational commitment, the manager or
researcher develops certain hypotheses on how
employee commitment can be enhanced, then
these can be tested by applying certain statistical
tests to the data collected for the purpose.

9. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
• Scientific research thus lends itself to testing
logically developed hypotheses to see
whether or not the data support the
hypotheses that are developed after a careful
study of the problem situation.

10. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
4. Replicability
• Means results or conclusions drawn are such that they will withhold
in other similar situations over and over again
• Let us suppose that the manager/researcher, based on the results
of the study, concludes that participation in decision making is one
of the most important factors that influences the commitment of
employees to the organization
• We will place more faith and credence in these findings and
conclusion if similar findings emerge on the basis of data collected
by other organizations employing the same methods.
• To put it differently, the results of the tests of hypotheses should be
supported again and yet again when the same type of research is
repeated in other similar circumstances.
• To the extent that this does happen, we will gain confidence in the
scientific nature of our research.

11. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
5. Precision and confidence
• Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to the reality based
on the sample.
• It reflects the degree of accuracy of results of the research
• Confidence refers to the probability that our results are correct.
• The range in which the research results fall is known as the
confidence interval. The probability that a certain result will
definitely be true at all times is known as the confidence level
• E.g. We are unable to study the universe.
• Our findings are based on sample.
• Sample is not exact to the population.
• Measurement error and other problems  make bias or error in
findings.
• We would like to design  Ensure  finding are close to reality.

12. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
6.Objectivity
• The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of
the results of data analysis should be objective; that is,
they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our own
subjective or emotional values.
• Much damage can be sustained by organizations that
implement non-data- based or misleading conclusions
drawn from research.
• The more objective the interpretation of the data, the
more scientific the research investigation becomes.

13. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
7.Generalizability
• Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research
findings in one organizational setting to other settings.
• Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions
generated by research, the more useful the research is to the users.
• For example, if a researcher‘s findings that participation in decision
making enhances organizational commitment are found to be true
in a variety of manufacturing, industrial, and service organizations,
and not merely in the particular organization studied by the
researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other
organizational settings is enhance
• The more generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and
value.
• However, not many research findings can be generalized to all other
settings, situations, or organizations.

14. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
8. Parsimony
• Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in
generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex
research frame- works that consider an unmanageable number of factors
• For example, if two or three specific variables in the work situation are
identified, which when changed would raise the organizational
commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more useful and
valuable to the manager than if it were recommended that he should
change 10 different variables to increase organizational commitment by
48%. Such an unmanageable number of variables might well be totally
beyond the manager‘s control to change.
• Therefore, the achievement of a meaningful and parsimonious, rather
than an elaborate and cumbersome, model for problem solution becomes
a critical issue in research.
• Parsimony can be introduce with good understanding of the problem and
important factors that influence.

15. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
• In sum, scientific research encompasses the
eight criteria just discussed.
• The reason for following a scientific method is
that the results will be less prone to errors and
more confidence can be placed in the findings
because of the greater rigor in application of
the design details.
• This also increases the replicability and
generalizability of the findings.

16. SOME OBSTACLES TO CONDUCTING SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH IN THE MANAGEMENT AREA
• Do by yourself

17. THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE IN
RESEARCH
• One of the primary methods of scientific investigation is the
hypothetico-deductive method.
• Hypothetico deductive method or procedure for the construction
of a scientific theory that will account for the results obtained
through direct observation and experimentation that will, through
interference, predict for the effects that can then be verified or
disproved by empirical evidence derived from other experiments
• In scientific investigation, answers to issues can be found either by
the process of deduction or the process of induction, or by a
combination of the two.
• Deduction is a process of arriving at a conclusion by applying
known facts or principles to a specific situation
• For example, we know that all high performers are highly proficient
in their jobs. If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he is
highly proficient in his job.

18. THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE IN
RESEARCH
• Induction is a process in which certain
observations are used to logically establish a
general proposition based on observed facts from
which we draw a conclusion
• For example, we see that the production
processes are the prime features of factories or
manufacturing plants. We therefore conclude
that factories exist for production purposes.
• Both the deductive and the inductive processes
are applied in scientific investigations.

19. • Theories based on deduction and induction
help us to understand, explain, and/or predict
business phenomena.
• For example, controlling aversive noise
• The method of starting with a theoretical
framework, formulating hypotheses, and
logically deducing from the results of the
study is known as the hypothetico-deductive
method.

21. Building Blocks of Scientific Inquiry
• The building blocks of scientific inquiry are
depicted in following Figure and include the
processes of initially observing phenomena,
identifying the problem, constructing a theory
as to what might be happening, developing
hypotheses, determining aspects of the
research design, collecting data, analyzing the
data, and interpreting the results.
• Example 2.1: Do by yourself

22. Building Blocks of Science
Observation
Identification
of Problem
Area
Hypothesis
Research
Design
Data
Interpretation Theoretical
Framework
Concept
Construct
Data
Collection
Data
Analysis
Theory refinement
or
implementation

23. Hypothetico Deductive Method
• The Seven-Step Process involved in the Hypothetico-Deductive
Method
1. Observation
• Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes
are occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are
surfacing in one‘s environment (i.e., the workplace).
• When the observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important
consequences, one would proceed to the next step.
How to observe?
• People- oriented manager is always sensitive to and aware of what is
happening in and around the organization.
• For example, a drop in sales, frequent production interruptions,
incorrect accounting results, low yielding investments,
disinterestedness of employees in their work, and the like, could easily
attract the attention of the manager, though why they occur may be an
enigma.

24. Hypothetico Deductive Method
2. Preliminary information gathering
• Preliminary information gathering involves the seeking of
information in depth, of what is observed.
• This could be done by talking informally to several people
in the work setting or to clients, or to other relevant
sources, thereby gathering information on what is
happening and why.
• Through these unstructured interviews, one gets an idea or
a “feel” for what is transpiring in the situation.
• Once the researcher increases the level of awareness as to
what is happening, the person could then focus on the
problem and the associated factors through further
structured, formal interviews with the relevant groups .
• Additionally, by doing library research, or obtaining
information through other sources, the investigator would
identify how such issues have been tackled in other
situations

25. 3. Theory Formulation (Theoretical Framework)
• The next step, is an attempt to integrate all the gathered
information in some meaningful fashion and a logical
manner, so that the factors responsible for the problem can
be conceptualized and tested. The theoretical framework is
designed to assess the influence of the critical variables on
the problem
• In this step the critical variables are examined as to their
contribution or influence in explaining why the problem
occurs and how it can be solved.
• The network of associations identified among the variables
would then be theoretically woven together with
justification as to why they might influence the problem.

26. 4.Hypothesizing
• Hypothesis is the statement that proposes a possible relationship or
conclusion that can be tested. The research process is undertaken to test
this hypothesis
• From the theorized network of associations among the variables, certain
testable hypotheses or educated conjectures can be generated.
• For example, at this point, one might hypothesize that if a sufficient
number of items are stocked on shelves, customer dissatisfaction will be
considerably reduced. This is a hypothesis that can be tested to determine
if the statement would be supported.
• Low salary, larger distance, no bonus etc are the reasons of dissatisfaction
of employees
• Inductive research is used for hypothesis generation (Step 1-4)
• Deductive research is used for hypothesis testing (Step 5-7)
• Hawthorne study

27. 5. Further Scientific Data Collection
• For each variable in the hypothesis, data needs to be collected
scientifically, so that it is valid and reliable. Data on every variable in
the theoretical framework also needs to be collected.
• For example, to test the hypothesis that stocking sufficient items
will reduce customer dissatisfaction, one needs to measure the
current level of customer satisfaction and collect further data on
customer satisfaction levels whenever sufficient number of items
are stocked and made readily available to the customers.
• Data on every variable in the theoretical framework from which
hypotheses are generated should also be collected.
• Primary or Secondary Data?

28. 6. Data Analysis
• In the data analysis step, the data gathered are
statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that
were generated have been supported.
• For example, to see if stock levels influence
customer satisfaction, one might want to do a
correlational analysis and determine the
relationship between the two factors.
• Analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data
can be done to determine if certain conjectures
are substantiated.

29. 7. Deduction
• Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting
the meaning of the results of the data analysis.
• For example, if it was found from the data analysis that increasing
the stocks was positively correlated to (increased) customer
satisfaction (say, .5), then one can deduce that if customer
satisfaction is to be increased, the shelves have to be better
stocked.
• Based on these deductions, the researcher would make
recommendations on how the customer dissatisfaction problem
could be solved.
• Two Examples (2.2 & 2.3) of the Application of the Hypothetico-
Deductive Method in Organizations (Do by yourself)

30. Other Type of Research
• Case studies
• In-depth Contextual (relative)Analysis of similar situation in other organization
nature and definition of problem same
• Hypothesis can be developed in case studies.
• If the hypotheses cannot be validate in even single study it will not support your
alternate hypothesis.
• Not often undertaken in organization
• Action Research
• Sometime undertaken by consultants  initiate change process.
• Action research methodology most appropriate while effecting planned changes.
• Researchers begin with problem gathered relevant data to provide tentative
problem solution.
• The solution then implemented with knowledge maybe unintended
consequences following such implementation.
• The effects then evaluated, defined and diagnosed  research continuous 
until the problem is fully solved.