African Americans, Native Americans, Trade Unions/Labour and Women's rights in USA 1865-1992

1. Civil Rights in the USA 1865–1992
African Americans, Trade Unions and
Labour Rights, Native Americans and
Women.

2. African Americans
• Their position in 1865
In 1865 all slaves in the country were formally freed with the
passing of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, days
before the formal ending of the Civil War in early April. This was a
turning point in the progress of African Americans towards securing
a better life since it established their freedom in law and provided
them with some basic human rights. They could now:
• Have their plantation Marriages legalised,
• Worship freely in their own churches,
• Own property,
• Become educated,
• Travel freely.
However, the unleashing of around three and a half million former
slaves into society made the nature of emancipation and the
question of civil rights for the free slaves a major issue in the post-
war period. Moreover, the uncertainties that lay ahead were
compounded by the assassination of President Lincoln.

3. 1865-1877 Reconstruction Period
• 1865: emancipation proclamation- freedom to
slaves
• Military victory for the north
• Struggle between President Andrew Johnson
and Congress
• Congress help more with AA Civil Rights

4. • The role of African Americans in gaining civil rights (e.g. Booker T.
Washington, Dubois, Martin Luther King, the Black Panthers)
Years Leader/
Organisation
Role Good/ Bad
1865-95 Frederick
Douglass
Opponent of slavery, supporter of all civil rights (not
just Blacks), raised awareness (newspaper and
speeches)
Good
(Limited)
1865 Self-help groups Comprised of freedmen who joined their earnings to
buy land to provide schools and teachers
Good
(Limited)
1881-1915 Booker T.
Washington
Ran the Tuskegee Institute, gave the Atlanta Speech,
accommodation, organised the Negro Business League
Good
(Limited)
1883-1928 T. Thomas
Fortune
Editor of newspapers that were protesting against the
treatment of Blacks, supporter of Garvey, President of
the Afro-American Council
Good
(Limited)
1884-1931 Ida B. Wells Sued the railroad company, public opposition to
lynching, women’s rights
Good
(Limited)
1903-1963 W.E.B. Du Bois Found the Niagara movement (1905), founded the
NAACP
Good
(Limited)
1909- present NAACP Both Black and White supporters, peaceful, focus on
legal aspects, Constitutional organisation, significant
long-term role
Good
(Limited)

5. Years Leader/
Organisation
Role Good/ Bad
1917-1925 Marcus Garvey Founded UNIA (1917), Blacks taking control of their own
affairs, Black Eagle Star Steamship, open air parades,
military style leadership
Good/ Bad
(Limited)
1917-1927 UNIA Campaigned for equal rights and independence of Blacks
rather than absorbing into the melting pot, encouraged to
develop their own institutions etc.
Good/ Bad
(Limited)
1940-1993 Thurgood
Marshall
Black lawyer winning nearly all the NAACP cases and was
the first Black Justice of the Supreme Court
Good
(Limited)
1954-1968 Martin Luther
King Jr.
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955), Birmingham Protest (1963),
“I have a Dream” Speech (1963), sit-ins, freedom rides,
peaceful, desegregation and political rights, views later
changed
Good
(Limited)
1960-65 Malcolm X Member of the Nation of Islam, violent, economic and social
rights, wrote in a journal, gave speeches, Black superiority,
views changed later
Good/ Bad
(Limited)
1966-1976 Black Panthers Economic emphasis, influenced by Black Power and Malcolm
X, had a 10-point programme, violent, military style
Good/ Bad
(Limited)

6. • The roles of federal (presidents, congress and supreme
court) and state governments in the struggle
• Emancipation Proclamation and Civil Rights Act
• - Issued by Abraham Lincoln
• - 1st January 1863
• - It declared all slaves free from their masters and gave
basic human rights.
• - The first of civil rights acts was delivered in 1866 asserting
African Americans as citizens of United States.
• Civil Rights Act
• - Introduced in 1875
• - Equal rights were applied to public areas
• - Imposed to suppress the rise of formal segregation in
southern states

7. • 1887-1891 and after
• - The Jim Crow laws develop during this period
• - These laws enforced segregation of races on trains
and in waiting facilities
• - They then extended to public places of all kinds
like schools, shops and parks etc...
• Plessy v. Ferguson
• - 1896
• - Landmark decision made by the Supreme Court
• - It stated that racial segregation constitutional
• - This case led to widespread of the Jim Crow laws
in the South
• - It continued to be an obstacle to desegregation

8. • Brown v. Board of Education
• - 1954
• - Thurgood Marshall backed Linda Brown.
• - The court ruled racial segregation in schools,
unconstitutional.
• - This was a turning point in the civil rights movement
and the first rejection of the P v. F case which allowed
segregation to continue until now.
• Browder v. Gayle
• - 1956
• - Responded to the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
• - It was favourable to black Americans as it ruled
segregation on buses, unconstitutional with similar
reasoning to the Linda Brown case.
• - Finally a hole had been made in the strict policy which
was a triumph for African Americans.

9. • Civil Rights/ Voting Rights Act
• - The first was issued by Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964.
• - It was possibly a response to MLK's speech in Washington ('63).
• - It prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, gender, religion
or national origin and banned exclusion from restaurants, stores
and other public places.
• - Voting was made easier for Southern blacks as they no longer
had to take unfair literacy tests to register ('65). 1968, and 1969:
Affirmative Action
• - Johnson signs an act which prohibited discrimination in sale,
rental and financing of housing.
• - This was an important step since blacks suffered economically
and socially.
• - In 1969 Nixon continues affirmative action which made
allowances for the lack opportunity for African Americans. It
extended the attempts of the Fair Employment Practices
Commission which prevented discrimination in jobs.
• - Only downside it perhaps overlooked the lack of educational
qualifications.

10. • Bussing
• - This policy forced desegregation in schools of the
south by transporting children to areas outside their
locality to achieve better race mix.
• - Radical method to force integration.
• - Effective!
• President’s/Congress’ attitude.
• (Truman = CR-focused but not too determined.
Eisenhower = uninvolved, “hearts and minds” not
changed by law, forced to intervene. Kennedy =
uninvolved, forced to intervene due to Cold War.
Johnson = signed CR Act, abandoned Big Society due to
Nam, friends with MLK but not towards end.)

11. The role of anti- and pro-civil rights groups
Pro-civil rights groups
Years Leader/
Organisation
Role Good/ Bad
1865-95 Frederick
Douglass
Opponent of slavery, supporter of all civil rights (not just Blacks), raised
awareness (newspaper and speeches)
Good
(Limited)
1865 Self-help groups Comprised of freedmen who joined their earnings to buy land to provide
schools and teachers
Good
(Limited)
1881-1915 Booker T.
Washington
Ran the Tuskegee Institute, gave the Atlanta Speech, accommodation,
organised the Negro Business League
Good
(Limited)
1883-1928 T. Thomas
Fortune
Editor of newspapers that were protesting against the treatment of
Blacks, supporter of Garvey, President of the Afro-American Council
Good
(Limited)
1884-1931 Ida B. Wells Sued the railroad company, public opposition to lynching, women’s
rights
Good
(Limited)
1903-1963 W.E.B. Du Bois Found the Niagara movement (1905), founded the NAACP Good
(Limited)

12. Pro-civil Rights groups
1909-
present
NAACP Both Black and White supporters, peaceful, focus on legal
aspects, Constitutional organisation, significant long-term
role
Good
(Limited)
1917-1925 Marcus
Garvey
Founded UNIA (1917), Blacks taking control of their own
affairs, Black Eagle Star Steamship, open air parades, military
style leadership
Good/ Bad
(Limited)
1917-1927 UNIA Campaigned for equal rights and independence of Blacks
rather than absorbing into the melting pot, encouraged to
develop their own institutions etc.
Good/ Bad
(Limited)
1940-1993 Thurgood
Marshall
Black lawyer winning nearly all the NAACP cases and was the
first Black Justice of the Supreme Court
Good
(Limited)
1954-1968 Martin Luther
King Jr.
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955), Birmingham Protest
(1963), “I have a Dream” Speech (1963), sit-ins, freedom
rides, peaceful, desegregation and political rights, views later
changed
Good
(Limited)
1960-65 Malcolm X Member of the Nation of Islam, violent, economic and social
rights, wrote in a journal, gave speeches, Black superiority,
views changed later
Good/ Bad
(Limited)
1966-1976 Black
Panthers
Economic emphasis, influenced by Black Power and Malcolm
X, had a 10-point programme, violent, military style
Good/ Bad
(Limited)

13. Anti-civil rights groups
Opposition Role Negative Effect
States Believed in State’s Rights particularly in
South, clear North-South division, nothing
to help Blacks gain or use rights
Segregation de jure and de
facto
KKK White supremacy, opposed Black votes,
violent, very popular in the Reconstruction
era and with the Red Scare (1920’s) and
later in the 1960’s, secret membership
Violence and fear,
generations of racists (Black
and White),
Red Shirts White paramilitary group, supporters of
Democratic Party, white supremacy, violent,
worked openly, political goals, organised,
military arm of Democratic Party
Violence and fear, prevent
political civil rights,
generations of racists (Black
and White)
White’s
Council
Bankers, lawyers, doctors, day-to-day
difficulties,
Slowed civil rights
NAAWP 1950’s, Supreme Court said to be denying
states rights
Belief in states’ rights, late
opposition

14. • The civil rights movement to 1992.
Period Era Role Good/ Bad
Pre 1865 Civil War Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln, slavery ends Good
1865-1877 Reconstruction Amendments, Civil Rights Acts, Radical Republicans,
Black Codes, Johnson
Good/ Bad
1877-1920 Progressive Jim Crow Laws, KKK, Plessy v. Ferguson, lynching,
accommodation, NAACP, Wells, Washington, state’s
rights
Good/ Bad
1917-1945 World Wars Race riots, Garvey, KKK, Black culture, New Deal, New
Deal Court, shift in attitudes, jobs increased, poverty,
segregation
Good/ Bad
1950’s-1960’s Civil Rights
Movement
Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Civil Rights Acts,
Kennedy, Thurgood Marshall, Brown v. Board of
Education, Rosa Parks, Little Rock, assassinations,
media coverage, liberal Federal Government, Cold
War
Good
1970’s-1990’s Conservatism Cold War, Black Power, affirmative action, Reagan,
bifurcation of Blacks, economic and social rights not
gained as much as political and legal rights, violence,
no segregation
Good/ Bad

15. Trade Union and Labour Rights
• Union and labour rights in 1865
In 1865, union and labour rights were limited to what workers
could negotiate with their employers in their own workplace.
Such unions as did exist were small and exclusively for skilled
workers. Employers were under no legal obligation to
recognise the existence of labour unions let alone their right
to negotiate on behalf of their members to improve working
and living conditions. At the start of the period, trade unions
didn’t even have the right to exist but some still existed,
mainly as closed shops. It was during industrialisation, with
the expansion of the workforce to include unskilled workers,
that the problem of trade union existence took hold.

16. Closed Shop
A term used to describe a factory or workplace that
is dominated by one trade union and where all
workers are obliged to belong to that union. In
contrast to the closed shop was an open shop,
where it was agreed that employees were free to
join a union or not, as they pleased

17. The impact of New Immigration on union development
•Trade unions struggling to gain recognition and increase their
influence saw millions of African Americans and immigrants as a
serious threat and so discriminated against them by refusing
them admittance to their union organisations. As the semi and
unskilled workforce came to be dominated by immigrant labour,
this refusal was a serious barrier to solidarity and weakened the
position of the union leaders as they struggled to gain
recognition for labour rights.
• The Molly Maguire's were a group of Irish immigrants (miners)
who formed a secret association to fight for better pay and
working conditions in the mines of North-Eastern Pennsylvania.
When the miner's pay was cut, it set off a strike. Railroad cars
were derailed, coal tips set on fire and a superintendent
murdered. Pinkerton law enforcement infiltrated the
organisation and 19 men were arrested, convicted and hanged.
This showed that law enforcement and the Criminal Justice
System still favoured the side of the businesses.

18. • The role of federal governments in supporting and opposing
union and labour rights
• Laissez-faire
• - Policy adopted by the government in the late 1800s.
• - It allowed for giant corporations like Rockefeller and Carnegie
to make big profits.
• - Capitalists became powerful being unfettered by restrictive
legislation.
• - Manufacturers could and did cut wages, lay off workers and
change working hours without consulting workers.
• - This was the period when unions were the weakest.
• Clayton Antitrust Act
• - Passed by Wilson in 1914.
• - It would limit the use of court injunctions by employers against
striking workers.
• - Although, workers couldn't damage property but allowed
peaceful protest/picketing.

19. • Welfare Capitalism
• - A period (1920s) when employers improved working
conditions, working hours and gave many benefits.
• - Involved Yellow Dog Contracts- workers signed up for
not joining unions- employers took advantage of
workers.
• - Included setting up company unions.
• Closed Shop
• - Term used to describe a factory or workplace that is
dominated by one trade union.
• - All workers had to be part of the one union.
• - Many companies operated this policy to keep tails on
strikers.

20. • New Deal Acts
• - National Industrial Relations Act- set up a board to foster cooperation
between employers and employees discussing different issues like wage
rates, rights and working hours etc... (1933)
• - Wagner Act (1935): more successful than the above act- it aimed to
regulate and reduce labour disputes by providing structure for collective
bargaining. So strikes would be avoided and less disruption in production.
• New Frontier and Great Society
• - Advocated by Kennedy.
• - Aimed to boost the economy.
• - The Equal Pay Act in 1963 made wage discrimination illegal on the basis of
gender and racial origin.
• -LBJ's idea implemented the following acts:
• Civil Rights Act 1964- prohibited discrimination on the grounds of race,
gender, religion etc..
• Economic Opportunity Act 1964- established Office of E.O. to fund and co-
ordinate job corps to attract and train young people in vocational skills or
provide education preparing for further education, increase employability.
• Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1968- covered promotions, wage
levels and lay offs.
• Johnson's acts were more effective in the movement for worker rights.

21. • Occupational Safety and Health Act
• - Introduced in 1970 by Nixon.
• - Aimed to ensure employers provided employees
with a hazard-free environment.
• - Possibly the first act that ensure the health and
safety by legislation.

22. The impact of the World Wars on union and labour rights
• The First World War saw some improvement in the positions of
trade unions. In spite of the racial tensions caused by the influx
of immigrant and African American labour into northern
industrial areas, the needs of war and the opportunities it
offered to industrialists to increase their profits encouraged a
more conciliatory policy towards unions.
• During the period of the US involvement in the Second World
War, control of the industry was effectively taken away from
manufactures and owners. This weakening of employers, albeit
temporarily, tipped the balance in favour of the workers since
their effort was essential to the war effort. Levels of production
in agriculture and industry increased massively.
• The National War Labour Board (NWLB) was established to
adjudicate in wage disputes

23. The significance of the 1960s
• Kennedy's New Frontier- intended to boost the economy, provide
international aid, provide for national defence, and to boost the
space program. Kennedy made a point to control monopoly prices,
and although this made him unpopular with large companies, it
prevented consumers from being forced to pay more than a product
was worth. He also was an advocate of civil rights, and although he
was unsuccessful at passing legislation during his lifetime, he paved
the way for the reform that would come later. He also managed to
increase the minimum wage. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 made wage
discrimination on the basis of gender illegal and established the
principle of ‘equal pay for equal work’. The act was an amendment to
The Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938.
• Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ – This aimed to reduce the number of
people living below the poverty line. The focus was on the war on
poverty, advancing the rights of organised labour assumed less
importance. However, some aspects of his reforming policy did
impact on labour rights and on the workforce.

24. The significance of the 1960s
• The Civil Rights Act Of July 1964 – Prohibited discrimination on the
grounds of race, colour, religion, sex or national origin.
• The Economic Opportunity Act 1964 – Established the Office of
Economic Opportunity to fund and co-ordinate a job corps to attract and
train young people in vocational skills or alternatively to provide
education that would prepare them for further education in order to
increase their employability.
• The Age Discrimination Employment Act Of 1968 - prohibited
employment discrimination in hiring and firing against persons of
between 40 and 65 years old in the US. The Act covered promotions,
wage levels and lay-offs. It also became illegal to include a statement of
age preferences in job notices and advertisements and the denial of
benefits to older employees.
• Union Gains – following the creation of the AFL-CIO in 1955 American
unions began to bargain over wages and working conditions successfully
wages rose steadily and unions won a growing list of benefits including
medical and dental insurance, paid holidays and vacations
unemployment insurance and pensions.
• During the 1960s it became increasingly obvious that changes were
underway that threatened to weaken the power and influence of labour
unions.

25. Native Americans
Their position in 1865
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, 86 independent
tribes, some large enough to be called ‘nations’, had been
identified across the US. By the mid-nineteenth century, they
continued to live according to their own tribal customs,
religion and laws under the jurisdiction of their tribal
chieftains. However, by 1865, the process was already
underway to break down their traditional culture and lifestyle.
From the end of the nineteenth to the end of the twentieth
centuries, American Indians made the least progress of any
ethnic group in the USA in improving their status and
consequently their quality of life. Whilst the policy of Federal
Government towards the Native Americans can be blamed for
their condition, it must also be acknowledged that they
resisted assimilation and wanted only independence and their
own lands.

26. The Wars
• Wars – WW1
• During World War One the Natives were fighting with the Whites against the
Germans. This meant that they were able to integrate although many people would
have had preconceived ideas about one another from their ancestors
• The Natives, about 10,000, who fought in the war received recognition by the
government for bravery
• Families were also sponsored to live outside the reservations to work on the war
effort. This led the White man to believe that the Natives had become more
civilised.
• Indian Citizenship Act – 1924 came as a result of the war
• Wars – WW2
• 75,000 worked in defence industry
• 25,000 were in the armed forces
• Some resistance from Iroquois tribe (about being drafted in to fight)
• Less money spent on reservations, more on the war effort
• Japanese Americans were put into the reservation land at the end of the war
• Indian soldiers forced back into the reservation on return
• Not able to take advantage of opportunities given to the Whites
– Education
– Competition for jobs
• Foundation of National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) – 1944

27. • The impact of the Dawes Act 1887
• The Dawes General Allotment Act was enacted by the U.S. Congress
regarding the distribution of land to Native Americans in Oklahoma. The act
provided for the division of tribally held lands into individually-owned
parcels and opening "surplus" lands to settlement by non-Indians and
development by railroads.
• The Dawes Act, with its emphasis on individual land ownership, also had a
negative impact on the unity, self-government, and culture of Native
American tribes.
• By dividing reservation lands into privately owned parcels, legislators hoped
to complete the assimilation process by forcing the deterioration of the
communal life-style of the Native societies and imposing Western-oriented
values of strengthening the nuclear family and values of economic
dependency strictly within this small household unit.
• The land granted to most allotters was not sufficient for economic viability,
and division of land between heirs upon the allotters' deaths resulted in
land fractionalization. Most allotment land, which could be sold after a
statutory period of 25 years, was eventually sold to non-Native buyers at
bargain prices. Additionally, land deemed to be "surplus" beyond what was
needed for allotment was opened to white settlers, though the profits from
the sales of these lands were often invested in programs meant to aid the
American Indians. Native Americans lost, over the 47 years of the Act's life,
about 90 million acres of treaty land. About 90,000 Native Americans were
made landless.

28. • The impact of the acquisition of US citizenship 1924
• Indian Citizen Act – 1924
– Gave Natives the vote due to the WW1 + government
policy of total assimilation
– Not due to Native pressure groups
– Lots of Natives wanted the right to maintain their
traditional rights and to actually resist assimilation
– Many could vote through the Dawes Act (1887) and
inter-marriage
– Act did not mean that they had the right to vote

29. • The impact of the New Deal
• Franklin Roosevelt Introduced the American Indian New
Deal- Wheeler-Howard Act 1934
• The act aimed to recognise and preserve the traditional
culture of tribes
• However was it a turning point?
- It saw a limited response from American Indians
- Recognised self-determination was a desire of many- could
form own tribal government and manage their own
problems

30. • The impact of the American Indian Movement in the
1960s and 1970s
• The American Indian movement (AIM) was established in
1968
• Proved to be the most militant organisation in promoting
improvement- ‘Red Power’
• Fought against the issue of racial discrimination
• ‘Native sovereignty’ was an important part of their
campaign
• Siege of Alcatraz 1969
• Orchestrated several protests- Mount Rushmore, BIA,
Wounded Knee; perhaps reason for slow progress but
media attention was gained

31. Native American Rights Fund (NARF)
• 1970 (founded)
• Defended rights of N.As and aimed to preserve
tribal culture (fishing rights)
• Fought for the vote in restrictive states
• Trained young N.A attorneys in their legal issues
• Pressed many cases in Supreme Court and secured
some landmark decisions including Oneida v.
Oneida and Charrier v. Bell

32. John Collier
• Leader of AIDA (American Indian Defence
Association)
• First white American to communicate with N.As and
ask what they wanted
• Respected
• Achieved some change but due to hesitation of
government to implement reform regarding
allotment N.As felt let down
• He had the right intentions and didn’t aim to
Americanise!

33. • Native Americans and the Supreme Court
• Cherokee Nation v. Hitchcock – 1902 - right to live according to their own
laws and traditions
• Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock – 1903 -revoke all treaties made with Native
American tribes Supreme Court said that the Natives had no rights as they
were not citizens and were: An ignorant and dependent race and Wards of
the nation. Previously only been represented by sympathetic others – doing
things for themselves now
• Harrison v. Laveen – 1948 - seen as one of the most important cases. After
the right to vote, some were restricted and was taken to the Supreme
Court. It was in the Natives favour but restrictions still existed in the West
• Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties 1974 – Supreme Court were in
favour that the tribe had to right to sue for the return of their lands
• Fisher v. Montana 1976 – secured the right for tribal courts to decide on all
cases relating to the adoption of Indian children
• US v. Sioux Nation 1980 – the Sioux Nation was allowed compensation of
$17.5million plus interest from 1877 ($106million) but preferred the return
of their land instead
• Seminole Tribe v. Butterworth 1982 - right to establish gambling
enterprises on reservations regardless of State laws
• Charrier v. Bell 1986 – remains dug from the ground belonged to the Native
American Community in Louisiana. This would be the case in 30 States and
then passed as an Act in 1990

34. Native American pressure groups.
• Individual tribes were at war with the White Americans in the Plains Wars
(1862-67) which is heightened at Wounded Knee (1890)
• Treaties like the Treaty of Fort Laramie were signed (1868) which agree
Indian ownership of land but this became invalid when the precious
resources were found (i.e. gold, silver, oil etc.)
• The SAI (Society of American Indians) – 1911-1920s:
• 50 educated Natives (men + women)
• First attempt at inter-tribal pressure group
• Improvement in education and healthcare
• Shortage of funds and lack of support (from Natives) led to downfall
• Group was not united in their vision – especially on assimilation
• Groups of writes and anthropologists formed AIDA (American Indian
Defence Association) – 1923
• Response to the Dance Order and allotment policy
• Campaigned to protect Native rights to: Land, Beliefs, Culture, Traditions,
Arts and crafts. Blocked Bursum and Leavitt Bills, John Collier involved

35. • Native American pressure groups.
• NCAI (National Congress of American Indians) – 1944:
– Natives united – group of 80 educated Natives representing 50 tribes
– End reservation and have Natives in society – ECONOMIC!
– Worked through courts and NAACP : to challenge discrimination, for
education and the breaking of treaties
• More militant groups were soon set up like the National Indian Youth
Council (NIYC) in 1961 and the emergence AIM (American Indian
Movement) in 1968 led to Red Power and:
– The Siege of Alcatraz in 1969 led by the Indians of All Tribes (IAT)
– The Occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973 when the tribal president
banned AIM
• The Native American Rights Fund (NARF) was founded in 1970
– They worked with the Supreme Court and worked heavily to gain
Charrier v. Bell 1986 and the Native American Grave Protection Act in
1990
• The Longest Walk protest in 1978 contributed to the Religious Freedom Act

36. Government Policy
• Indian Citizen Act – 1924
– Gave Natives the vote due to the WW1 + government policy of total
assimilation
– Not due to Native pressure groups
– Lots of Natives wanted the right to maintain their traditional rights and to
actually resist assimilation
– Many could vote through the Dawes Act (1887) and inter-marriage
– Act did not mean that they had the right to vote
• The Leavitt Bill (“Dance Order”) – 1921 + 1923
– Prohibited tribes from performing traditional dances and rituals
– AIDA formed as a result
• Tried to enforce the Bursum and Leavitt Bills which would authorise the acquisition
of Peublo lands – failed due to AIDA
• Allotment Policy – part of the Dawes Act which reduced Native lands
• The Meriam Report – 1928
– Report by the Brookings Institute for Government Research
– Response to oil fields in the reservation lands
– It was negative towards the allotment policy and Dawes Act (1887)
– It also spoke of corrupt officials
– Described Natives as the most impoverished people in the US
– Closed down boarding schools and improved health and education within
reservation lands

37. Government Policy
• Federal aid continued in the Depression from Hoover and continued with Roosevelt after
1933
• Indian Reorganisation Act (Wheeler-Howard Act 1934)
– Recognised and preserve Native traditions
– Natives had more influence in reservations
– They could practice their religion and get their own cultural identity
– Unallocated land lost between 1900-1930 was restored
• The Indian Claims Commission (ICC) was active between 1946-78
• The Indian Vocational Training Act (1956)
• Under L.B Johnson and Nixon there saw the passing of many acts and the American Indian
Policy Review (1975):
– The Indian Education Act 1972 – closure of boarding school and the building of schools
of reservations were part of this act
– Indian Self Determination Act – tribe could negotiate with contracts with the Bureau of
Indian Affairs for their own education, health and social services
– Indian Education Assistance Act – this gave Native American parents more involvement
in their children’s education
– Native American Religious Freedom Act 1978
– Indian Child Welfare Act 1978 – an attempt to determine the rights of Native American
parents in relation to forcibly removing Indian children, which was mostly a result of lack
of understanding of cultural traditions which appeared as neglect
• Even at the end of the period, the Federal Government were still passing Acts, evident with
the Native American Graves Protection Act 1990 – this meant that Native Americans had the
right to claim back bodies in museums etc. as well as protect remaining graves

38. Society
• At the start of the period there was a belief in “Manifest Destiny”
and Eugenics
• It was seen that assimilation was right and there was a need to
‘educate’ them
– Groups like the Indian Rights Association (IRA) in 1882 even
concentrated on the idea of assimilation
• The World Wars were crucial as they allowed people to see Native
Americans in a different light and not as savages as the Cowboy
and Indian films portrayed
– This led to urbanisation of the Native Americans who would live in
ghettos similar to those of the African Americans and Immigrants
• The Civil Rights Movement in the 1960’s saw great liberalism
brought to American of which the Native Americans took
advantage, coping the styles of the African American
– Red Power is clearly from Black Power
– The splitting between the militant and peaceful methods
• There was more conservatism towards the end of the period,
heightened with Reagan although there was some activity in the
Supreme Court and Congress as late as 1990

39. Women
• Their position in 1865 – 1914
• 1870 13% unmarried women in workforce
• Society expected once married women give jobs up
• 15th amendment: women excluded from vote
• Fluctuations on women's rights mainly due to:
• Changing economy
• Changing lifestyle of many middle class married women
• Better education
• Attitude of separate spheres did not change
• Majority of women accepted marriage, home and family life
• Not all wanted Civil Rights such as
• The vote
• Education
• Opportunities in politics
• Employment even when married
• abortion

40. • Federal Amendments
• Homestead Act 1862
• - Women could apply for a grant to own land
• - The occupant had to be 21
• - The terms stated you had to improve the land then file a
deed for a title
• 15th Amendment 1870
• - This bill established that the federal and state government
couldn't withold right to vote on the grounds of race.
• - Women were angry that this right wasn't extended to
gender.
• Comstock Laws
• - Introduced in 1873.
• - Proved to be a major obstacle to acquiring contraceptives.
• - Abortion was also banned.

41. • New Deal Policies
• - Social Security Act 1935 helped to alleviate family stress with
welfare benefits.
• - Aid to Dependent Children 1935 helped families where there was
no male head of the household (humiliating for women).
• - The Fair Labour Standards Act 1938 set new minimum wage
levels which benefited women but they still earned less than men
doing the same job. Working hours were also reduced.
• These acts (introduced by Roosevelt) didn't affect women directly
but helped them to some extent.
• 19th Amendment
• - This amendment was passed in 1920.
• - It gave most women aged over 21 years, the right to vote.
• - Excluded immigrant women who hadn't been given citizenship.
• - African American women weren't allowed (faced racial
discrimination).
• - Immediate response wasn't enthusiastic as women had little time
for political interest. Also, feminists were divided as how best to
vote for improved conditions and opportunities.

42. • Equal Rights Amendment (never ratified)
• - This was originally drawn up by Alice Paul in 1923.
• - It was passed by Congress in 1972.
• - It aimed to gain equal standing to men in all rights.
• - Many opposed this because of the traditional outlook on
women's role in life but more importantly it would stop any
chance of getting maternity leave, abortion rights etc...
• 18th and 21st Amendment
• - Passed in 1917.
• - It banned the sale, import, transport and manufacture of
alcoholic drink. So the prohibition campaign had succeeded until...
• - The latter amendment repealed prohibition which was ratified in
1933.
• - Nevertheless, in both instances we see that female pressure
groups played a significant part in achieving change. The divisions
present, however show that steps forward can be regressed.
• - The strength and influence of the female voice is clear when they
focus on certain issues.
• -Leadership and alliances are important to making progress.

43. • Civil Rights Act
• - In 1964 this act was implemented by LBJ.
• - It stated that no sexual discrimination could be made
in employment etc...
• - The act was supposed to be enforced by the Equal
Employment Opportunities Commission but many were
disappointed (didn't satisfy the demands of feminist).
• Roe v. Wade Ruling (landmark decision)
• - The Supreme Court recognised Roe's right to privacy
and was protected by the 14th amendment so she
could make the decision to abort.
• - The triumph of this case galvanised female pressure
groups and showed how they could gain change.

44. • The impact on women’s rights of the campaign for prohibition
• 1917 18th amendment passed banning alcohol
• Different female pressure groups played a significant role
• It shows the strength and influence of female voice
• But still lacked unity and divisions were clear
• Significant women’s organisation and leadership
• Power of home protection as a justification for action by women
• WCTU continuously promoting temperance
• But turning point in 1893 as formation of Anti-Saloon League (ASL)
• Had successful lobbying tactics
• 1917 26 states had prohibition laws
• Propaganda was used to promote a national ban
• Some females opposed prohibition campaign
• Even women who once supported prohibition were showing a change
of attitude
• Some wanted to repeal the law
• Anti-prohibition campaign shows how bitterly and deeply divided
women were
• Prohibition spawned a new culture of violence

45. • Women’s Organization for National Prohibition Reform (WONPR) formed
1929
• Charismatic leadership of Pauline Sabin
• Legislation was not effective as people could still obtain alcohol quite
easily
• 1931 1.5 million members
• They argued that Prohibition had promoted rather than eliminated
drinking
• Leadership highly organised
• Held rallies and lobbied just like WCTU which was now ineffective
• 21st amendment 1933 ended Prohibition
• Female campaign decisive in bringing about this change
• Prohibition campaign although successful due to women did nothing to
improve rights for women
• Did not improve women’s position and role especially working class and
poorer ones
• Showed that protection of home was what most American women
concerned with
• But it also showed that when women worked collaboratively change
could happen
• Women could be a force to be reckoned if united for this would have
accelerated change

46. • The campaign of women’s suffrage
• Jane Addams Hull House (Chicago) 1889 social centre for immigrant
families
• Temperance and prohibition
– Women’s Crusade 1973
– Women’s Christian temperance Union (WCTU) 1874
– Anti-Saloon League (ASL) 1893
– Women’s Organization for National Prohibition Reform (WONPR)
1929
– Association Against the Prohibition Amendment (AAPA) 1918
• Rights in the workplace
– National Consumers’ League (NCL) 1899
– Women’s Trade Union League 1921
• National Association of Coloured Women (NACW) 1896 vote, anti-
lynching, education
– Ida B. Wells & Mary Talbert
• Campaign to abolish slavery
– Lucretia Mott
– Elizabeth Cady Stanton
– Susan B. Anthony

47. • Campaign for suffrage
– American Women Suffrage Association (NWSA) 1869
– Carrie Chapman Catt
– Alice Paul Congressional Union for Women’s Suffrage 1915 (became National
Women’s Party post 1917)
– Women’s Rights Convention 1848
– Flappers 1920s
• Eleanor Roosevelt role model for many women
• Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) campaigned for since 1920’s but never passed by
Congress almost passed in 1972 but time ran out in 1982
– Schlafly established National committee to Stop ERA 1972
• Campaign for birth control, abortion and the right to control their bodies
– Margaret Sanger American Birth Control League (ABCL) 1921  backed my
Rockefeller
– National Organization for the Repeal of the Abortion Laws (NARAL) 1969
– Phyllis Schlafly anti-feminist anti-abortion
– National Right to Life Committee
• Betty Friedan ‘The Feminine Mystique’ 1963
• National Organization for Women (NOW) 1966 used all forms of protest
• National Women’s Political Caucus 1971 more women in politics through training
and support
• Gloria Steinem believed women could have a family and career
• Women’s Liberation Movement

48. • The New Deal
• Franklin Roosevelt President in 1933
• Introduced the ‘New Deal’
• Social Security Act (1935): gave welfare benefits, Fair
Labour Standards Act (1938): set a new level for minimum
wage and saw reduction in working hours, and Aid to
Dependent Children (1935): helped families without male
breadwinner.
• Appointed Frances Perkins as Secretary of Labour in his
Cabinet.

49. • The World Wars
• WW1 opened up opportunity for married women to enter workforce
• Industrial expansion increased job opportunities for unmarried
women
• Many earned good wages for the 1st time but still paid less than men
• 1917-18 1 million women working in industry
• But WW1 did not change accepted role for married women
• Clear expectation that women would give up job after war
• But broadened horizons for women
• WW2 huge demands on manufacturing industry like WW1
• By 1945 5 million more women working than 1940
• Unlike WW1 during WW2 350000 women joined armed forces
• Broadened women’s horizons
• 1945 75% of women wanted to remain in jobs
• Married women showed they could take care of home and work
along with children
• But idea of separate spheres not eradicated
• Dr Benjamin Spock published famous book Common Sense Book of
Baby and child Care 1946
• Emphasising mothers role in the home

50. • The rise of feminism and its opponents
• Feminist movement became more radical during the 60s and 70s
• But still divided/fragmented therefore impact was limited
• 1970s- The Feminists: abolition of marriage
• Radicalesbians: women only liberated through lesbianism
• Campaigning for abortion rights galvanised opposition from women hence anti
feminism emerged
• Outpour of extreme views by radical feminist often influencing younger women
• 1972 1st edition of ‘Ms’ feminist magazine published
• Promoted feminist ideals by end of year 200000 copies sold
• It provided a balance to male dominated publications
• Attitudes of young women towards separate spheres changing
• During 1970 Pill available to all young women
• 1st time it gave women total control over child bearing
• Opposition to those who hold traditional views
• 1986 56% of women saw themselves as feminists
• But feminist still not accomplish all their aims due to:
• Highly organised anti-feminist group
• No mass support from all women

51. Roe v Wade 1973
• Decision in Roe V Wade case landmark in history of
women’s rights
• Woman's right to legal abortion
• Most controversial
• Even state legislatures refusing to implement ruling
• 1976 Congress passed Hyde Amendment banning federal
funding for abortion
• Staunch opposition from religious leaders
• Anti feminist leader Phyllis Schlafly
• Attacks on abortion clinics
• Huge long term impact for it still exists today!

52. • The campaign for the Equal Rights Amendment
• Phyllis Schlafly target was to ensure ERA not passed
• ERA presented to Congress repeatedly between 1923 -1970
but rarely made progress
• Women wanted it passed for equal opportunities especially
in work place
• Was passed in 1972
• But by 1979 progress decreased as women's views for what
equality meant were changing
• The ERA treated men and women equal rather than
recognise their distinctive qualities
• 1972 Phyllis Schlafly establish National Committee to stop
ERA
• It posed a threat to home/family
• Phyllis Schlafly used lobbying tactic to ensure no more
states ratify ERA after 1977
• Phyllis Schlafly believed men women different and had
different roles

53. • Changing society and economic and employment opportunities
• Industrialisation meant women were needed in the workplace
• WW1 - saw women in workplace but returned to home, little change
• WW2 - many women stayed in workplace after war, proved they could work
and handle home life
• 1920’s and the Depression - many needed to work in Depression although
frowned on, employed agreed for cheaper labour - 1920’s mostly the
emergence of contraception and flappers
• Working women - appears to be a major driving force, more women in
workplace, the more women want rights
• Divisions amongst women themselves - divided by class and race for most
of the period - reactionary group to all campaigns - major inhibitor of rights
• Cold War - increased opportunities - all talents needed in space race etc.
Needed to show that America was the land of the free
• New Feminism 1960s - gave women new confidence - some suspicious as
many working women had no children - belief that it went against traditions
• Technological advances - allowed for more women in the workplace
especially in white-collar work
• Expansion of educational opportunities - allowed women to train and create
careers
• Political awareness - more later in the period - politicians targeted women
for votes.