1. ““How Languages are Learned”How Languages are Learned”
Patsy Lightbown and Nina SpadaPatsy Lightbown and Nina Spada
Factors affecting second language learningFactors affecting second language learning
Rhaíza Bastos
UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE VIÇOSAUNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE VIÇOSA
CENTRO DE CIÊNCIAS HUMANAS, LETRAS E ARTESCENTRO DE CIÊNCIAS HUMANAS, LETRAS E ARTES
DEPARTAMENTO DE LETRASDEPARTAMENTO DE LETRAS
SECRETARIADO EXECUTIVO TRILÍNGUESECRETARIADO EXECUTIVO TRILÍNGUE

2. IntroductionIntroduction
 Characteristics of the learner > affect learning ofCharacteristics of the learner > affect learning of
the second language.the second language.
- intelligence- intelligence
-aptitude-aptitude
-personality-personality
-motivational’-motivational’
 Focus onFocus on age.age.

3. IndexIndex
 1) Age of Acquisition1) Age of Acquisition
 2) Critical Period Hypothesis: More than just accent?2) Critical Period Hypothesis: More than just accent?
 3) Mastery of the spoken language (Mark Patkowski 1980)3) Mastery of the spoken language (Mark Patkowski 1980)
 4) Intuitions of grammaticality (Johnson and Newport 1989).4) Intuitions of grammaticality (Johnson and Newport 1989).
 5) Is younger really better? (Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)5) Is younger really better? (Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)
 6) At what age should L2 instruction begin?6) At what age should L2 instruction begin?
 7) Final Considerations7) Final Considerations
 8) Further Reading8) Further Reading
Brief comment on Acquisition X Learning (Krashen´s Theory)Brief comment on Acquisition X Learning (Krashen´s Theory)
 9) Proposal Debate (suggested questions)9) Proposal Debate (suggested questions)

4. Age of acquisitionAge of acquisition
 Children from immigrant families eventually speak theChildren from immigrant families eventually speak the
language of their new community with native-likelanguage of their new community with native-like
fluency, but their parents rarely achieve such highfluency, but their parents rarely achieve such high
levels of mastery of the spoken languagelevels of mastery of the spoken language ..
 Many adult second language learners become capableMany adult second language learners become capable
of communicating very successfully in the languageof communicating very successfully in the language
but, for most, differences ofbut, for most, differences of accentaccent,, word choiceword choice, or, or
grammatical featuresgrammatical features distinguish them from nativedistinguish them from native
speakers and from second language speakers whospeakers and from second language speakers who
began learning the language while they were verybegan learning the language while they were very
young.young.

5. Age of acquisitionAge of acquisition
 TheThe Critical Period HypothesisCritical Period Hypothesis suggests that theresuggests that there
is a time in human development when theis a time in human development when the brain isbrain is
predisposedpredisposed forfor successsuccess in language learningin language learning..
 According to this view, language learning whichAccording to this view, language learning which
occursoccurs afterafter the end of the critical period maythe end of the critical period may not benot be
based on the innate biological structuresbased on the innate biological structures believed tobelieved to
contribute to first language acquisition or secondcontribute to first language acquisition or second
language acquisition in early childhood.language acquisition in early childhood.

6. Age of acquisitionAge of acquisition
 It is most often claimed that the critical periodIt is most often claimed that the critical period endsends
somewhere around pubertysomewhere around puberty but some researchesbut some researches
suggest it could be even earlier.suggest it could be even earlier.
 Younger learners inYounger learners in informal language learninginformal language learning
environmentsenvironments usually have more time to devote tousually have more time to devote to
learning language > environments where theylearning language > environments where they do notdo not
experience strong pressure to speak fluently andexperience strong pressure to speak fluently and
accuratelyaccurately from the very beginning.from the very beginning.

7. Age of acquisitionAge of acquisition
 On the other hand, older learners > situationsOn the other hand, older learners > situations
which demand much morewhich demand much more complex languagecomplex language andand
the expression of much morethe expression of much more complicated ideascomplicated ideas..
Adults are oftenAdults are often embarrassed by their lack ofembarrassed by their lack of
mastery.mastery.

8.  The Critical Period Hypothesis has been challenged inThe Critical Period Hypothesis has been challenged in
recent years from several different points of view.recent years from several different points of view.
 Some studies of the L2 development of older and youngerSome studies of the L2 development of older and younger
learners who are learning in similar circumstances have shownlearners who are learning in similar circumstances have shown
that:that:
-- at least in the early stages of L2 developmentat least in the early stages of L2 development, older, older
learners are more efficient that younger learners;learners are more efficient that younger learners;
- in educational research, it has been reported that learners- in educational research, it has been reported that learners
who began learning an L2 at the primary school level did notwho began learning an L2 at the primary school level did not
far better in the long run that those who began in earlyfar better in the long run that those who began in early
adolescence;adolescence;
- furthermore, there are countless anecdotes about older- furthermore, there are countless anecdotes about older
learners (adolescents and adults) who have reached high levelslearners (adolescents and adults) who have reached high levels
of proficiency in a second language.of proficiency in a second language.
Does this mean there is no critical period for secondDoes this mean there is no critical period for second
language acquisition?language acquisition?

9. Critical Period Hypothesis: MoreCritical Period Hypothesis: More
than just accent?than just accent?
 Usual focus on pronunciation achievementUsual focus on pronunciation achievement
 Older learners almost inevitably have aOlder learners almost inevitably have a
noticeable “foreign accent”noticeable “foreign accent”
 What about other linguistic features such asWhat about other linguistic features such as
morphology and syntax?morphology and syntax?

10. Mastery of the spoken languageMastery of the spoken language
(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980)
 Study > effect of age on the acquisition ofStudy > effect of age on the acquisition of
features of na L2 other than accent.features of na L2 other than accent.
 He hypothesized that,He hypothesized that, even if accent wereeven if accent were
ignoredignored, only who had begun learning their L2, only who had begun learning their L2
before the age of 15 could ever achieve full,before the age of 15 could ever achieve full,
native-like mastery of that language.native-like mastery of that language.
 67 highly educated immigrants67 highly educated immigrants
 15 native-born Americans English speakers15 native-born Americans English speakers
 Tape recorded interviewTape recorded interview

11. Mastery of the spoken languageMastery of the spoken language
(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980)
 Samples rated by trained native-speaker judgesSamples rated by trained native-speaker judges
 Rating scale > from 0 to 5Rating scale > from 0 to 5
(no knowledge of the language X level expected(no knowledge of the language X level expected
from an educated native speaker)from an educated native speaker)
 ““Will there be a difference between learnersWill there be a difference between learners
who began to learn English before pubertywho began to learn English before puberty
and those who began learning English later?”and those who began learning English later?”
 Amount of time speaker had been in the U.SAmount of time speaker had been in the U.S
 Amount of formal ESL instructionAmount of formal ESL instruction

12. Mastery of the spoken languageMastery of the spoken language
(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980)
 Thirty-two out of 33 subjects who had begunThirty-two out of 33 subjects who had begun
learning English before the age of 15 scored at thelearning English before the age of 15 scored at the
4+ or the 5 level.4+ or the 5 level.
 Homogeneity > pre-puberty learners > suggestHomogeneity > pre-puberty learners > suggest
that, for this group, success in learning an L2 wasthat, for this group, success in learning an L2 was
almost inevitable.almost inevitable.
 The majority of the post-puberty learners centredThe majority of the post-puberty learners centred
around the 3+ level, but there was a widearound the 3+ level, but there was a wide
distribution of levels achieved.distribution of levels achieved.

13. Mastery of the spoken languageMastery of the spoken language
(Mark Patkowski 1980)(Mark Patkowski 1980)
 Patkowski´s first question was answered with a veryPatkowski´s first question was answered with a very
resounding “YES”.resounding “YES”.
 Other factors affecting success in L2 acquisition > oftenOther factors affecting success in L2 acquisition > often
turned out that age was so closely related to the other factorsturned out that age was so closely related to the other factors
that it was not possible to separate them completely.that it was not possible to separate them completely.
 E.g.: Length of residence in the U.SE.g.: Length of residence in the U.S
 Thus, Patkowski found that age of acquisition is a veryThus, Patkowski found that age of acquisition is a very
important factor in setting limits on the development ofimportant factor in setting limits on the development of
native-like mastery of an L2 and that this limitation does notnative-like mastery of an L2 and that this limitation does not
apply only to accent.apply only to accent. These results gave added support to theThese results gave added support to the
Critical Period Hypothesis for L2 acquisition.Critical Period Hypothesis for L2 acquisition.

14. Intuitions of grammaticalityIntuitions of grammaticality
((Johnson and Newport 1989)Johnson and Newport 1989)
 Forty-six Chinese and Korean speakers who had begun toForty-six Chinese and Korean speakers who had begun to
learn English at different ageslearn English at different ages
 All subjects were students or faculty at an American universityAll subjects were students or faculty at an American university
and all had been in the US for at least three years.and all had been in the US for at least three years.
 Twenty-three native speakers of EnglishTwenty-three native speakers of English
 Judgement of grammaticality task to test 12 rules of EnglishJudgement of grammaticality task to test 12 rules of English
morphology and syntax.morphology and syntax.
 For those who began before the age of 15, and speciallyFor those who began before the age of 15, and specially
before the age of 10, there were few individual differences inbefore the age of 10, there were few individual differences in
L2 ability. Those who began later did not have native-likeL2 ability. Those who began later did not have native-like
language abilities and were more likely to differ greatly fromlanguage abilities and were more likely to differ greatly from
one another in ultimate attainment.one another in ultimate attainment.
 This study, then, further supports the hypothesis thatThis study, then, further supports the hypothesis that
there is a critical period for attaining full native-likethere is a critical period for attaining full native-like
mastery of a second languagemastery of a second language..

15. Is younger really better?Is younger really better?
(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)
 The progress of a group of English speakers whoThe progress of a group of English speakers who
were learning Dutch as an L2.were learning Dutch as an L2.
 The learners they were following included childrenThe learners they were following included children
as young as three years old as well as older children,as young as three years old as well as older children,
adolescents, and adults.adolescents, and adults.
 PronunciationPronunciation
 Auditory discriminationAuditory discrimination testtest
 MorphologyMorphology
 Sentence repetitionSentence repetition

16. Is younger really better?Is younger really better?
(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)
 Sentence translationSentence translation
 Sentence judgment taskSentence judgment task
 Peabody Picture Vocabulary TestPeabody Picture Vocabulary Test
 Story comprehension taskStory comprehension task
 Storytelling taskStorytelling task
 Children (aged 3 to 10), adolescents (12 to 15Children (aged 3 to 10), adolescents (12 to 15
years), and adults (18 to 60 years).years), and adults (18 to 60 years).

17. Is younger really better?Is younger really better?
(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)
 The children and adolescents all attended DutchThe children and adolescents all attended Dutch
schools.schools.
 Some of the adults worked in Dutch workSome of the adults worked in Dutch work
environments, but most of their Dutch colleaguesenvironments, but most of their Dutch colleagues
spoke English well.spoke English well.
 The learners were tested three times, atThe learners were tested three times, at four- to five-four- to five-
month intervalsmonth intervals. They were first tested within. They were first tested within sixsix
monthsmonths of their arrival in Holland and withinof their arrival in Holland and within sixsix
weeksweeks of their starting school or work in a Dutch-of their starting school or work in a Dutch-
language environment.language environment.

18. Is younger really better?Is younger really better?
(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)(Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle 1978)
Activity > Comparing child, adolescent, and adultActivity > Comparing child, adolescent, and adult
language learnerslanguage learners
 TheThe adolescentsadolescents were by far the most successfulwere by far the most successful
learners. They were ahead of everyone on all but onelearners. They were ahead of everyone on all but one
of the tests (pronunciation) on the first test session.of the tests (pronunciation) on the first test session.
 It was the adults who were better than the childrenIt was the adults who were better than the children
and adolescents on pronunciation in the first testand adolescents on pronunciation in the first test
session.session.
 In other words, adolescents and adults learned fasterIn other words, adolescents and adults learned faster
than children in the first few months of exposure tothan children in the first few months of exposure to
Dutch.Dutch.

19.  By the end of the year, the children were catching up, or had surpassed,By the end of the year, the children were catching up, or had surpassed,
the adults on several measure. Nevertheless, it was the adolescents whothe adults on several measure. Nevertheless, it was the adolescents who
retained the highest levels of performance overall.retained the highest levels of performance overall.
 Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle concluded that their results provideSnow and Hoefnagel-Höhle concluded that their results provide
evidence that there is no critical period for language acquisition.evidence that there is no critical period for language acquisition.
 Other interpretations:Other interpretations:
. Some of the tasks, (for e.g. sentence judgement or translation). Some of the tasks, (for e.g. sentence judgement or translation)
were too hard for young learners. Even in their native language, thesewere too hard for young learners. Even in their native language, these
tasks would have been unfamiliar and difficult. In fact, young Dutchtasks would have been unfamiliar and difficult. In fact, young Dutch
native speakers to whom the L2 learners were compared also had troublenative speakers to whom the L2 learners were compared also had trouble
with these task.with these task.
. Adults and adolescents may learn faster in the early stages of L2. Adults and adolescents may learn faster in the early stages of L2
development (especially if they are learning a language which is similar todevelopment (especially if they are learning a language which is similar to
their first one). Young children eventually catch up and even surpasstheir first one). Young children eventually catch up and even surpass
them ir their exposure to the language takes place in contexts where theythem ir their exposure to the language takes place in contexts where they
are surrounded by the language on a daily basis.are surrounded by the language on a daily basis.
. Adults and adolescents can make considerable and rapid progress. Adults and adolescents can make considerable and rapid progress
towards mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make use of thetowards mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make use of the
language on a daily basis in social, personal, professional, or academiclanguage on a daily basis in social, personal, professional, or academic
interaction.interaction.

20. At what age should L2 instructionAt what age should L2 instruction
begin?begin?
 It is essential to think carefully about the goals of anIt is essential to think carefully about the goals of an
instructional program and the context in which it occursinstructional program and the context in which it occurs
before we jump to conclusions about the necessity of thebefore we jump to conclusions about the necessity of the
earliest possible start.earliest possible start.
 Age factor cannot be separated from factors such asAge factor cannot be separated from factors such as
motivation, social identity, and the conditions for learning.motivation, social identity, and the conditions for learning.
 Older learners may well speak with an accent because theyOlder learners may well speak with an accent because they
want to continue being identified with their first languagewant to continue being identified with their first language
cultural group.cultural group.
 Adults rarely get access to the same quantity and quality ofAdults rarely get access to the same quantity and quality of
language input that children receiver in play settings.language input that children receiver in play settings.

21. At what age should L2 instructionAt what age should L2 instruction
begin?begin?
 Objective of L2 learning is native-like mastery of theObjective of L2 learning is native-like mastery of the
target language > usually desirable for the learner totarget language > usually desirable for the learner to
be completely surrounded by the language as early asbe completely surrounded by the language as early as
possible.possible.
 Early intensive exposure to the L2 may entail the lossEarly intensive exposure to the L2 may entail the loss
or incomplete development of the child´s firstor incomplete development of the child´s first
language.language.
 We have often seen second or foreign languageWe have often seen second or foreign language
programs which begin with very young learners butprograms which begin with very young learners but
offer only minimal contact with the language.offer only minimal contact with the language.

22. At what age should L2 instructionAt what age should L2 instruction
begin?begin?
 Even when students do make progress in these early-start programs,Even when students do make progress in these early-start programs,
they sometimes find themselves placed in secondary school classes withthey sometimes find themselves placed in secondary school classes with
students who have had no previous instruction.students who have had no previous instruction.
 When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per week,When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per week,
learners who star later (for e.g., at age 10, 11, or 12) often catch up withlearners who star later (for e.g., at age 10, 11, or 12) often catch up with
those who began earlier.those who began earlier.
 After years of classes, learners feel frustrated by the lack of progress,After years of classes, learners feel frustrated by the lack of progress,
and their motivation to continue may be diminished.and their motivation to continue may be diminished.
 One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers,One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers,
no matter how young they were when they began.no matter how young they were when they began.

23. Final ConsiderationsFinal Considerations
 Age isAge is oneone of the characteristics which determineof the characteristics which determine
L2 learningL2 learning
 It is difficult to make precise predictions aboutIt is difficult to make precise predictions about
how a particular individual´s characteristcshow a particular individual´s characteristcs
influence his or her success as a language learner.influence his or her success as a language learner.
 Nonetheless, in a classroom, aNonetheless, in a classroom, a sensitive teachersensitive teacher,,
who takeswho takes learners´ individual personalitieslearners´ individual personalities andand
learning styles into account, can create alearning styles into account, can create a learninglearning
environmentenvironment in which all learners can bein which all learners can be successfulsuccessful
in learning an L2.in learning an L2.

24. Further ReadingFurther Reading
 Lighbown and Spada haven´t made a distinctionLighbown and Spada haven´t made a distinction
between the termsbetween the terms learninglearning andand acquisitionacquisition
throughout their study. However, according tothroughout their study. However, according to
Krashen they are different systems.Krashen they are different systems.
 Acquisition X LearningAcquisition X Learning

25. Proposal DebateProposal Debate
Suggested QuestionsSuggested Questions
 Is there actually a critical period for second languageIs there actually a critical period for second language
acquisition?acquisition?
 Is it actually important/necessary to have native-likeIs it actually important/necessary to have native-like
proficiency of the target language? Isn´t being able toproficiency of the target language? Isn´t being able to
communicate enough? Is native-like mastery always a goal tocommunicate enough? Is native-like mastery always a goal to
be achieved?be achieved?
 Now, if you have native-like mastery, what does it bringNow, if you have native-like mastery, what does it bring
about?about?
 On the text, it´s said that “One or two hours a week will notOn the text, it´s said that “One or two hours a week will not
produce very advanced L2 speakers, no matter how youngproduce very advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young
they were when they began.” So how many hours ofthey were when they began.” So how many hours of
instruction should we have in school programs? How toinstruction should we have in school programs? How to
define that?define that?

26. Thank you very much!Thank you very much!
Rhaíza BastosRhaíza Bastos
rhaizabastos@hotmail.comrhaizabastos@hotmail.com