2. Antidiabetic Drugs
Drugs used to control diabetes mellitus - a chronic
disease that affects carbohydrate metabolism
2 groups of antidiabetic agents: Insulin & oral
hypoglycemic agents
- Oral hypoglycemic agents = synthetic
preparations that stimulate insulin release or alter
metabolic response to hyperglycemia
- Insulin = a protein secreted from the beta cells
of the pancreas - necessary for carbo metabolism
& an important role in protein & fat metabolism
5. What is the role of an ideal
oral hypoglycaemic agent?
Conserve islet cell function
- delay the subsequent use of insulin.
Improve patient compliance- single daily
dosing.
Reduce the incidence of hypoglycaemic events
8. Insulin secretagogues
Are drugs which increase the amount of insulin secreted
by the pancreas
Include:
• Sulfonylureas
• Meglitinides
9. First generation are essentially obsolete
glipizide (Glucotrol), glyburide (Diabeta) and
glimepiride (Amaryl)
Stimulate insulin release from functioning B cells by
blocking of ATP-sensitive K channels which causes
depolarization and opening of voltage- dependent
calcium channels, which causes an increase in
intracellular calcium in the beta cells, which
stimulates insulin release.
Mechanism of action of sulfonylureas:
10. •displacement from protein binding sites
– salicylates and sulphonamides
•interference with hepatic metabolism
– inducers: rifampicin, phenytoin
– inhibitors: cimetidine
•reduction of renal elimination
– allopurinol, salicylates
Sulfonylureas –
important drug interactions:
12. Classification of sulfonylureas
Tolbutamide Acetohexamide
Tolazamide
Chlorpropamide Glipizide
glibenclamide
(Glyburide)
Glimepiride
First generation
Long
acting
Short
acting
second generation
Short
acting
Intermediate
acting
Long
acting
13. Pharmacokinetics of sulfonylureas:
Orally, well absorbed.
Reach peak concentration after 2-4 hr.
All are highly bound to plasma proteins.
Duration of action is variable.
Second generation has longer duration
than first generation.
14. Metabolized in liver
excreted in urine (elderly and renal disease)
Pharmacokinetics of sulfonylureas:
16. Tolbutamide:
safe for old diabetic patients or pts with
renal impairment.
First generation sulfonylureas
17. Glipizide - glyburide (Glibenclamide)
More potent than first generation
Have longer duration of action.
Less frequency of administration
Have fewer adverse effects
Have fewer drug interactions
Second generation sulfonylureas
18. Glipizide Glibenclamide
(Glyburide)
Glimepiride
Absorption Well Well Well
Metabolism Yes Yes Yes
Metabolites Inactive Inactive Inactive
Half-life 2 – 4 hrs Less than 3 hrs 5 - 9 hrs
Duration of 10 – 16 hrs 12 – 24 hrs 12 – 24 hrs
action short long long
Doses Divided doses
30 min before
meals
Single dose Single dose
Excretion Urine Urine Urine
Second generation sulfonylureas
19. Unwanted Effects:
1. Hyperinsulinemia & Hypoglycemia:
Less in tolbutamide.
More in old age, hepatic or renal diseases.
2. Weight gain due to increase in appetite
3. GIT upset.
22. Mechanism of Action:
Stimulate insulin release from functioning β
cells via blocking ATP-sensitive K-channels
resulting in calcium influx and insulin
exocytosis.
23. Pharmacokinetics of meglitinides
Orally, well absorbed.
Very fast onset of action, peak 1 h.
short duration of action (4 h).
Metabolized in liver and excreted in bile.
Taken just before each meal (3 times/day).
24. Type II diabetes: monotherapy or combined with
metformin (better than monotherapy).
Specific use in patients allergic to sulfur or
sulfonylureas.
elderly patients in whom hypoglycaemia is a
concern
Uses of Meglitinides
25. Advantages of
Nateglinide/Repaglinide
No significant increase in bodyweight
Can be utillised in mild to moderate renal
failure
Nateglinide: approved in hepatic failure
Dosage: Repaglinide:
0.5mg/1mg/2mg/4mg per dose per
meal
Nateglinide: 60mg/120mg per dose per
meal
Lower incidence of hypoglycemia
28. Are drugs which increase the
sensitivity of target organs to insulin.
Include
Biguanides
Thiazolidinediones (Glitazones)
Insulin sensitizers
29. Metformin
By ADA and EASD guidelines
The primary drug of choice for
diabetes
Insulin sensitizers
Biguanides
30. Does not require functioning B cells.
Does not stimulate insulin release.
Increases peripheral glucose utilization
(tissue glycolysis).
Inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis.
Impairs glucose absorption from GIT.
Reduces plasma glucagon level.
LDL &VLDL.
HDL
Mechanism of action of metformin
31. orally.
NOT bound to serum protein.
NOT metabolized.
t ½ 3 hours.
Excreted unchanged in urine
Pharmacokinetics of metformin
32. Type II diabetes particular, in overweight
and obese people (with insulin resistance).
Advantages:
No risk of hyperinsulinemia or
hypoglycemia or weight gain (anorexia).
Uses of metformin
33. GIT disturbances: nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea
Long term use interferes with vitamin B12
absorption.
Lactic acidosis: in patients with renal, liver,
pulmonary or cardiac diseases.
Metallic taste in the mouth.
Adverse effects of metformin
34. Renal disease.
Liver disease.
Alcoholism.
Conditions predisposing to hypoxia as
cardiopulmonary dysfunction.
Contraindications of metformin
35. Initiate:
- after meals
- 250 to 500mg twice or thrice a day
- Increase gradually if required in 1 or 2 weeks
- mild loose stools in 10% initially, which
reduces gradually
-persistent loose stools in 5%
-Sustained released forms: more effective-
vehicle excreted in stool
36. Metformin:
Dosing from 500mg twice daily to
1 gramme thrice a day
Advantages:
Perpetuates weight loss
Can be combined with insulin
to reduce insulin requirements
Disadvantages:
Nausea, Vomiting and diarhorrea(5%)
Vitamin B12 Deficiency (0.5%)
38. Thiazolidinediones (TZDs)
They increase tissue insulin sensitivity but have
serious ADRs and the EMA recommended in
Sept (2010) that they be suspended from the
EU market:
- Rosiglitazone (Avandia)
has high cardiovascular risks.
- Pioglitazone causes bladder tumors.
- Troglitazone causes hepatitis.
39. Mechanism of action
Activate PPAR- (peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptor -).
Decrease insulin resistance.
Increase sensitivity of target tissues to
insulin.
Increase glucose uptake and utilization
in muscle and adipose tissue.
40. Pharmacokinetics of pioglitazone
Orally (once daily dose).
Highly bound to plasma albumins (99%)
Slow onset of activity
Half life 3-4 h
Metabolized in liver .
Excreted in urine 64% & bile
41. Type II diabetes with insulin resistance.
Used either alone or combined with
sulfonylurea, biguanides.
No risk of hypoglycemia when used alone.
Uses of pioglitazone
42. Hepatotoxicity ?? (liver function tests for 1st year of therapy).
Fluid retention (Edema).
Precipitate congestive heart failure
Mild weight gain.
Potential weight gain (2-4 kg)
LDL elevation (Mainly over 1st 2 months)
Oedema
Worsens Osteoporosis
Containdicated in Grave’s Ophthalmopathy, Macular
Oedema
Occasional fluid overload
(therefore avoid in Ischemic heart Disease)
Adverse effects of pioglitazone
45. Are reversible inhibitors of intestinal -glucosidases
in intestinal brush border that are responsible for
carbohydrate digestion.
decrease carbohydrate digestion and glucose
absorption in small intestine.
Acarbose (Precose) and miglitol (Glyset)
Contraindicated in cirrhosis, malabsorption, severe
renal impairment
-Glucosidase inhibitors
46. Decrease postprandial hyperglycemia.
Taken just before meals.
No hypoglycemia if used alone.
-Glucosidase inhibitors
47. Acarbose
Given orally, poorly absorbed.
Metabolized by intestinal bacteria.
Excreted in stool and urine.
Kinetics of -glucosidase inhibitors
48. Acarbose- 25 mg to 50mg thrice a day
Miglitol- 25mg to 100mg thrice a day
Voglibose- 0.2 to 0.3 mg thrice a day
49. Uses
effective alone in the earliest stages of
impaired glucose tolerance.
Combined with sulfonylurea in treatment
of Type 2 diabetes to improve blood glucose
control.
Uses of -glucosidase inhibitors
51. Contraindications
an inflammatory bowel disease, such as ulcerative
colitis or Crohn's disease; or any other disease of
the stomach or intestines
ulcers of the colon
Intestinal Obstruction
52. Incretin concept
Insulin secretion dynamics is
dependent on the method of
administration of glucose
Intravenous glucose gives a marked
first and second phase response
Oral glucose gives less marked first
and second phase insulin response, but
a prolonged and higher insulin
53. What are the incretins?
GIP: Glucose-dependent insulinotrophic
polypeptide
Small effect in Type 2 diabetes.
GLP-1(glucagon-like peptide 1)
augmented in the presence of
hyperglycaemia.
Action less at euglycaemia and in normal
subjects.
Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase Activating
Peptide (PACAP)
54. GLP-1 localisation
Cleaved from proglucagon
in intestinal L-cells (and
neurons in
hindbrain/hypothalamus)
Secreted in response to
meal ingestion
Cleared via the kidneys
55. GLP-1 Modes of Action in Humans
GLP-1 is secreted
from the L-cells
in the intestine
This in turn…
• Stimulates glucose-dependent
insulin secretion
• Suppresses glucagon secretion
• Slows gastric emptying
Long term effects
demonstrated in animals…
• Increases beta-cell mass and
maintains beta-cell efficiency
• Reduces food intake
Upon ingestion of food…
56. Native GLP-1 is rapidly degraded by DPP-
IV
Human ileum,
GLP-1producing
L-cells
Capillaries,
DiPeptidyl
Peptidase-IV
(DPP-IV)
Adaptedfrom:Hansenetal.Endocrinology1999:140(11):5356-5363
58. Mechanism of Action of Sitagliptin
Incretin hormones GLP-1 and GIP are released by the intestine
throughout the day, and their levels increase in response to a meal.
Concentrations of the active intact hormones are increased by sitagliptin, thereby increasing and
prolonging the actions of these hormones.
Release of
active incretins
GLP-1 and GIP Blood glucose
in fasting and
postprandial
states
Ingestion
of food
Glucagon
(GLP-1)
Hepatic
glucose
production
GI
tract
DPP-4
enzyme
Inactive
GLP-1
X
Sitagliptin
(DPP-4
inhibitor)
Insulin
(GLP-1 and
GIP)
Glucose-
dependent
Glucose
dependen
t
Pancreas
Inactive
GIP
β cells
α cells
Glucose
uptake by
peripheral
tissues
30
63. Clinical uses
Type 2 diabetes mellitus as a monotherapy
or in combination with other oral
antidiabetic drugs when diet and exercise
are not enough.
Adverse effects
Nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea.
64. . Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)
agonists (in type 2 DM): increase
pancreatic secretion of insulin:
Exenatide
Bydureon (s.c./7 days):
$323/4 doses, resp.
$4200 per year
66. Inhibitors of reabsorption
of glucose (SGLT2 inhibitors): p.o.
•Canagliflozin blocks in renal proximal
tubule sodium / glucose co-transporter
protein 2 (SGLT2), which re-absorbed
90% of the filtrated glucose.
The result is increased glucosuria and
plasma glucose levels are lowered.
ADRs: Hypoglycaemia, vulvovaginal candidiasis
urinary tract infections, polyuria, frequent urination.
67. SUMMARY
Class Mechanism Site of
action
Main advantages Main side
effects
Sulfonylureas
Tolbutamide
Glipizide
Glibenclamide
(glyburide)
Stimulating
insulin
production by
inhibiting the
KATP channel
Pancreatic
beta cells
• Effective
• Inexpensive
• Hypoglycemia
• Weight gain
Meglitinides
repaglinide
Stimulates
insulin
secretion
Pancreatic
beta cells
Sulfa free •Hypoglycemia
•Weight gain
Biguanides
Metformin
Decreases
insulin
resistance
Liver
• mild
weight loss
• No hypoglycemia
• GIT symptoms,
• Lactic acidosis
• Metallic taste
Thiazolidinedio
nes
pioglitazone
Decreases
insulin
resistance
Fat, muscle
Hepatoxicity
Edema
ccf
-Glucosidase
inhibitors
Acarbose
Inhibits α-
glucosidase
GI tract Low risk
•GI symptoms,
flatulence
DPP-4 inhibitor
Sitagliptin
Increase
secretin
GI tract
68. Which is the appropriate oral
hypoglycaemic agent to use and
when?
69. Determinants of OAD usage
1)Body Mass Index : Metformin, Gliptins
BMI> 22kg/m2
2)Presence of GI symptoms: Sulpha, Gliptins, Glitazones
3)Renal Dysfunction: Gliptins,Glitazones(+/-),Sulpha (variable)
4) Aging Meglitinides, Gliptins(?)
5) Hepatic Dysfunction Nateglinide, Saxagliptin(?)
6) Compliance Gliptins, Glitazones,
7) Cost Metformin, Sulphas, Glitazones
70. Therapeutic Algorithm
for Oral Hypoglycaemic Drugs…….Today.
Metformin Secretagogue Thiazolidinediones DPPV-4 inhibitor
1. Metformin+
Secretagogue
2. DPPV-4 inhibitor+
Secretagogue
Triple Therapy: A) M +Sec +DPPV
B) M+Thia+DPPV
Metformin
3. DPPV-4 inhibitor
+ Metformin
4.Thiazolidinedione
+ Metformin
Quadruple Therapy!!
73. References
Harrisons principle of internal medicine 19th Ed.
Kumar & Clarks clinical medicine 7th Ed.
Davidson's principles and practice of medicine 22nd Ed.
Emergency Medicine Board Review Series. L Stead, Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, 2000.
Emergency Medicine, A comprehensive study guide. Tintinalli, 6th
edition, McGraw Hill, 2004.
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