- The document details a state space solver approach for analog mixed-signal simulations using SystemC. It models analog circuits as sets of linear differential equations and solves them using the Runge-Kutta method of numerical integration. - Two examples are provided: a digital voltage regulator simulation and a digital phase locked loop simulation. Both analog circuits are modeled in state space and simulated alongside a digital design to verify mixed-signal behavior. - The state space approach allows modeling analog circuits without transistor-level details, improving simulation speed over traditional mixed-mode simulations while still capturing system-level behavior.

1. A System C Based State Space Solver for AMS
Simulations
Rajat Mitra
May 31, 2015
Abstract
The document details a structured Analog Mixed Signal (AMS)
simulation environment based on a State Space Solver (SSS). The ad-
vantages and caveats of the SSS are outlined and the author explains
the benefits of this approach in rapid design prototyping.
1 Introduction
Traditional AMS simulations have involved simulating the digital portion
of the design with analog circuitry at a transistor level. The Cadence Vir-
tuosso Environment is well suited for this type of simulation and has been
used successfully to verify proper functional behavior of the over all mixed
signal system. The digital portions of the design are simulated using Ver-
ilog or VHDL and the analog portions of the design are simulated using
SPICE/Spectre. Virtuosso synchronizes simulations events across the mixed
signal domains to yield a very realistic functional scenario of the overall de-
sign. This yields a great deal of confidence to the verification effort that
the I/O between the analog and the digital domain has been hooked up cor-
rectly and that the analog section correctly interacts with the digital section.
The disadvantage of traditional AMS simulations is that when prototyp-
ing / architecting a mixed signal architecture, neither the digital block nor
the analog circuitry is initially available. In most cases a quickly prototyped
digital block can easily be put together for concept testing. However the lack
of a hardware platform means that the block has to wait till some represen-
tation of the analog circuitry is contrived on an FPGA prototyping board.
Further the contrived analog circuitry may not be a faithful representation
of the final analog block.
In such a situation the Cadence Incisive Environment offers a very flexi-
ble simulation platform using the IRUN methodology. The IRUN methodol-
ogy easily allows for mixed language simulation and this is where the power
1

2. of the combined Verilog (digital) and SystemC (Analog) languages can be
exploited to do a true AMS simulation without resorting to transistor level
implementations of the analog circuitry.
While there are other approaches to simulate the behavior of the analog
block (Verilog A or Verilog AMS) the procedure that is detailed using Sys-
temC is simple, fast and can be used for ESL type simulations.
2 Modeling Analog Behavior
For the most part modeling linear non-conservative analog components like
an amplifier, digital to analog converter, analog to digital converter, offset
generator is fairly straight forward. However when one considers conser-
vative analog components such as continuous time filters and devices that
use these as sub components (examples are phase locked loops, powertrain
of a voltage regulator, current sense circuitry across an inductor etc.) it is
important to model these using Kirchoff’s Current/Voltage laws. In such
situations, once might resort to capturing the circuit in a schematic and
netlisting the same using the Verilog-A libraries built into Virtuosso or just
using Verilog-A constructs and writing out the circuit description. Either
way IRUN will simulate the analog behavior with the digital block effectively.
While this methodology is a viable option, a SystemC approach (mentioned
here) offers an alternative and is a good candidate for ESL level simulation.
In what follows we describe a State Space approace to modeling the con-
servative parts of the analog functionality and discuss the benefits of this
procedure. We then discuss several examples that were very successfully
simulated using this approach and also outline the caveats.
3 Solution of a Set of Linear Differential Equations
in State Space
The State Space Method has been used extensively in modern control theory
to model complex feedback systems. The idea is to frame the control pro-
cess in terms a set of linear time invariant differential equations that govern
the time evolution of the state variables. The details of this methodology is
extensively discussed in texts elsewhere[1], [2] and we only mention the key
ideas here.
We start with a brief description of how to solve a set of linear time
invariant differential equations in state space. Consider the following set of
2

3. coupled first order differential equations:
x = Ax + Bu (3.1)
y = Cx + Du (3.2)
where x’ is the first order derivative vector of the state variable vector
x, y is the output vector, u is the input vector A is the state transition ma-
trix, B is the input matrix, C is the output matrix and D is the feedthrough
matrix. The equation of interest for our purpose here is eqn (3.1).
What this equation tells us is that given a set of state variables x, a
model of the conservative system that relates the state variables to their
rate of change A, a model that ties the rate change to the applied input B
and a set of stimulus or inputs u, the rate of change x’ can be determined.
However one must note that there are restrictions on when this equation
applies and these are detailed in references[3] to which the reader is encour-
aged to refer to. We merely mention some of these these as bullet points:
• The system being modeled is linear or at least has a small signal model
that is linear. In this situation the input is applied such that system
remains in the small signall region.
• The system is asympototically stable, in that if the applied input is
removed (input is made to go to 0), the state-vector will return to the
origin of the state-space, x=0.
• A bounded finite input will always produce a bounded output. This
is saying that a finite input will produce an output that may have a
peak(overshoot) and a valley(undershoot) but will eventually settle to
a finite value.
There are standard practices to determining whether the system under
consideration the state space equation set is stable or not. Two common
approaches are to use a Nyquist Plot[2][3] and The Root Locus Method[2][3].
Given that we have an equation for the slope of the state variable and that
the system has been determined to be stable for the range of input responses
we are attempting to simulate, methods based on The Taylor Series expan-
sion allow us do determine the transient behavior of the state variables. Such
methods include The Euler Forward, The Euler Backward, various orders of
the Runge Kutta Method etc.[4]. Each of these methods have their merits
in terms of speed and accuracy. In this paper we explain how the Runge
Kutta Order 4 RK4 henceforth might be used to effectively simulate a
3

4. state space model. We choose the RK4 method over the Euler Methods due
to the higher accuracy of it’s results.
By definition of the differential we have the following equation for the
next state of the state variable-
xn+1 = xn + f(x , xn, ∆t) (3.3)
whereby xn+1 is the next value of the state variable, xn is its present
value, f xn+1,xn,Δt, is some function that determines the increment /
decrement to the state variable based on the state variables rate of change,
it’s present value and the simulation time step Δt. In it’s simplest form
first term in the Taylor Series , this fuction is the rate of change of the
state variable itself and in this form the next state equation computes the
next value of the state variable using the Euler Forward method[4]. For the
RK4 method we use the following iterative approach to compute the time
increment value-
k1 = ∆tf(tn, xn) (3.4)
k2 = ∆tf(tn + ∆t/2, xn + k1/2) (3.5)
k3 = ∆tf(tn + ∆t/2, xn + k2/2) (3.6)
k4 = ∆tf(tn + ∆t, xn + k3) (3.7)
xn+1 = xn +
1
6
(k1 + k2 + k3 + k4) (3.8)
The choice of the RK4 over the Euler Method might appear to be a lit-
tle more compute intensive note that the Euler Method is implemented by
dropping k2, k3, k4 and setting the multiplying term in 8 to 1 instead of
1/6 .However on careful observation one sees that the terms ki (i=1,2,3,4)
can be unrolled a priori instead of solving iteratively(in steps). We explain
the application of these methods using the following two examples.
3.1 Simulating a Single Phase Digital Voltage Regulator Buck
The functional/performance verification of a digital voltage regulator using
the SSS is a good example of how this methodology might be used for AMS
simulations. Digital voltage regulators are a reletively new technology. The
4

5. user sends voltage set point commands to the device and in turn the regu-
lator regulates to the set point voltage. We refer to Figure 1 to explain how
the simulation environment is set up.
Pulse Width Modulator
PID Contorller
Voltage
Sequencer
L
RL
Rc
C
ILoad
PWM_IN
VIN
VOUT,
IOUT
ADC
Analog Front End
Test
Control
System Verilog
Verilog
System C
SystemC – State Space Solver
Driver & FET
Figure 1 – Digital Voltage Regulator, State Space Solver based Testbench
There are 3 main domains in the simulation environment. These are:
• The System Verilog domain - This is the test control and logging do-
main. The Test Control block is able to send voltage set point com-
mand to the DUT the voltage regulator and set output loads in the
SSS.
• The SystemC domain - There are 2 sub domains in the SystemC do-
main. These are the Analog Behavioral block that includes the Analog
Front End AFE and the Analog to Digital Converter ADC . The
5

6. AFE takes the digital voltage output of the Voltage Sequencer in the
DUT and converts it to a real valued voltage. This voltage is com-
pared with the voltage from the SSS and the difference is digitized by
the ADC.The ADC thereafter passes the digitized voltage difference
error voltage to the DUT. The other SystemC domain is the SSS
itself. We will discuss the SSS shortly.
• The Verilog domain - This domain contains the digital voltage regu-
lator. The voltage regulator consists of a PID Controller PID that
drives the Pulse Width Modulator PWM . The PID basically in-
structs the PWM how to create the output pulses so as to best achieve
the desired set point voltage with minimal overshoot and undershoot
due to output load changes and dynamic voltage change requests from
the test bench. The Voltage Sequencer is responsible for ramping the
output voltage up or down based on voltage change request received
from the Test Control block.
The SystemC and the Verilog/SystemVerilog are tied together using the
System Verilog DPI interface. Function calls between the two domains are
synchronized via call backs implemented in the testbench.
We now discuss how the SSS is implemented. Using Kirchoff’s Voltage KVL
and Kirchoff’s Current KCL we write the set of equations that models the
passive output filter the inductor -L, the inductor DCR -RL, the capacitor
-C, the ESR -Rc , the input voltage source the Driver and FET -VIN and
the output load the current source -Iload . On solving the network equa-
tions we have in matrix equation form as depicted in 3.1 :
i L
v C
=
− RL + RC /L −1/L
1/C 0
iL,n
vC,n
+
RC/L 1/L
−1/C 0
Iload,n
Vin,n
(3.9)
Here the state variables are the current through the inductor iL and
the voltage across the capacitor vC. The subscript n is used to denote it’s
insantaneous value. On comparing this equation set to 3.1 it is clear that
the state transition matrix and the input matrix are constant. Further Vin,n
and Iload,n are the instantaneous input voltage and load current. At this
stage we have established the required “Rate of Change” equations for the
state variables. It remains to now set up the next state equations for the
current through the inductor and the voltage across the capacitor. Note
that the state transition matrix A is the matrix that scales the current
state vector whose elements are the current through the inductor and the
voltage across teh capacitor. The input matrix B scales the input vector
that consists of the applied input voltage and the output load. In order to
6

7. setup the next step equations for vC and iL, we need to create the next step
function from the A and B matrices. As mentioned we use the RK4 method
for this next step function. We have developed a SystemC solver library
and one of the functions; solver rk4 takes as it’s argument the A matrix,
the B matrix, the symbol for the voltage across the capacitor, the symbol
for the current through the inductor, the symbol for the input voltage, the
symbol for the load current and the simulation time step and creates a sum
of product equation that models the next state equations for the voltage
across the capacitor and the current through the inductor. More generally
this function takes as its arguments the A matrix, the B matrix, the state
variable vector, the input variable vector and the simulation time step and
outputs the next state variable vector. The equations that are created from
this function for our particular case look like this:
vC,n+1 = M1,1vC,n + M1,2iL,n + N1,1Vin,n + N1,2Iload,n (3.10)
iL,n+1 = M2,1vC,n + M2,2iL,n + N2,1Vin,n + N2,2Iload,n (3.11)
Here Mi,j are the coefficients generated by solver rk4 function the for
given values of the inductance L, the capacitance C, the inductor DCR RL
and the capacitor ESR RC. Note here the computational effeciency that was
achieved using the solver rk4 function to remove the iterative form of the
RK4 method. Each next state variable now has a sum of product form that
is effectively used to determine its transient behavior based on the applied
inputs. We illustrate in Figure 2 the the ramping of the output voltage of
the voltage regulator DUT based on the Test Control sending a request to
ramp to 1.00 Volts.
7

8. Voltage across
Capacitor
Current through
Inductor Sequencer digitally ramping the
set point voltage to 1.0 volts
Figure 2 – Simulation of the Voltage Regulator
3.2 Simulating a Digital Phase Locked Loop
The SSS methodology was successfully used to simulate the Analog Loop
Filter and the VCO combination in a Digital Phase Locked Loop. Figure 3
below shows the various domains in the simulation environment:
8

9. Phase Detector
VCO
(Voltage Controlled
Oscillator)
Analog Loop Filter
Divider
Input
Reference
Clock
Local
Oscillator
Out
SystemC -
State Space Solver
Figure 3 Simulating a Digital Phase Lock Loop Using a State Space
Solver
System Verilog
Domain
The transfer function of the combined analog loop filter and the voltage
controlled oscillator combination was converted from the frequency doamin
to the time domain using the state space approach similar to the example
above. The solver rk4 function was used to take the circuit description
and generate the generate equation much like 3.10 and 3.11 . Figure 4
shows how the local oscillator output voltage reacts to a frequency drift in
the input reference frequency.
9

10. Local Osc and
Reference
Locked
Reference Starts
Drifting
Local Osc and
Reference
Locked
4 Conclusion
We conclude that the SSS methodology can successfully be used to model
passive analog circuitry using the SystemC libraries. The simulation speed is
considerably faster that using using a traditional mixed mode (VerilogA/Spice
+ Verilog) approach. However the user has to do some initial legwork here
in that the circuit description (The A and B Matrix) have to be manually
determined. Also the simulation time step needs to be pre-determined and
several ways exist for doing this(will be discussed in a future paper). Note
that the next state equations for the state variables have been reduced to a
sum of products form and this makes the set of equations amicable for solving
on a highly parallel processor. One such effort being carried out internally is
to have the solver run on a GPU based environment[5]. But overall the use
10

11. of this methodology using IRUN has proved to be quite efficient. A follow
on version of this paper intends to detail the actual mechanics of the solver
library, the system Verilog DPI that connects the SystemC engine to the
testbench and more examples of the application of this practice in solving
complex mixed siganl simualtions using only a all digital simulator(ncsim).
References
[1] Derek Rowell Time-Domain Solution of LTI State Equations 2.14 Anal-
ysis and Design of Feedback Control Systems, MIT, October 2002
[2] Modern Control Engineering Katshuiko Ogata, Fifth Edition, Prentice
Hall, 2010
[3] Control Theory Fundamentals Richard Poley, Second Edition, Control
Theory Seminars, March 2014
[4] Applied Numerical Methods, with MATLAB, for Engineers and Scien-
tists Steven Capra, Third Edition, McGraw Hill, 2012
[5] A CUDA based State Space Solver Rajat Mitra, Internal Document, 2014
11