How is Covid-19 Virus impact our lifeCredit Weixin He Bru

How is Covid-19 Virus impact our life
Credit: Weixin He Bruce(624415) ; Yuaola Chen(615926); Zhi
Hu(606109);
Jiwu Hou(624620)
Term project
Course: LDRS 330 N3
Instructor: Johannes Regier, M.Sc.
What is Covid-19 Virus?
COVID-19 is the disease caused by the new coronavirus that
was first identified in December 2019.
COVID-19 symptoms include cough, fever or chills, shortness
of breath or difficulty breathing, muscle or body aches, sore
throat, new loss of taste or smell, diarrhea, headache, new
fatigue, nausea or vomiting and congestion or runny nose.
COVID-19 can be severe, and some cases have caused death.
The new coronavirus can be spread from person to person. It is
diagnosed with a laboratory test.
Prevention involves frequent hand-washing, coughing into the
bend of your elbow, staying home when you are sick and
wearing a cloth face covering if you can't practice physical
distancing.

How does the Covid-19 virus spread?
As of now, researchers know that the new coronavirus is spread
through droplets released into the air when an infected person
coughs or sneezes.
The droplets generally do not travel more than a few feet, and
they fall to the ground (or onto surfaces) in a few seconds
This is why physical distancing is effective in preventing the
spread.
It appears that symptoms are showing up in people within 14
days of exposure to the virus.
What has virus affected us
Racism
Life Threatening
Social Distance
Companies
Individuals’ Income
Trust Between Individuals
Students Taking Classes (Especially International Students)
How Do We Communicate (Take Classes)
Voice chat, video chat, and text messages becomes one of the
most popular ways of how individuals communicate with each
other.
Zoom is widely used all over the world, while in China

individuals use a similar app called DingDing to take classes
online.
Mask is necessary to wear for everyone to wear if they must go
outside, for example, grocery shopping.
Individuals keep distances longer than 1 meters between each
other.
Ways of Countries Dealing With Virus
Canada:
Government provide money to individuals who lose their job
due to the virus and company owners who was forced to
running.
Police spot check if anyone is hanging over during special
period and charge fine if anyone break the rule.
Encouraging everyone to stay at home instead of going out or
travel during the pedamic.
Individuals come back to Canada from other countries have to
stay in a hotel for three days and take the coronavirus test
before leaving the hotel, and then stay at home for two weeks
before going out to public places.
China (Controlled Better):
Mayor lock-down the province if the virus in one province is
rising rapidly.
Individuals coming back to China from other countries have to
quarantine for fourteen days in a hotel, take a coronavirus test,
and then say at home for fourteen days before going out to
public areas.

Before going into a shopping mall, hospital, public areas, or
delivering food, must measure their body temperature and has to
be lower than thirty seven degree centigrade.
Everyone has a QR code, before entering public areas or
entering another province, everyone must show it to the
officers. If the code is green, it means you are healthy and you
can enter. If you pick up anyone who recently comes back from
another country, your code will turn yellow and you are not
allowed to go in public areas. Instead, you need to stay at home
for fourteen days before it turned green again. If you are
affected by the coronavirus, your code will be red and you are
not allowed to leave the hospital until you are cured.
How companies can intervene in the epidemic
Telecommuting
Telecommuting is a new office model. Countries have
effectively adopted this novel model. Studies have shown that
this model helps companies resume work and production
smoothly. Secondly, it also reduces the flow of personnel and
protects the health of employees.
“Sharing employees”
With the development of the epidemic, the issue of human
resource allocation has become a difficulty. Companies in
various countries are unable to recruit excellent employees
based on their needs. On the contrary, some companies have
carried out a large number of layoffs in order to reduce labor
costs. Based on this issue, the human resources departments of
many companies have also intervened.

How companies can intervene in the epidemic
3. Adjust the sales model
Take catering companies as an example.The company no longer
allows people to eat food indoors, but they chooses to take out
to deliver meals to people’s homes.
Possible interventions
At the beginning of the project, leaders need to understand
motivational team coaching and it is appropriate to increase
commitment to the team and tasks. When it comes to the
transition period, leaders need to understand Consultative
coaching, which is a strategy-oriented coaching that can help
the team analyze And improving operations is very valuable.
AS for the educational coaching on our project, Planning and
goal setting support employees to establish personal
development goals that they value and ensure their ability to
complete the agreed steps of action, for example, setting
personal sales and rewarding employees for reaching the goal.
In addition, the group conducts regular employee experience
exchanges.

Action plan
First of all, our team actively listens to the opinions of all
members and integrates their ideas into the team’s decision-
making. For example, we investigate the distribution of local
restaurants, and some members propose to inquire through
Google map and field trips. Then everyone decides to assign
tasks together.
Regarding how to increase the intensity of publicity and
promotion, our team believes that the first thing to do is to put
the logo of our food delivery platform on the door of the
restaurant we cooperate with. Second, promote our app with a
large number of activities and discounts.
Servant Leader
Whoever of you wants to become first among you, shall be
bondservant of all
For the Son of Man also came not to be served, but to serve, and
to give his life as a ransom for many .
-

Journal of General Management
Vol. 26 No.2 Winter 2000
A Reappraisal ofHRM
Models in Britain
by
Pawan s. Budhwar
Human Resource Management is still struggling to find a
strategic role.
For a better understanding ofthe subj ect, both management
practitioners
and scholars need to study human resource management (HRM)
in
context [1]. The dynamics of both the local/regional and
international/
global business context in which the firm operates should be
given a
serious consideration. Similarly, there is a need to use multiple
levels of
analysis when studying HRM: the external social, political,
cultural, and
economic environment; and the industry. Examining HRM out-
of-context
could be misleading and fail to advance understanding. A key
question is
how to examine HRM in context? One way is by examining the
main
models of HRM in different settings. However, there is no
existing
framework that can enable such an evaluation to take place. An
attempt
has been made in this paper to provide such a framework and
empirically
examine it in the British context.

This paper is divided into three parts. Initially, it summarises
the
main developments in the field of HRM. Then, it highlights the
key
emphasis of five models of HRM (namely, the 'Matching
model'; the
'Harvard model'; the 'Contextual model'; the '5-P model'; and
the
'European model' ofHRM). Lastly, we will address the
operationalisation
of the key issues and emphases of the aforeme ntioned models by
examining their applicability in six industries ofthe British
manufacturing
sector. The evaluation highlights the context specific nature of
British
HRM.
This introduction looks at the need to identify the core emphasis
of
the main HRM models that could be used to examine their
applicability in
different national contexts. Developments in the field of HRM
are now
well documented in the literature [2, 3]. The debate relating to
the nature
ofHRM continues today, although the focus of the debate has
changed
over a period of time. At present, the contribution ofHRM in
improving
Pawan S. Budhwar is Lecturer in Organizational Behaviour and
HRM at CardiffBusiness School, UK.

the firm's performance and the overall success of any
organization
(alongside other factors) is being highlighted in the literature
[4, 5].
Alongside these debates, a number of important theoretical
developments have taken place in the field of HRM. For
example, a
number ofmodels ofHRM have been developed over the last 15
years or
so. Some of the main models are: the 'Matching model'; the
'Harvard
model'; the 'Contextual model'; the '5-P model'; and the
'European
model' ofHRM [6, 7]. All these models have been developed in
the US
and the UK. These models ofHRM are proj ected to be useful
for analysis
both between and within nations. However, the developers of
these
models do not provide clear guidelines regarding their
operationalisation
in different contexts. Moreover, it is interesting to note that,
although a
large number of scholars refer to these models, very few have
tested their
practical applicability (exceptions being Benkhoff [8]; Monks
[9]; Truss
et al. [10]). For the development of relevant management
practices there
is then a clear need not only to highlight the main emphasis of
the HRM
models but also to show their operationalisation. Such an

analysis will help
to examine the applicability of these models in other parts of
the world.
With the increasing levels ofglobalisation ofbusiness such
investigations
have become an imperative.
Moreover, although the present literature shows an emphasis on
themes such as 'strategic HRM' (SHRM), the majority of
researchers
persist in examining only the traditional 'hard' and' soft' models
ofHRM
[11]. For the growth and development of SHRM, there is a
strong need
to examine the applicability of those models ofHRM which can
help to
assess the extent to which it has really become strategic in
different parts
of the world, and the main factors and variables which
determine HRM
in different settings. This will not only test the applicability of
HRM
approaches in different regions, but will also help to highlight
the context
specific nature of HRM practices.
The aims of this paper are twofold. First, to identify the core
emphasis offive main models ofHRM which can be used to
examine their
applicability in different national contexts. Second, to test
empirically the
applicability of these models of HRM in the British context.
Before
answering why this investigation is being conducted in the UK,
the main
models of HRM are briefly analysed.

Models of HRM
Five models ofHRM, which are widely documented in the
literature are
chosen for analysis. They are: the 'Matching model'; the
'Harvard
model'; the 'Contextual model'; the '5-P model'; and the
'European
model' ofHRM [12,13, 14]. The reason for the selection and
analysis of
thesemodelsis two-fold.First, it will help to highlight their main
contribution
-
..
to the development of SHRM as a distinct discipline. Second, it
will help
to identify the main research questions suitable for examining
these
models in different national settings. The analysis begins with
one of the
traditional models ofHRM.
The strategic fit of HRM
The main contributors to the 'Matching model' ofHRM come
from the
Michigan and New York schools. Fombrun et al. 's [15] model

highlights
the 'resource' aspect ofHRM and emphasises the efficient
utilisation of
human resources (like otherresources) to meet organizational
objectives.
The matching model is mainly based on Chandler's [16]
argument that an
organization's structure is an outcome of its strategy. Fombrun
et al.
expanded this premise and developed the matching model of
strategic
RRM, which emphasises a 'tight fit' between organizational
strategy,
organizational structure and HRM system, where both structure
and
HRM are dependent on the organization strategy. The main aim
of the
matching model is therefore to develop an appropriate 'Human
Resource
System' that will characterise those HRM strategies that
contribute to the
most efficient implementation ofbusiness strategies. The
Schuler group
made further developments to the matching model and its core
theme of
'strategic fit' in the late 19?Os [17]. The core issues emerging
from the
matching models are:
1. Do organizations show a 'tight fit' between their HRM and
organization strategy where the former is dependent on the
latter? Do personnellHR managers believe they should
develop HRM systems only for the effective implementation
of their organization strategies?
.2. Do organizations consider their HRs as a cost and use them

sparingly? Or, do they devote resources to the training of
their HRs to make the best use of them?
3. Do HRM strategies vary across different levels of
employees?
The soft variant of HRM
Beer et al. [18] articulated the 'Harvard Model' of HRM. It is
also
denoted as the 'Soft' variant ofHRM [19], mainly because it
stresses the
'human' aspect of HRM and is more concerned with the
employer-
employee relationship. The model highlights the interests of
different
stakeholders in the organization (such as shareholders,
management,
employee groups, government, community and unions) and how
their
interests are related to the objectives of management. It also
recognises
the influence ofsituational factors (such as the market situation)
on HRM
policy choices. According to this model, the actual content of
HRM is
described in relation to four policy areas i.e. human resource
flows,
reward systems, employees' influence and work systems. Each
of the

four policy areas is characterised by a series of tasks to which
managers
must attend. The outcomes that these four HR policies need to
achieve
are commitment, competence, congruence, and cost
effectiveness. The
model allows for analysis of these outcomes at both
organizational and
societal levels. As this model acknowledges the role ofsocietal
outcomes,
it can provide a useful basis for comparative analysis of HRM
[20]. The
key issues emerging from this model which can be used for
examining its
applicability in different contexts are:
1. What is the influence ofdifferent stakeholders and situational
and contingent variables on HRM policies?
2. To what extent is communication with employees used as a
means to maximise commitment?
3. What level of emphasis is given to employee development
through involvement, empowerment and devolution?
The contextual model of HRM
Researchers at the Centre for Corporate Strategy and Change at
the
Warwick Business School developed this model. They examined
strategy
making in complex organizations and related this to the ability
to transform
HRM practices [21,22]. Hendry and associates argue that HRM
should
not be labelled as a single form of activity. Organizations may

follow a
number of different pathways in order to achieve the same
results. This
is mainly due to the existence of a number of linkages between
the outer
environmental context (socio-economic, technological,
political-legal and
competitive)and inner organizationalcontext (culture, structure,
leadership,
task-technology and business output). These linkages directly
contribute
to forming the content of an organization's HRM. The core
issues
emerging from this model are:
1. What is the influence of economic (competitive conditions,
ownership and control, organization size and structure,
organizational growth path or stage in the life cycle and the
structure of the industry), technological (type of production
systems) and socio-political (national education and training
set-up) factors on HRM strategies?
2. What are the linkages between organizational contingencies
(such as size, nature, positioning ofHR, and HR strategies)
and HRM strategies?
Strategic integration of HRM
The existing literature reveals a trend in which HRM is
becoming an
integral part of business strategy - hence, the emergence of the
term
SHRM. It is largely concerned with 'integration' and
'adaptation'. The
purpose of SHRM is to ensure that [23]:

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..
VoL 26 No.2 Winter2000
1. HRM is fully integrated with the strategy and strategic needs
of the firm;
2. HR policies are coherent both across policy areas and across
hierarchies; and
3. HR practices are adjusted, accepted, and used by line
managers and employees as part of their every day work.
Based on such premises, Schuler [24] developed a 5-P model of
SHRM that melds five HR activities (philosophies, policies,
programs,
practices and processes) with strategic needs. This model, to a
great
extent, explains the significance ofthese five SHRM activities in
achieving
the organization's strategic needs, and shows the inter-
relatedness of
activities that are often treated separately in the literature. This
is helpful
in understanding the complex interaction between
organizational strategy
and SHRM activities.
The model raises two important issues (also suggested by many
other authors in the field) for SHRM comparisons. These are:

1. What is the level of integration of HRM into the business
strategy?
2. What is the level ofresponsibility for HRM devolved to line
managers?
European model of HRM
Based on the growing importance of HRM and its contributio n
towards
economic success and the drive towards Europeanisation,
Brewster [25]
proposes a 'European model ofHRM'. His model is based on the
premise
that European organizations operate with restricted autonomy.
They are
constrained at both the international (European Union) and
national levels
by national culture and legislation, at the organization level by
patterns of
ownership, and at the HRM level by trade union involvement
and
consultative arrangements [26, p. 3]. Brewster suggests the need
to
accommodate such constraints when forming a model ofHRM.
He also
talks about 'outer' (legalistic framework, vocational training
programs,
social security provisions and the ownership patterns) and
'internal' (such
as union influence and employee involvement in decision
making) constraints
on HRM. Based on such constraints, Brewster's model
highlights the
influence of factors such as national culture, ownership
structures, the

role of the state and trade unions on HRM, in different national
settings.
The European model shows an interaction between HR
strategies,
business strategy and HR practice and their interaction with an
external
environment constituting national culture, power systems,
legislation,
education, employee representation and the constraints
previously
mentioned. It places HR strategies in close interaction with the
relevant
organizational strategy and external environment. One
important aim of
this model is to show factors external to the organization as a
part of the
HRM model, rather than as a set of external influences upon it.
From the above analyses, it can be seen that there is an element
of
both the contextual and 5-P models of HRM present in
Brewster's
European model. Apart from the emphasis on 'strategic HRM',
one main
issue important for cross-national HRM comparisons emerges
from
Brewster's model. This is:
• What is the influence of international institutions, national

factors (such as culture, legal set up, economic environment
and ownership patterns), and national institutions (such as the
educational and vocational set-up, labour markets and trade
unions) on HRM strategies and HRM practices?
Recently, Budhwar and associates [27, 28,29,30] have proposed
a framework for examining cross-national HRM. They have
identified
three levels of factors and variables that are known to influence
HRM
policies and practices and which are worth considering for
cross-national
HRM examinations. These are national factors (such as national
culture,
national institutions, business sectors and dynamic of the
business
environment), contingent variables (such as the age, size,
nature, ownership,
and life cycle stage of the organization, the presence of trade
unions and
HR strategies, and the interests of different stakeholders) and
organizational strategies and policies (related to primary HR
functions,
internal labour markets, levels ofintegration and devolvement,
and nature
ofwork). This framework is used to examine the applicability
ofthe issues
arising from the five HRM models in British organizations. But
why
conduct this form of investigation, and in the British context?
As mentioned already, there is a scarcity of this type of
research.
So far, only Truss et al. [31] have examined the applicability of
some of
the models of HRM in a few UK case companies. Apart from

their
research, there is scarcely any study that conducts the type
ofinvestigation
described here. There are, then, two main reasons for
conducting this
investigation in British companies. First, a UK sample
possesses the
characteristics suitable to test the operationalisation ofthe main
emphases
and critical issues ofthe five models ofHRM. Second, the HRM
function
in the UK is under intense pressure due to competitive
conditions, and the
restructuring and rightsizing programmes going on in British
organizations,
as well as the pressure on British firms from EU and other
international
players to stay competitive and meet the EU regulation
regarding the
management ofhuman resources. In such dynamic business
conditions it
is worth examining the HRM function in context. Moreover,
since the five
models have been developed among Anglo-Saxon nations, it is
sensible to
test them initially in these countries before recommending their
testing in
others parts of the world.
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..

The Research Methodology
Sample and data collection
A mixed methodology, using a questionnaire survey and in-
depth interviews,
was adopted. During the first phase of the research, a
questionnaire
survey was conducted between August 1994 and December 1994
in
British firms having 200 or more employees in six industries in
the
manufacturing sector (food processing, plastics, steel, textiles,
pharmaceuticals and footwear). The respondents were the top
personnel
specialist (one each) from each firm. The response rate ofthe
questionnaire
survey was approximately 19 per cent (93 out of 500
questionnaires). The
items for the questionnaire were constructed from existing
sources, such
as those developed by Cranfield researchers in their study
ofcomparative
European HRM [32] and other studies (see for example [33,
34]). The
questionnaire consisted of 13 sections. These were: HR
department
structure, role of the HR function in corporate strategy,
recruitment and
selection, pay and benefits, training and development,
performance
appraisal, employee relations, HRM strategy, influence
ofnational culture,
national institutions, competitive pressures and business sector

on HRM,
organizational details. Public limited companies represented
approximately
one-third of the sample, with the remainder from the private
sector. The
industry-wide distribution of respondents is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Sample Industry Distribution
Indtitry Percentage .
Food Processing 17.2
Plastics 17.2
Steel 16.1
Textiles 17.2
Pharmaceuticals 21.5
Footwear 10.8
Analysis of the demographic features of the sample suggests
that
the sample was representative ofthe total population. Sixty-two
per cent
of sample organizations were medium-sized and employed 200-
499
employees, 14 per cent employed 500-999 employees, 15 per
cent 1000-
4999 employees, and 8 per cent employed 5000 or more
employees.
In the second phase of the research, 24 in-depth interviews were
conducted with personnel specialists representative of those
firms which
participated in the first phase of the research. The interviews
examined
six themes, viz. the nature of the personnel function, integration
ofHRM
into the corporate strategy, devolvement ofHRM to line

managers, and
the influences of national culture, national institutions and
business
environment dynamic on HRM.
Measures
Multiple regression analysis and descriptive statistics are use d
to analyse
questionnaire data. Table 1 in the Appendix shows the main
dependent
and independent variables used for multiple regression analysis.
Table 2
in the Appendix presents the mean scores of respondents
regarding the
influence of different aspects of national factors (culture,
institutions,
business environment dynamic and business sector) and HR
strategies on
HRM policies and practices. The qualitative data is content
analysed. In
the discussion, survey results are complemented by key
messages coming
from the qualitative interviews.
Findings of the Study
The matching models suggest a strong dependence ofHRM on
organization
strategy, i.e, HRM is mainly developed for the effective
implementation

of organization strategies. The results show that in 34.6 per cent
of the
organizations under study personnel is involved from the outset
in the
formation of corporate strategy, and 42 per cent of
organizations actively
involve HRM during the implementation stage of their
organizational
strategies. Such a trend of 'active' personnel management is
further
evident from 55 per cent of sample organizations having
personnel
representation at board level. Moreover, 81.1 per cent ofthe
respondents
believe that their HRM has become proactive over the last five
years (i.e.
more involved in decision making).
Such results reflect the growing strategic and proactive nature
of
the British personnel function. There is support for such
findings in the
existing literature [35, 36].
The second reason to examine the matching models in a cross-
national context is to assess whether human resources are
considered as
a cost ('use them sparingly') or as an asset (spend on training to
'make
their best use '). The results suggest that British organizations
claim to be
spending variable though reasonable proportions oftheir annual
salaries
on human resource development (HRD) related activities (see
Table 2).

Table 2: Proportion of Annual Salaries and Wages Currently
Spent on Training and Development
Value(%) Percentage of Sample
Nil -
0.1- 2.00 41.3
2.01-4.00 7.6
4.01- 6.00 3.3
6.01 or more 1.1
Don't know 46.7
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Vol. 26 No.2 Winter2000
A similar pattern characterizes the number ofdays training
provided
to different levels ofemployees (see Table 3). The substantial
majority of
British firms have increased (rather than maintained or reduced)
their
training spend across all categories of staff over the last five
years (see
Table 4). There is evidence that this investment has been
directed
particularly in the areas of performance appraisal,
communication,
delegation, motivation and team building.

Table 3: Average Number of Days Training and Development
Given to Staff Categories Per Year
Different Cat~ories of Staff
Number ofDays Mana}!erial(%) Prof,/Technical(%) Clerical(%)
Manual(%)
Nil 1.2 1.1 2.3 1.2
0.1-3.00 24.4 22.8 35.6 24.7
3.01-5.00 20.9 21.7 13.8 11.7
5.01-10.00 7.0 14.7 4.6 11.8
10.1 and above 5.8 4.6 3.5 9.4
Don't know 40.7 40.9 40.2 41.2
These developments in the British HRD scene appear to be
consistent with the increased realisation by both business and
government
that the development of human resources has been neglected for
too long
[37].
Table 4: Nature of Change in Amount of Money Spent on
Training Per Employee
Different Categories of Staff
Nature ofChange Mana}!erial("/o) Prof,/Technical("/o)
Clerical(%) Manual(%)
Increased 59.8 63.0 53.3 60.9
Same 21.7 18.5 28.3 20.7
Decreased 7.6 8.7 7.6 7.6
Don't know 10.9 9.8 10.9 10.9
Another key emphasis of the matching model suggests a
variation

in HRM strategies across different levels of employees. This is
clearly
evident from the results as the nature and type of approach to
the
management of different levels of employees vary significantly
(see for
example, Tables 3 and 4). This aspect is further highlighted
later in this
paper. Based on the above evidence, it seems that the British
personnel
function still plays an implementationist role rather than being
actively
involved in strategy formulation. On the other hand, there is a
strong
emphasis on training and development.
Important Situational Determinants
One of the basic assumptions of the Harvard model of HRM is
the
influence of a number of situational factors (such as work force
characteristics, unions, labour legislation and business strategy)
and
different stakeholders (such as unions, government and
community) on
HRM policies. The impact of a few of the situational factors
and
stakeholders (proposed by Beer et al. [38D was examined during
the
multiple regressions, analysis of means scores and the analysis

of
interview results.
Taking the number of employees as a characteristic of the work
force [39, 40], the regression results show that small British
organizations
(those having less than 499 employees) are likely to recruit
their managerial
staff by advertising externally. Medium size organizations
(those having
500 to 999 employees) are likely to recruittheirclerical staffas
apprentices.
Large organizations (those having 1000 to 4999 employees) are
more
likely to use assessment centres to train their human resources.
Lastly,
very large firms (having over 5000 employees) are less likely to
recruit
their managerial staff by advertising internally and their manual
staff
through the use of word of mouth method. These firms are
likely,
however, to recruit their professional staff with the help of
consultants.
Moreover, large UK firms are more likely to adopt formal
career plans,
succession plans and planned job rotation to develop their
human resources
(for details see Table 1 in Appendix).
Support for these findings can be found in the literature (see for
example, [41D. The size ofan organization has a positive
relation with the
formalism of their HRM policies [42]. Therefore, as the size of
the firm
becomes large, logically, the degree offormalism ofits personnel

function
increases and the organization obtains the help ofrecruitment
agencies to
recruit its professional employees.
The results show a strong impact of labour laws, educational
and
vocational training set up (highlighting government policy) and
unions on
British HRM policies (see Table 2 in Appendix). Unions in the
UK are
now playing a more supportive role [43]. The implementation of
labour
legislation is also having significant influence on UK HRM
policies.
Various pressures groups also contribute in this regard (for
example,
against age discrimination). Over the last decade or so, the
education and
vocational set-up in the UK has initiated a number of
programmes and
qualifications such as the national vocational qualifications
(NVQs),
investors in people (IIP) and' opportunity 2000' . These are now
significantly
influencing HRM in British organizations [44].
The results also show a number of significant regressions
regarding
the impact of HR strategies on British HRM. Results in Table 1
in the
Appendix show that organizations pursuing a cost reduction
strategy are
more likely to recruit their clerical and manual staffas
apprentices. These
organizations are likely to adopt an effective resource allocation

HR
strategy. Organizations pursuing a talent improvement HR
strategy are
-
less likely to recruit their manual staff by word of mouth
method.
However, sample firms pursuing a talent acquisition HR
strategy are
likely to use consultants to recruit their managerial staff and
recruitment
agencies for manual staff. These organizations are also likely to
adopt
assessment centres to train their staff.
Most of the above results seem to be logical. For example, by
recruiting employees as apprentices organizations not only pay
them less
but also train and prepare them for working in the long run in
their
organizations. Hence, it helps to reduce the costs. Similarl y, by
recruiting
employees externally, organizations increase the opportunity to
improve
their talent base.
The second key emphasis of the Harvard model of HRM
suggests
extensive use of communication with employees as a mechanism
to

maximise commitment [45, p. 63]. Ninety-one per cent of
British
organizations share information related to both strategy and
financial
performance with their managerial staff. However, this
percentage is
significantly lower for other categories of employees (see Table
5).
Table 5: Employees Formally Briefed about Strategy or
Financial Performance
Different Categmes of Staff
Tvoe ofInformation Managerial(%) Prof/Technical(%)
Clerical(%) Manual(%)
Strategy - 8.0 8.6 6.4
Financial Performance 6.5 14.8 39.5 38.5
Both 91.3 65.7 42.0 23.6
Neither 2.2 11.6 9.9 31.5
There can be a number of explanations for the difference in the
sharing of strategic and financial information with different
levels of
employees in British organizations. Whilst noting that top
personnel
specialists are now more and more involved in strategy making,
it seems
that top management continue to be reluctant to devolve
responsibility to
line managers for the dissemination offinancial and strategic
information.
These issues are further examined when discussing the 5-P
model.
The above discussion suggests applicability of the Harvard
model

ofHRM in British organizations. The results showed an impact
oflabour
laws, education vocational set-up, unions, work force
characteristics and
HR strategies on HRM policy choices. There are encouraging
results on
the communication of information with different levels of
employees
regarding sharing strategic and financial performance and on
employee
development through their involvement and training.
Contextual Factors
The main issue against which the relevance of the contextual
model can
be evaluated is the impact on HRM policies and practices of
economic
(characterized by competitive pressures, ownership and life
cycle stage),
technological (type ofproduction system)and socio-political
(characterised
by national education and training set-up) factors and
organizational
contingencies (such as size, age and nature of organization).
The results show a strong influence of competitive pressures on
British HRM policies and practices (see Table 2 in Appendix).
To achieve
a competitive edge in such situations, they are focusing

particularly on
total customer satisfaction and the restructuring oftheir
organizations. As
competitive pressures are also forcing British organizations to
enter into
new business arrangements (such as alliances), so these are
having direct
influence on HRM policies and practices.
The results also show the impact of increasingly sophisticated
informationand communications technology on HRM policies
and practices
(see Table 2 in the Appendix). Further evidence indicates that
the
majority of respondents suggest these technologies mainly
influence
training, appraisal and transfer functions. Why? Because with
the change
in technology, employees need to be trained to handle it. To see
if they
have achieved the required competence they are appraised and if
required, transferred to suitable positions.
Finally, we summarise the relevance of the contextual model of
HRM in terms ofthe impact of organizational contingencies.
Contingent
variables such as size of the organization, presence of HR
strategy and
presence of unions were examined above, as were the impacts of
ownership and organizational life cycle stage. These variables
do not
seem significantly to impact HRM in British organizations.
Nevertheless, there is significant evidence overall regarding the
applicability of the contextual model ofHRM in British
organizations.

Strategic Integration and Devolvement of HRM in Britain
Our discussion now focuses on the relevance of the '5 P' model
ofHRM
in British organizations. To achieve this, results regarding the
integration
of HRM into corporate strategy and the devolution of
responsibility for
HRM to line managers are examined. The detailed results are
presented
elsewhere [46], but are summarized below.
In brief, the level of integration is measured on the basis of the
following four scales:
a) representation of Personnel on the board;
b) presence of a written Personnel strategy;
c) consultation ofPersonnel (from the outset) in the
development
of corporate strategy; and
d) translation ofPersonnel/HR strategy into a clear set of work
programmes.
-
Vol. 26 No. 2 Winter 2000
The level of devolvement is measured on the basis of the
following
three scales:

a) primary responsibility with line managers for HRM decision
making (regarding pay and benefits, recruitment and selection,
training and development, industrial relations, health and
safety, and workforce expansion and reduction);
b) change in the responsibility of line managers for HRM
(regarding pay and benefits, recruitment and selection, training
and development, industrial relations, health and safety, and
workforce expansion and reduction); and
c) percentage ofline managers trained in performance appraisal,
communication, delegation, motivation, team building and
foreign language.
High integration is the result of personnel representation at
board
level, the personnel function being consulted about corporate
strategy
from the outset, the presence of a written personnel strategy,
and the
translation of such a strategy into a clear set of work
programmes. As
mentioned earlier, the personnel function is represented at board
level in
the majority (55 per cent of organizations). For our sample
companies,
87.4 per cent have corporate strategies. Of these, 34.6 per cent
consult
the personnel function at the outset, 42 per cent involve
personnel in early
consultation, and only 13.6 per cent involve personnel during
the
implementation stage. Over a quarter (26.4 per cent) of sample
organizations did not have a personnel strategy, 29.9 per cent
had an

unwritten strategy and 43.7 per cent had a written personnel
strategy. A
clear majority (57.4 per cent) of organizations felt that their
personnel
strategy was translated into clear work programmes.
High devolvement is the result of: primary responsibility for
pay,
recruitment, training, industrial relations, health and safety and
expansion/
reduction decisions lying with the line (see Table 6); line
responsibility for
these six areas on an increasing trend (see Table 7); and,
evidence of
devolved competency with at least 33 per cent of the workforce
being
trained in appraisals, communica tions,delegation, motivation,
team building
and foreign languages.
Budhwar's [47] analysis shows that when the four measures of
integration are summated and divided into a single scale of high
and low
type, 50.5 per cent of the sample organizations would be
categorised as
having high integration and 49.5 per cent fall into the low
integration
category. The average score of the summated integration scale
for a1193
organizations is .50. These results show a moderate level of
integration
being practised in the sample industries. On the other hand, the
summated
scales demonstrate a low level of devolvement. Sixty-one per
cent of the
sample practise low levels of devolvement of HRM to line

managers.
Table 6: Primary Responsibility for Major Decisions on
Personnel Issues
Personnel Issues Line Line Mgt in IIR Dilpt. inHRDept.
Consultation COllSuJtationRelated to: Mgt. wi!il1lB.l)llUt.
withLineMat.
Pay andBenefits 48.3 14.3 11.0 26.4
Recruitment and Selection 17.2 12.9 34.4 35.5
Training andDevelopment 15.1 18.3 22.5 44.1
Performance Aonraisal 17.5 6.9 30.4 45.2
Industrial Relations 36.3 13.2 25.3 25.2
Health and Safety 18.5 32.6 19.6 29.3
Workforce
19.4 19.4 44.1 17.1Expansion/Reduction
WorkSystem/Job Design 7.6 33.7 40.2 18.5
Figures in the above cells represent valid percentage, calculated
after excluding the missing
values.
Table 7: Change in Responsibility of Line
Management for Different Personnel Issues
PellSonnelIssues Increased (%) Same(%) Decreased (%)
Pay andBenefits 27.2 65.2 7.6
Recruitment and Selection 43.5 48.9 7.6
Training and Development 69.6 23.9 6.5
Performance Appraisal 60.0 37.8 2.2
Industrial Relations 28.9 63.3 7.8

Healthand Safety 61.5 35.2 3.3
Workforce
38.9 54.4 6.7Expansion/Reduction
WorkSystem/Job Design 43.3 53.3 3.3
The results confirm the relevance of the 5-P model of HRM in
British organizations. They also help to examine the main
emphasis of
Brewster's [48] European model of HRM, i.e, the linkages
between
corporate strategy and HRM strategy.
Conclusion
Overall, the results show a mixed picture, i.e. from strong to
moderate
applicability of the mentioned HRM models in Britain. The
study aimed to
examine HRM in context, and the findings should be useful for
relevant
policy makers. In particular, it seems that the sample firms are
practising
a relatively low level of devolvement in comparison to the
integration
function. Ifthe HRM function is to become more strategic, then
the level
of practice of both these concepts has to increase. Such
demands are
likely to increase in future as more and more firms restructure
and
become lean in order to respond to competitive and other
pressures [49].
The study has two main limitations. First, it is restricted to six
industries ofthe UK manufacturing sector. Second, the views of

only top
..
personnel specialists were examined. In order, therefore, to
obtain a more
comprehensive picture, research needs to be extended to other
business
sectors and to the views of other key actors (such as line
managers).
Future research could also build upon this study by
investigating other
models ofHRM and their applicability in different national
contexts.
Appendix
Table 1: Factors Determining HRM Practices in
British Organizations
Independent. lJependentVariables If BiJta . t·valueVarin/J/es
Training and development
0.2102 0.2984* 2.3790
Introductory through planned iob rotation
lifecycle stage Communication through
0.1629 -0.2663* -2.0720
immediate superior
Turnaround Recruiting managerial staff by

0.3695 -0.3038* -2.6170
lifecycle stage advertising externally
Recruiting managerial staff by
0.3695 0.3658** 3.0590
Less than 499 advertising externally
employees Recruiting clerical staff from 0.1014 -0.3184* -
2.4220
recruitment agencies
Between 500- Recruiting clerical staff as
0.3337 0.2891* 2.4600
599 employees apprentices
Between 1000- Training and development
4999 through assessment centres 0.2607 0.3547** 2.8530
employees
Recruiting managerial staff by
0.1563 -0.2835* -2.1800
advertising internally
Recruiting
professionals/technical staff by
0.1039 0.3223* 2.4550
use of search/selection
More than
consultants
5000
Recruiting manual staffby
0.3698 -0.4529** -3.9340

employees
word of mouth
through formal career plans
0.1406 0.375** 2.9170
0.1685 0.4105** 3.2460
through succession plans
0.2102 0.3873** 3.0880
though planned job rotation
Public Limited Recruiting managerial staff by
0.3695 0.4436** 3.8050Company advertising externally
Recruiting managerial staff
0.0830 -0.2881* -2.1700
from current employees
State-owned Recruiting clerical staff from
0.2842 -0.2583* -2.0650
organization current emnlovees
Recruiting manual staff by
0.3698 -0.3342** -2.9100
word of mouth
Organizations
incorporated Commnnication through trade

0.7445 -0.216** -3.0370
between 1869- unions or work councils
1899
Organizations
incorporated Recruiting manual staff from
0.1557 0.2609* 2.0240
between 1900- current employees
1947
Continued ...
Table 1 Continued:
Independent lJepen4ent Variables .Jf Beta tvalueVariable
Recruitingclericalstaffby 0.2465 -0.3931** -3.2110advertising
externally
Recruitingmanualstaffby 0.1974 -0.2767* -2.1550advertising
externally
Organizations Trainingand development 0.2607 0.4364**
3.3780incorporated throughassessment centres
between 1948- Communication through 0.1629 -0.3255* -
2.53201980 immediatesuperior
No formal communication 0.3517 0.3265** 2.7370methods
Communication through 0.0858 0.2929* 2.2090suggestion
box(es)
Recruitingclericalstaff from 0.2842 -0.3019* -2.4240current
employees

Cost reduction Recruitingclericalstaff as 0.3337 0.4182**
2.9450HRstrategy apprentices
Recruiting manualstaff as 0.1330 0.3646** 2.8240apprentices
Talent Recruitingmanualstaff by 0.3698 -0.3655** -
3.2440improvement word of mouthHRstrategy
Recruiting managerial staffby
0.0777 0.2787* 2.0930use of search/selection
Talent consultants
acquisition HR Recruitingmanualstaff from 0.0914 0.3024*
2.2880strategy recruitmentagencies
Trainingand development 0.2607 0.2857*
2.2090throughassessment centres
Effective Recruitingclericalstaff as
0.3337 0.2882* 2.0300resourceHR apprenticesstrategy
Recruitingmanagerial staff by 0.3695 0.3593**
2.9750advertising externally
Recruitingmanualstaff by 0.1226 0.3502** 2.6960Unionised
advertising internally
firms Communication through 0.3517 -0.255* -2.1820attitude
survey
Communication throughtrade 0.7445 0.5656** 6.4000unions or
work councils
* Significance at .05 level; **Significance at .01 level
-
..

Table 2: Influence of Different Aspects of
National Factors on HRM
Aspectsoff"lational (;ultttre No. of Cases Mean
1 Way in which managers are socialised 84 18.07
2 Common values, norms of behaviour and customs 81 20.28
3 The influence of pressure groups 58 10.47
4
Assumptions that shape the way managers perceive and
84 25.98
think: about the organization
5
The match to the organization's culture and 'the way we
86 35.58
do things around here'
N(ltif.}1Inl T- o '011.6
1 National Labour Laws 82 40.91
2 Trade Unions 61 21.72
3 Professional Bodies 56 15.11
4 Educational and Vocational training set-up 84 27.62
5 International Institutions 54 20.07
A~l1ects QflIusinessEnvironment
1
Increased national/international competition -
72 27.56

Globalisation of corporate business structure
Growth of new business arrangements, e.g. business
2 alliances, joint ventures and foreign direct investment 66
19.01
through mergers and acquisitions
3
More sophisticated information/communication
70 19.62
technology or increased reliance on automation
4
Changing composition of the workforce with respect to
48 12.39
gender, age, ethnicity and changing employee values
5
Downsizing of the workforce and business re-
69 23.13
engineering
6
Heightened focus on total management or customer
78 26.92
satisfaction
Aspects qfBusinessSector
1
Common strategies, business logic and goals being
71 22.95

pursued by firms across the sector
2
Regulations and standards (e.g. payments, training,
79 20.35
health and safety) specific to your industrial sector
Specific requirement/needs of customers or suppliers
3 that characterise your sector (i.e. supply chain 82 28.96
management)
4 The need for sector-specific knowledge in order to 56 15.35
provide similar goods/services in the sector
5
Informal or formal benchmarking across competitors in
61 16.39the sector (e.g, best practices of market leaders)
Cross-sector co-operative arrangements, e.g, common
6 technological innovations followed by all firms in the 37
10.54
sector
7
Common developments in business operations and work
49 14.40
practices dictated by the nature of the business
8
A labour market or skill requirement that tends to be
39 13.10used by your business sector only

Respondentswere asked to allocate a totalof100points to the
different aspects ofthe above
nationalfactors.
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[7] Legge, K., 1995, op. cit.
[8] Benkhoff, B., 'A Test ofthe HRM Model: Good For
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[9] Monks, K., 'Global or Local? HRM in the Multinational
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[13] Legge, K., 1995. op. cit.
[14] Poole, M., 'Editorial: Human Resource Management in An
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[20] Poole, M., 1990. op. cit.
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the
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Brewster, C., 1995, op. cit.
Ibid.
Budhwar, P., 'Taking Human Resource Management Research
To
The Next Millennium: Need For An Integrated Framework',
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Budhwar, P. and Debrah, Y., 'Rethinking Comparative and
Cross
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For
Determining Cross National Human Resource Management
Practices', Human Resource Management Review, 2001
(forthcoming) .
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Indian and British HRM Practices: An Empirical Study',
Management International Review, Vol. 38, Special Issue 2,
1998, pp. 105-121.
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in
European Human Resource Management, London and New
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K. (ed.),
Personnel Management: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory
and Practice in Britain, Blackball Business: London, 1996,
pp.595-
633.
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and
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[40] Tayeb, M., Organizations and National Culture, London:
Sage,
1988.

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Industrial Relations, Vol. 35, 1997, pp. 87-109.
[44] Collin, A. and Holden, L., 'The National Framework for
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(eds.),
Human Resource Management. London: Pitman Publishing,
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pp.345-377.
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1997,op. cit.
[46] Budhwar, P., 'Strategic Integration and Devolvement of
Human
Resource Management in the British Manufacturing Sector' ,
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23 October, 1997,46-51.
-

Advances in Developing Human
Resources
14(4) 566 –585
© 2012 SAGE Publications
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1523422312455610
http://adhr.sagepub.com
455610ADHR14410.1177/1523422312455610Adva
nces in Developing Human ResourcesKim and McLean
1Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
2McLean Global Consulting, Inc., USA
Corresponding Author:
Sehoon Kim, Educational Administration and Human Resource
Development, Texas A&M University, 4226
TAMU College Station, TX 77843, USA
Email: [email protected]
Global Talent
Management: Necessity,
Challenges, and the Roles
of HRD
Sehoon Kim1 and Gary N. McLean2
Abstract
The Problem.
Despite increasing attention in business, talent management in

global contexts has not
been explored adequately in HRD. Most studies related to
global talent management
explain only part of it and do not provide an integrative
understanding of what is going
on globally in talent management in an HRD perspective.
The
Solution
.
This article proposed an integrative conceptual framework for
global talent
management that involves the necessity, challenges, and roles
of HRD. Considering
cross-cultural viewpoints and multinational enterprise issues in
HRD, the study
analyzed why talent management is necessary and the
challenges of developing
talent. Finally, proposals were made for developing global
talent and roles for HRD
researchers and practitioners.
The Stakeholders.
The results of this study will provide insights or guides for
researchers interested
in talent management/development and HR practitioners

involved in a multinational
enterprise.
Keywords
talent management, globalization, talent development, high
potential, HRD challenges,
HRD roles
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F15234223
12455610&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2012-08-10
Kim and McLean 567
Since The War for Talent (Michaels, Handfield-Jones, &
Axelrod, 2001), business
practitioners have enthusiastically embraced talent management
(TM; Iles, Preece, &
Chuai, 2010; Lewis & Heckman, 2006). Despite the recent
shrinking employment
caused by the economic recession, interest in talent in business
has extensively
increased with the unprecedented global competition (Athey,
2008; Scullion,

Collings, & Caligiuri, 2010) because such talent is regarded as
generating great ben-
efits and value for the organization (Tarique & Schuler, 2010).
The business para-
digm has shifted from marketing and finance to “talentship”
(Boudreau & Ramstad,
2005, p. 21).
As the world economy continues to globalize, organizations
continue to increase
their international profits and intensify their overseas
investments (Guthridge &
Komm, 2008). As this occurs, the importance of global talent in
organizations has
also been increasing. Managing and developing necessary global
talent are regarded
as among a company’s priorities for sustainable growth
(Collings, McDonnell, &
Scullion, 2009; Guthridge & Komm, 2008). According to an
Ernst & Young survey
that included more than 150 global executives among Fortune
1000 companies, 65%
of respondents answered that how to deal with global TM would
highly impact their
organization (Leisy & Pyron, 2009). For this reason, many

organizations are making
great efforts to acquire, develop, and retain talent worldwide
(Boudreau & Ramstad,
2005; Lewis & Heckman, 2006).
In spite of the recent enthusiastic attention to this theme in
business, academic
activities on managing global talent have not yet fully
recognized its importance
(Burbach & Royle, 2010). The concept and features of TM have
not been clearly and
sufficiently explored (Collings et al., 2009; Lewis & Heckman,
2006), and many stud-
ies still debate its identity, definition, and scope (Collings &
Mellahi, 2009; Farndale,
Scullion, & Sparrow, 2010; Iles et al., 2010; Lewis & Heckman,
2006; McLean, 2010;
Tarique & Schuler, 2010). Although there is a view in which
TM may be a business fad
or “old wine in new bottles” (Iles et al., 2010, p. 126), how to
deal with talent is critical
for organizations to develop in a sustainable way, no matter
what we call TM (McLean,
2010). Most studies on TM were found in human resource
management (HRM),

although development, as focused in HRD, is one of the key
elements in the TM pro-
cess, and its importance is being increasingly emphasized
(Collings & Mellahi, 2009;
Tarique & Schuler, 2010). When it comes to a global context,
only a few studies on
global TM were found. However, these studies, which focused
on concepts or cases,
explained only part of the global TM approaches and did not
provide an integrative
understanding of what is going on globally in TM in an HRD
perspective.
The purpose of this article is to identify the necessity and
challenges of TM in a
global context and suggest roles for HRD. First, studies on TM
not only in HRD but
also in related disciplines were investigated. Then,
consideration was given to cross-
cultural and multinational enterprise (MNE) issues in HRD,
specifically exploring
why TM is necessary and the challenges of managing and
developing talent in a global
setting. Finally, proposals were made for developing global
talent and roles for both

HRD researchers and practitioners. In this study, we supported
the perception of
568 Advances in Developing Human Resources 14(4)
McLean (2010) and Collings and Mellahi (2009) that TM is not
a very new concept
but should be reemphasized by HR professionals to identify key
positions and develop
a talent pool, a critical step for successful TM. In addition,
findings in this study
focused on global TM, which is different from TM in a domestic
context.
The results of this study will contribute to further academic and
practical studies on
global talent by providing guidelines for strategic approaches to
managing and devel-
oping talent in a global environment.
Talent Management
As TM is a relatively new topic in HR, first introduced as a
unified concept in the

1990s, there is still ambiguity and a lack of agreement in terms
of its definition,
nature, and features (Collings & Mellahi, 2009; Garrow &
Hirsh, 2008; Iles et al.,
2010; Lewis & Heckman, 2006). However, recently, several
studies on TM have
helped define its attributes, scope, and aspects in both empirical
and conceptual ways.
There are three perspectives on TM prevalent in organizations
(Lewis &
Heckman, 2006). The first looks at TM as typical HR roles and
activities. In this
perspective, HR provides the same approaches to talent,
however that gets defined,
through recruiting, development, and retention as is done with
employees not
defined as talent. The second view emphasizes how to secure
and develop internal
talent by building talent pools. This is generally related to
organizational staffing
and career planning. In the third perspective, talent in the
organization is identified
not for certain jobs or through specific succession plans but
through recognizing

outstanding individual performance. In this view, organizations
evaluate employees
according to their performance and try to retain the talent of the
A grades and eject
the C and D grades. In addition to these three perspectives,
there are talent pipeline
approaches, such as succession planning and leadership
development, that are
regarded as TM (Iles et al., 2010).
By borrowing the concept from a supply chain perspective,
Cappelli (2008) pro-
posed four principles for operating TM more effectively. The
four principles are hiring
or developing talent according to the business strategy as an
investment; reflecting the
uncertain future; improving the cost-efficiency of employee
development; and balanc-
ing individual and the organizational interests in development
investment.
Integrating recent definitions and perceptions on TM, Collings
and Mellahi (2009)
proposed a definition for TM emphasizing its strategic aspects:

Activities and processes that involve the systematic
identification of key posi-
tions which differentially contribute to the organization’s
sustainable competi-
tive advantage, the development of a talent pool of high
potential and high
performing incumbents to fill these roles, and the development
of a differenti-
ated human resource architecture to facilitate filling these
positions with com-
petent incumbents and to ensure their continued commitment to
the organization.
(p. 304)
Kim and McLean 569
In the same vein, Collings and Mellahi (2009) also developed a
theoretical
model of strategic TM. In their model, the firm’s performance
results from a dif-
ferentiated HR architecture. To develop and utilize internal
talent, an organization
should recognize which positions are critically related to its

performance. Once a
talent pool of high potentials and high performers is formed by
developing or
recruiting talent, the pivotal positions should be filled from the
pool. These organi-
zational efforts in HR architecture are intended to enable talent
to retain work moti-
vation, organizational commitment, and extra-role behavior,
which results in
sustainable performance in the organization. Organizations that
deal with human
resources in more than one country, however, need different
strategies and action
plans for talent from domestic organizations. That is, global TM
should involve an
integrated strategy of TM activities at a global level in order for
the business suc-
cess of global organizations that goes beyond general HR
assignments (Collings et
al., 2009). Thus, global TM is defined as an organization’s
efforts to acquire,
develop, and retain talent to meet organizational strategies on a
global scale, given
not only the differences between organizations but also their
global and cultural

contexts (Scullion et al., 2010; Tarique & Schuler, 2010). Based
on the interna-
tional human resource management context, Tarique and
Schuler identified chal-
lenges that influence global TM activities, dividing the
challenges into “exogenous”
and “endogenous” drivers (p. 126). External challenges include
globalization,
workforce demographic changes, and shortages of talent, and
internal ones incor-
porate regional specification, retaining talent, and
competencies.
HRD in a Global Context
The more globalization, the more studies and practices in
international HRD are
needed (Wang & McLean, 2007). To support organizational
work successfully in this
broad and complicated business environment, HRD
professionals need a global per-
spective and understand differences in cultures among countries
(McLean, 2006).
However, the majority of the studies on cross-cultural training
have looked at culture
not as the context but as the content of the training and focused

on how to prepare
expatriates (Osman-Gani & Zidan, 2001).
Global HRD can promote the global success of the organization
because the perti-
nent development of human capital produces an invaluable
organizational resource
(Marquardt, Berger, & Loan, 2004). When organizations become
globalized, roles and
activities of HRD will also be influenced by different cultures,
ways of doing business,
physical locations, environments, and languages. If HRD relies
on the same approaches
in a global situation as used in a domestic setting, this may
result in inappropriate
behaviors and decisions by employees. This can then lead to
lower performance or
even business failure. Therefore, HRD professionals should
know how to deal with
different cultures and utilize global HRD interventions needed
for organizations
involved in international or global activities (Marquardt et al.,
2004; McLean, 2006).
These global interventions include virtual or cross-cultural team
building, cultural

self-awareness, cross-cultural training, sharing stories, joint
ventures, global job
assignments, and blending of diverse cultures (McLean, 2006).
DeSimone, Werner, and Harris (2002) listed the four major
elements included in
most cross-cultural training programs: (a) raising the awareness
of cultural differ-
ences, (b) focusing on ways attitudes are shaped, (c) providing
factual information
about each culture, and (d) building skills in the areas of
language, nonverbal com-
munication, cultural stress management, and adjustment
adaptation skills (p. 639).
Cross-cultural training needs to develop knowledge, skills, and
attitudes for interac-
tions with people from different cultures (Osman-Gani & Zidan,
2001).
Method

To conduct a comprehensive review of literature, we identified
keywords and related
terms for a database search: talent management, talent
development, global talent
management, global talent development, global human
resources, international
human resources, and cultural training. The search was
conducted at the end of 2010.
The identified literature was screened by types of publication
(scholarly article,
research report, and book) and published time (only after 1990),
with an initial
abstract review. Relevant literature (n = 82) was identified
through Google Scholar
and several academic databases, such as Academic Search
Complete, Business Source
Complete, Eric, Human Resource Abstracts, and ABI/INFORM
Global, and by refer-
ences found in the resulting articles.
In spite of the few studies on TM or global TM in HRD, we
found a number of
relevant literature related to TM in HRM and industrial
psychology. The identified
studies were analyzed to identify how academic studies and

practical activities related
to global TM have been conducted and how to maximize
developing global talent in
the organization.
Why Is Global TM Necessary?
Global TM includes organizational activities to acquire,
develop, and retain talent for
organizational strategies on a global scale, taking account of
cultural contexts
(Scullion et al., 2010). Despite the recent global economic
recession that has resulted
in massive downsizing and restructuring in business, the
majority of firms still recog-
nize TM as one of the top organizational priorities (Tarique &
Schuler, 2010). The
reasons global TM is necessary can be identified as expansion
of a market to the
world, deficiency of talent, and competition for talent.
Expansion to the World
As companies step into a global environment, they face
competition for talent, one
of the most valuable assets in the organization (Bartlett &
Ghoshal, 1998). A Hewitt

survey of more than 500 companies in the United States
revealed that 45% of the
Kim and McLean 571
organizations were currently doing or within 3 years would do
business in other
countries (Gandossy & Kao, 2004). The success of the
organization in a global set-
ting depends on how the resources are used and how talent is
supported to commit
to the work and organization (Marquardt et al., 2004).
Marquardt et al. (2004) clas-
sified organization types according to global status: domestic,
international, multina-
tional, and global. They found that each stage had different
strategies, products,
competitors, markets, structures, and cultural sensitivity.
Because of these different
corporate activities, globalized organizations need talent who
can make a profit in a
wide scope of environments (Farndale et al., 2010). Moreover,
infrastructure around

TM in other regions may be different from the headquarters
country of the organiza-
tion (Leisy & Pyron, 2009; Odell & Spielman, 2009).
According to a McKinsey Global Survey, most global
companies expect that
emerging global markets will provide not only more production
but also talent and
innovation and plan to look for talent in local markets (44%) or
from developed mar-
kets and deploy them to emerging markets (35%; Dye &
Stephenson, 2010). To iden-
tify, acquire, develop, and retain global talent, global
organizations need new types of
competencies, recruitment strategies, development approaches,
career paths, and
reward systems that are different from the domestic
environment (Marquardt et al.,
2004). Global TM is not merely about managing physical bodies
of smart people but
also about dealing with human capital and the intangible
resources of individual
knowledge and skills (Odell & Spielman, 2009).
Deficiency of Talent

The U.S. labor force will decline as Baby Boomers retire and
the birth rate decline
(Athey, 2008). As in the United States, several reports and
studies warned that work-
ing populations in most developed countries were rapidly
decreasing, and this phe-
nomenon would spread over the world in a few years (Gandossy
& Kao, 2004;
Hayutin, 2010; Leisy & Pyron, 2009; Orr & McVerry, 2007;
Strack, Baier, &
Fahlander, 2008; Tucker, Kao, & Verma, 2005). According to
Hayutin, for the past 20
years, the working-age population grew rapidly in Africa, the
Middle East, and Asia,
but, for the coming 20 years, the increase would slow in most
countries. Most devel-
oped countries are projected to face a workforce shrinkage, and
the European working
population will decline by 50 million (Hayutin, 2010).
The shortages of labor will result in a serious deficiency of
talent (Strack et al.,
2008) that can cause low productivity in organizations (Dye &
Stephenson, 2010).
This deficiency will affect the state of talent pools in

organizations. Relying only on
traditional HR activities may be an ineffective way to retain
enough talent because of
the limited resources in the labor market. For a sustainable
talent supply, organizations
need to emphasize not only acquiring and retaining high
performers but also develop-
ing internal employees who have potential and encouraging
them to increase their
abilities (Athey, 2008; Strack et al., 2008). In addition, the
development activities
should not be ad hoc or haphazard but strategically planned to
align organizational
goals and vision (McDonnell, Lamare, Gunnigle, & Lavelle,
2010).
Competition for Talent
The lack of labor may be one of the major reasons why more
intense competition to
acquire and retain talent happens (Strack et al., 2008). However,

a lack of critical
skills that employees have is also regarded as one of the key
factors that increase the
need for talent globally (Odell & Spielman, 2009; Zheng, 2009)
because skill defi-
ciency is related to a high rate of turnover (Zheng, 2009). As
global competition for
talent heats up, organizations that do not prepare ways to
acquire, develop, utilize, and
retain talent may fall behind in a race for global business.
Therefore, organizations
need to consider carefully the actions they take for a sustainable
talent supply
(Bhatnagar. 2008).
Challenges of Developing Global Talent
Given the geographic and cultural scope in which global
organizations work, we
found three primary challenges that may occur while developing
global talent: ethno-
centric strategy, worries about global mobility, and barriers
between headquarters and
subsidiaries countries.
Ethnocentric Strategy

One of the critical challenges global organizations can
encounter when they deal with
talent development is ethnocentrism, defined as a belief that
other groups are inferior
to one’s own (Barger, 2008). Many organizations are not aware
that what they have
carried out may not be applicable to other regions, cultures, or
countries and believe
that standardization through an ethnocentric approach is more
efficient than consider-
ing difference. Indeed, many HR practitioners struggle with a
balance between global
formalization or standardization and local flexibility or
customization (Begley &
Boyd, 2003). With global standardization (formalization),
organizations may expect
efficiency and fairness in HR policies and activities (Begley &
Boyd, 2003). However,
regional strategies for talent—hiring regional talent and
developing them taking into
account local contexts—can result in better performance with
lower costs than central
strategies because each region or country may have a different
perception and condi-
tion of talent (Tarique & Schuler, 2010).

For instance, Boussebaa and Morgan (2008) discovered that one
of the challenges
of a multinational company in France, with headquarters in the
United Kingdom, was
the difference in understanding of talent in headquarters.
According to their study,
talent has a meaning of someone who has potential among the
U.K. companies,
whereas talent in France means someone who has already
developed and proven their
abilities. Failure to take into account the different
understanding of concepts of talent
brought about a failure of the talent development system
projects led by the British
company in France.
Moreover, ethnocentric perceptions of global organizations can
result in less prep-
aration for global assignments of their talent, which is
associated with expatriate
Kim and McLean 573

failure (Choi, 2002; Shen & Lang, 2009; Yeaton & Hall, 2008).
According to Osman-
Gani (2000), U.S. expatriates generally deemed that a 3-day
predeparture training is
most appropriate, whereas the majority of German, Japanese,
and Korean expatriates
considered at least a 1-week-long training as a minimum. In
fact, 16% to 40% of U.S.
expatriates fail their assignment and return prematurely
(Wagner & Hollenbeck,
1995), which is an apparent contrast to a 5% to 10% global
assignment failure of non-
U.S. expatriates (Dowling, Welch, & Schuler, 1999).
Worries About Global Mobility
Through the McKinsey Global Survey, Dye and Stephenson
(2010) found that 35%
of global companies considered deploying talent employed in
the host country to
other countries. This means a substantial number of people will
work for years in an
environment where the culture, language, law, business style,
and weather may be
different from their home country. Although the experience of

global assignments can
be invaluable for learning and development, many employees
assigned to work in
another country may be demotivated not only because of the
new environment they
will face but also because of worries about career disadva ntages
after repatriation to
their home country (Guthridge & Komm, 2008).
Marquardt et al. (2004) reported that 20% of the repatriates left
their organization
within 1 year after they came back and 50% quit the job within
1 to 3 years.
Mismanagement of expatriates can cause tremendous damage to
organizations. The
reasons why expatriates fear global mobility are that they think
they lose promotion
opportunities, there may be limited positions for them when
they come back, the
overseas assignment may be a result of a demotion, few
colleagues welcome them
back (Allen & Alvarez, 1998), and they hear about negative
repatriate experiences
from their colleagues (Farndale et al., 2010). In addition to the
situations that may

happen in the organization, reverse culture shock of the
expatriates themselves, as
well as their families, can result in maladjustment (Marquardt et
al., 2004).
De Cieri, Sheehan, Costa, Fenwick, and Cooper (2009) found
that national identity
with their country of birth and quality of life in the home
country are also factors that
can influence global mobility of employees, either in a positive
or negative way. A
strong sense of national identity is likely to strengthen the
desire for repatriation. In
terms of quality of life in the home country, they contended that
people tend to desire
to relocate and stay in another country if the life in the host
country is better than in the
home country.
Barriers Between Headquarters and Subsidiaries
When the goals of the global organization’s headquarters are
not in alignment with
the subsidiaries, the regional or local strategies and activities
may not be in accord
with the overall organization’s purposes (Bjorkman, Barner-

Rasmussen, & Li, 2004).
If the relationship between headquarters and subsidiaries is
distant, local branches
will be interested in developing talent only for their
performance, not for the overall
success of the organization. In this regard, subsidiary managers
may recruit, assess,
and develop talent with a standard according to their own
strategies and competen-
cies rather than that of the headquarters (Mellahi & Collings,
2010). Sometimes the
best employee in the organization can be a victim of
abandonment when he or she is
positioned between the headquarters and subsidiary (Gandossy
& Kao, 2004).
Furthermore, this defensive behavior can bring about a
reduction in effectiveness of
global TM strategies (Farndale et al., 2010).
When barriers between headquarters and subsidiaries are strong,

a lack of appropri-
ate information on talent in the subsidiaries can cause a failure
of the global TM sys-
tem, which may result in limited opportunities for talent at
subsidiaries to work in the
upper management team at headquarters (Mellahi & Collings,
2010).
Mellahi and Collings (2010) also found that a reason for a lack
of communication
between headquarters and subsidiaries is culture. In regions that
have a strong power
distance culture, such as China, Japan, and South Korea, people
tend to regard saving
face for someone who is in a higher position as very valuable.
Therefore, employees
cannot easily report their opinions to headquarters even though
mismanagement of
talent may happen in the subsidiary.
HRD Roles for Success in Global TM
Wooldridge (2006) warned that relying heavily on a particular
approach to talent can
no longer be beneficial for the organization and can even
adversely affect the future

of the organization. Too much emphasis on attracting and
retaining talent, and ignor-
ing or neglecting development or deployment, may cause
significant harm to the
organization (Athey, 2008; Pfeffer, 2001). For this reason,
many global organizations
have changed their talent supply strategies from hiring outsiders
to developing insid-
ers (Boussebaa & Morgan, 2008; Osman-Gani & Chan, 2009),
although this does not
mean that external transfusion of talent has been ignored. The
roles of HRD are
critical for global organizations, not only to support talent in
order to generate better
performance but also to develop employees who have global
potential that will lead
to a sustainable talent supply for the organization. For
successful global TM, we sug-
gest roles for HRD in the areas of balancing centralized and
decentralized strategies,
developing global competencies, creating structured global
talent development, and
conducting global team building.
Balancing Centralized and Decentralized Strategies

Although global organizations may have headquarters that have
central power and
roles, their global subsidiaries are normally led by managers
from diverse areas
(Marquardt et al. 2004). That is, on the one hand, globally
unified strategies, struc-
tures, and corporate cultures are emphasized; on the other hand,
locally specified and
customized approaches cannot be ignored. Thus, when a global
organization makes
Kim and McLean 575
a decision, the uniqueness of each local environment should be
taken into account
throughout the vision and strategies of the global organization
(Harvey, Fisher,
McPhail, & Moeller, 2009).
To enhance the organization’s homogeneous culture and
strategies, many compa-
nies send managers from headquarters to sites around the world
to communicate cen-

tral values and cultures (Marquardt et al., 2004). HR managers
from headquarters can
help incorporate and utilize global TM systems at the
subsidiaries, taking into account
the local context. Beechler and Woodward (2009) mentioned the
Coca Cola Company
as an example of an effective strategy of bringing local talent to
headquarters and
developing their leadership ability. After one or one and a half
years, they go back to
the subsidiaries as a manager and spread the company’s core
values and culture to the
local firms. The shared global TM system and its strategies will
make it possible for
global organizations to have a balanced supply, structured
deployment, and develop-
ment in terms of talent (Mellahi & Collings, 2010).
Using the same values, systems, and even HR resources tends to
provide organiza-
tional efficiency, such as flexibility for deploying talent, active
communication and
cooperation between organizations, and cost saving. However,
talent developed for the
specific market and culture can result in better performanc e. A

decentralized approach
that develops and delivers localized or acculturated
interventions (Marquardt et al.,
2004) can be effective for local organizations and employees.
For example, from a
study with Japanese MNCs, Arreglel, Beamish, and Hébert
(2009) found that the
regional-level effects provided positive influences, such as
expanded localized knowl-
edge, strong social relationships, and transfer of knowledge and
practices due to geo-
graphic proximity. Talent hired and developed through locali zed
strategies may be
more productive at the local businesses than at headquarters or
in another region.
When local HR practitioners adopt a TM system and
interventions created by head-
quarters, the success of the system and interventions will
depend on how well the
system is localized, taking account of the local culture and
business context (Boussebaa
& Morgan, 2008).
Developing Global Competencies
Global competencies are indicators that global organizations

utilize to manage global
talent (Farndale et al., 2010). The competencies need to be used
to align and integrate
activities and processes with regard to TM in each subsidiary
and region in order to
maximize the synergy of organizational functions, as well as
performance excellence
of talent (Heinen & O’Neill, 2004). The role of HRD here is to
identify the competen-
cies and provide effective interventions to develop the abilities
of global talent.
Marquardt et al. (2004) introduced six global competencies as
special abilities for
global employees: cultural self-awareness, global perspectives,
language, tolerance
for ambiguity and differences, cultural flexibility, and strong
communication skills.
Among these competencies, the need for cognitive abilities is
related to a global mind-
set. A global mindset, which is the ability to develop individual
criteria that can be

applied to different regions, nations, and cultures and properly
utilize those criteria in
a different context, is the most critical for the sustainable
success of global organiza-
tions (Begley & Boyd, 2003). Tarique and Schuler (2010) found
three types of required
global talent competencies through several related studies.
First, general business
competencies, which can apply to most companies, are needed
for global talent. The
second is cross-cultural competencies divided into the
competencies we can easily
learn, such as knowledge about the culture, and ones that take a
long time to obtain,
such as characteristics or attitudes common within the culture.
The last type is compe-
tencies for creating and managing knowledge required for
business performance.
Global competencies can be utilized not only for training and
development but also for
global recruitment, assessment, career paths, staffing, and
reward and recognition
(Marquardt et al., 2004).

Creating Structured Global Talent Development
Global organizations need a structured development system to
grow their employees’
abilities for business competitiveness (Marquardt et al., 2004).
The structured devel-
opment system should be connected to business strategies and
goals, reflect needs for
global talent development strategies, identify action steps, and
analyze inner and outer
factors and resources.
Global leadership development, succession plans, and expatriate
training can be
included in a global development system (Odell & Spielman,
2009). Although these
interventions are different from each other, the key activities
used may be similar.
Systematic cross-cultural training and encouraging global
assignments may be exem-
plary activities.
Global talent who work with people from different cultures and
backgrounds need
cross-cultural training because the training helps employees not

only obtain knowl-
edge, skills, and attitudes needed for challenging assignments
(Osman-Gani & Zidan,
2001) but also adapt to a culturally different region or country,
which is essential for
a successful international task (DeSimone et al., 2002). Despite
much research on
cross-cultural training, McLean (2006) pointed out that many
training programs deal-
ing with cross-cultures are still “atheoretical” (p. 211) and
emphasize mainly what to
do or not to do. Relying only on cognitive information and
linguistic skills can be less
effective for people who are preparing for global tasks
(Guthridge & Komm, 2008;
McLean, 2006). To make a cross-cultural training program
effective, trainees should
have learning experiences in terms of acculturation and be
encouraged to have a “cul-
tural milieu” (Marquardt et al., 2004, p. 44) in the program
(Stanek, 2000).
Work experience in a challenging assignment is one of the most
effective ways of
developing employees (Meyers, Paunonen, Gellatly, Goffin, &

Jackson, 1989). This
effective approach is also applied to development in a global
setting, providing thor-
ough support for completing global assignments (McLean,
2004). These assignments
can be coordination, computational, or creative tasks so that
global talent can develop
interpersonal skills, problem-solving abilities, mediating
abilities, business insights,
Kim and McLean 577
and specific subject knowledge and techniques (Harvey et al.,
2009). Experiences in
different cultures and countries also enable global talent to
develop cultural awareness
and tolerance (Guthridge & Komm, 2008). In spite of its merit,
a global assignment is
the least extensively used intervention among global
organizations because it takes
time to produce desirable results, and employers may be afraid
of providing continual
opportunities that may fail and damage their business

(McDonnell et al., 2010).
However, HRD needs to create opportunities for challenging
global assignments and
establish a supportive environment for talent so that they can
improve their capacities
and commit to their job and organization (Hiltrop, 1999).
These development interventions provided for talent should be
strategically con-
nected to the global TM system. McDonnell et al. (2010)
discovered that a number of
global organizations did not allocate learning resources to their
talent, although they
had formalized global development programs. HRD
practitioners should recognize
what interventions they have and how they can help talent to
develop their organiza-
tional performance.
Conducting Global Team Building
A global team, a group of employees from different cultures or
countries who work
together to do a particular job (McLean, 2006), is regarded as
an integrated, strategic,
and generative approach to managing global talent (Beechler &

Woodward, 2009).
As telecommunicating technologies are developed, global teams
can be organized as
not only face to face but also virtual teams in which group
members can work in
different places at the same time using a web-chat or web-cam
(McLean, 2006).
Regardless of type, a global team is expected to provide
organizations with capa-
bilities to respond to global challenges, solving complex global
problems quickly
(Marquardt et al., 2004).
According to Marquardt et al. (2004), a global team influences
global TM in sev-
eral positive ways. First, a global team can encourage an
atmosphere of managing
talent from all over the world. If employees in an organization
are culturally and
nationally diverse, the employees can help stop or reduce the
effects of making a
biased decision when recruiting, deploying, promoting, and
developing people.
Second, organizations have an opportunity to find and develop
their high potentials

scattered over the world. Through a global team, talent located
in a subsidiary can
have a chance to show their capability and to be provided with
equal support for
development from the organization. Third, while dealing with
challenging global
tasks, talent can enlarge perspectives, increase global
capacities, and gain global
managerial skills.
However, a global team does not always guarantee successful
results. Several
studies have pointed out the ineffectiveness of a globally
heterogeneous team because
of communication problems, behavioral conflicts, and
discriminations (Chatman,
Polzer, Barsade, & Neale, 1998; Ely & Thomas, 2001; Thomas,
1999). In this regard,
Thomas (1999) found that the difference in effectiveness
between a culturally

homogeneous and heterogeneous team is dependent on the
nature of the tasks. He
contended that homogeneous teams perform better with highly
structured or overall
assessment tasks, whereas diverse teams show more confidence
and proficiency with
tasks involving creative solutions and idea generation. In
addition to the nature of the
tasks, he argued that individual cultural characteristics also
influence the result of the
effectiveness of diverse teams. That is, the more individuals
with collectivistic char-
acteristics a team has, the more effective the performance of the
team is because a
collectivistic person tends to be more receptive and regards
group harmony as impor-
tant. However, those from a collectivistic culture may be less
creative because it is
more subject to groupthink.
To enhance the effectiveness of a global team, global
organizations need to pro-
vide organizational activities, as well as develop their systems
and cultures, so that
the organizations can be open to diversity without any

unhealthy interpersonal con-
flict and difficulty (Beechler & Woodward, 2009). Diversity
training, coaching, and
mentoring programs can help develop both knowledge and
attitudes for working
with diverse colleagues (McGuire, 2011). Cultural facilitation
and mediation by
HRD professionals may reduce the incidences of prejudice and
misbehavior in the
first meeting (McLean, 2006). When individuals are willing to
learn about and
accept differences, a diverse team can generate a synergic effect
and provide better
performance (Ely & Thomas, 2001). Interpersonal problems can
also be addressed
by clarifying team goals, roles and responsibilities, or
procedures and processes
(Burke, 2011). Efforts for global team building should be a
long-term approach in a
systemic way so that organizations sustain the interventions and
develop their cul-
tures (McGuire, 2011).
Conceptual Framework for Global TM
On the basis of the findings explored, we created a conceptual

framework for the
necessity, challenges, and roles of HRD in terms of global TM
(Figure 1). First, global
TM plays a critical role for global organizations because of the
globalized business
environment, shortage of talent, and competition for talent.
Second, ethnocentric per-
spectives in terms of talent development, concerns of talent
about global mobility, and
gaps between headquarters and subsidiaries can be challenges in
developing global
talent. Third, for success in global TM, HRD needs to balance
strategies between
centralized and decentralized, develop global competencies,
create a structured devel-
opment system, and support global team building.
Discussion
Despite the limited literature directly relevant to global TM, we
found sufficient
information to present the necessity, challenges, and HRD roles
through reviewing
literature related to HRD, HRM, and industrial psychology and
synthesizing their
contents. Our findings support our initial research assumption

that TM is not a
Kim and McLean 579
concept newly created but is reinterpreted HRM/HRD activities
focusing on high
potentials or high performers (Collings & Mellahi, 2009; Iles et
al., 2010; McLean,
2010). Challenges and HRD practitioners’ roles regarding
global TM may not be
very different from those of general international HRD.
However, we believe how to
manage or develop global talent is critical for success in global
business and HR
scholars and practitioners should keep paying attention to
matters of global talent.
What we discovered in this article makes several contributions
to HRD. First, we
disclose a topic that has not received much attention among
HRD professionals but
inevitably needs their involvement and interest. What HRD can
consider and do for

talent development in a global context was also identified. In
addition, we provided
strategic and systematic approaches to developing global talent
for HRD professionals
extending beyond relying solely on cross-cultural training, the
most frequently occur-
ring activity in both the field and academy.
This study has limitations. First, only studies written in English
were reviewed
because of our language and search limitations. Although it
appears that the majority
of research on global TM has been conducted in the United
States, Europe, and coun-
tries using English, such as Australia and Singapore, there may
be studies or cases in
non–English-speaking countries. Second, focusing only on
content related to global
talent and global HRD limited viewpoints beyond HRD and
HRM, although we agree
that TM should not be confined to HR. As global talent is
emphasized in global busi-
ness, identifying, developing, deploying, and retaining talent
are no longer only HR’s
job but the responsibility of all management from line manager

to top executive
(McCauley & Wakefield, 2006; Odell & Spielman, 2009). Third,
our research focus is
limited to for-profit organizations and do not include nonprofit
global organizations.
Thus, there may be difficulty in applying our findings to
different types of global
organizations.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the necessity, challenge, and
HRD roles for global talent
management (TM)
Recommendations for HRD Researchers
There are four recommendations we suggest for HRD
researchers.
First, HRD researchers need to pay more attention to global TM.
Although the
number of articles on TM have rapidly increased since the

concept of TM was intro-
duced (Iles et al., 2010), more theoretical and practical studies
are necessary for estab-
lishing TM as a solid academic area within HRD. How to
manage global talent has
been one of the hot issues among organizations involved in
international business or
interested in global human resources. However, academic
development of TM is still
so minimal that what scholars have accomplished for TM does
not meet the field’s
needs. This leads many organizations to rely mainly on business
consultants who may
use tools or models not theoretically grounded. For the
academic development of
global TM, more cases need to be investigated and, based on
those case studies, more
empirical studies should be conducted. And then, HRD
researchers can perform
theory-building studies on global TM and examine those
theories.
Second, HRD researchers need to be careful when they
prescribe roles for HRD in
TM. In an actual business situation, dividing HRD from HRM is

likely to be mean-
ingless because both have the same goal, contributing to
organizational performance
and have many overlapping tasks under the same umbrella, HR.
Thus, it is hard to say
that HRD oversees only training functions in TM or that
identifying and deploying
talent are only HRM’s functions. Rather, to supply the talent the
organization needs,
HRD must be involved in all processes of TM. For exampl e,
when individuals with
high potentials need to be developed as leaders, HRD can draw
a career map, identify
necessary competencies, provide interventions, and evaluate not
only TM activities
but also the talent themselves.
Third, TM in nonprofit organizations should also be explored.
Most studies on
global TM are focused on corporations, not other types of
organizations, such as non-
governmental organizations. Because these organizations have
different purposes,
structures, and activities, they may need a different definition
of talent and a unique

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