anna university notes

1. ASPECT OF DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE
Aspects of Digital Architecture – Design and Computation – Difference between Digital
Process and Non-Digital Process – Architecture and Cyber Space – Qualities of the new
space – Issues of Aesthetics and Authorship of Design – Increased Automatism and its
influence on Architectural Form and Space.
CONTEMPORARY
PROCESS IN
ARCHITECTURAL
DESIGN
UNIT II
Ar. Priya Dharshini MS | Rathinam school of Architecture |

2. Digital Architecture
The digital advancements have heralded a new architecture that is anything, but static in nature.
• A new perception of space – the fluid continuity
• Dematerialisation of structures
• Variation –of shape and of the programming of its movements
• Changing expression of the exterior and interior image
• Connection with a possible processing of data transformed in real time
• Uninhibited and spontaneous in its manifestations
• Extrovert by being dynamical; informal by being informational and joyful in its movements.
• More explicit, direct and expressive
• More colourful thanaustere
• Eloquent, rather than elegant
• Bold, rather than resistant
CHARACTERISTICS/ ASPECTS OF DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE COMPUTATIONAL
ARCHITECTURE
The new digital approaches to architectural design (digital architectures) are based on computational concepts such as
1. Topological space (topological architectures),
2. Isomorphic surfaces (isomorphic architectures),
3. Motion kinematics and dynamics (animate architectures),
4. Key shape animation (metamorphic architectures),
5. Parametric design (parametric architectures), and
6. Genetic algorithms (evolutionary architectures),
2

3. Topology is opposed to the Euclidean geometrical representation of space. When an Euclidean wall associates itself to
other flat surfaces (walls, ceiling, floors), it is simple to define an inside and an outside.
Note : Euclid sometimes given the name Euclid of Alexandria , was a Greek mathematician, often
referred to as the "founder of geometry” or the "father of geometry". Euclid deduced the theorems of
what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works
on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and rigor.
3
1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES -
(TOPOLOGICAL ARCHITECTURES)
Topology is an abstract term designating a continuity of
surface. It is usually employed in the field of mathematics to
describe an entity of organized spatial relationships and
proximities within surface structures.

4. CONTEMPORARY PROCESS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Topological surfaces like the well-known Möbius strip, complexifies this strict definition of inside and outside since the inflection
of these surfaces does no longer allow them to contain space, but rather to constitute an interface between two milieus.
Topology is opposed to the Euclidean geometrical representation of space. To use an architectural terminology, when an
Euclidean wall is combined to other flat surfaces (other walls, ceiling, floors), it is simple to define an inside and an outside, since
such terms found their definitions based on such an organization of space.
On the other hand, topological surfaces like the well-known Möbius strip and the Klein Bottle, complexifies this strict definition of
inside and outside since the inflection of these surfaces does no longer allow them to contain space, but rather to constitute an
interface(edge or border) between two milieus. (background,setting or surrounding)
astrologer and mathematician - August Ferdinand Möbius (1790-1868).
4

5. Mobius strip Klein Bottle
Mobius strip
Möbius strips, which have only one surface and one edge, are a kind of object studied in topology.
The Moebius strip is the figure of 8 without a right or vice versa, without
beginning or end. The Möbius strip has the mathematical property of being unorientable. It
can be realized as a ruled surface.
https:// en. wikipedia. org/wiki/ M% C3 % B 6bius_ strip
5

6. Mobius house in a residential area close to Amsterdam.
In 1993, a young couple instructed the Dutch architect Ben van Berkel design “a house that was
recognized as a reference in terms of renewal of the architectural language.”
https:// en. wikiarquitectura. com/ building/ moebius - house/
Klein Bottle
In topology, a branch of mathematics, the Klein bottle i s an example of a non-
orientable surface ; i t i s a two- dimensional manifold. The Klein bottle i s a
descriptive model of a surface developed by topological mathematician klein
https:// en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Klein_ bottle
Klein Bottlehouse
Klien house has become the mathematical concept of the Klein Bottle. Externally the building is predominantly clad
in cement sheeting, simultaneously recalling both folded origami, tents and the
6

7. ubiquitous ‘fibro-shack’. Thebuilding is supported bya traditionaltimber studframe – pushed toits physical limit.
Alexandros Tsamis, Surrogate House, MIT 2010.
This notion of topology is studied in various schools of architectures and architectural practices around the world
(see Alexandros Tsamis above or the work of Kokkugia for some instance) as the representation/generation of such
complexity of space has been reachable for the last two decades thanks to the computational tool (although people like
Vittorio Giorgini or Frederick Kiesler did not seem to need computers to build such forms).
kokkugia architecture
https://iremstructure.wordpress.com/2012/03/10/kokkugia-algorithmic-architecture/ 7

8. Bejing Olympic stadium, is affectionately named the “Birds Nest.” The design of this large stadium was accomplished
together by Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron and Chinese architect Li Xinggang and the
others. The designers didn’t do any redundant disposals to the look of the stadium. They just exposed the steel
structures entirely and let them become the most natural appearance. The form of the stadium looks like a big nest
which embraces and nurses human beings.
Bejing Olympic stadium
In his essay on “architectural curvilinearity” Greg Lynn (1993) offers examples of new approaches to designthatmove away from the
deconstructivism’s “logicof conflictandcontradiction” to develop a “more fluid logic of connectivity.”
8

9. This new fluidity of connectivity is manifested through folding, a design strategy that departs from Euclidean geometry of
discrete volumes represented in Cartesian space, and employs topological, “rubber-sheet” geometry of continuous curves and
surfaces.
In topological space, geometry is represented not by implicit equations, but by parametric functions, which describe a range of
possibilities. The continuous, highly curvilinear surfaces that feature prominently in contemporary architecture are
mathematically described as NURBS – Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines. NURBS geometry introduces double curved surfaces in
architecture allowing for generation, control, fabrication of curvilinear geometries.
What makes NURBS curves and surfaces particularly appealing is the ability to easily control their shape by manipulating the
control points, weights, and knots. NURBS make the heterogeneous, yet coherent forms of the topological space
computationally possible.
9

10. Spline curves and polygons are collectively termed "faces", while grids and spline surfaces are termed "hulls". As opposed to
polygonal types, NURBS and Bézier entities are inherently smooth primitives known as splines.
 2 degree spline- a two-degree spline ,where the curvature and inflection is determined by a sequence of positions between
only two points along the motions flow of the spline. The spline is therefore appears to be a poly-line.
 3 degree spline- a 3 three degree spline ,where the curvature and inflection is determined by a sequence of positions of 3
points along the motion flow of the spline. The spline is constructed from control vertices, connected in a sequence, and
from which a vector curve hangs with a directional flow.
10

11.  A seven degree spline – where the curvate and inflection is determined by a sequence of positions of 7
adjacent points along the path of the spline. The seven-degree spline is therefore much smoother than
the three-degree spline because it interpolates between a greater number of adjacent points.
 Two splines –showing the distributed effect of a change in one control vertex across the length of the spline. The fourth
control vertex is moved and its weight is increased. This change is distributed along the length of the spline rather than only
between fixed points.
11

12. Example: Topological architecture: Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, spain
Set on the edge of the Nervión River in Bilbao, Spain, the Guggenheim Museum is a fusion of complex, swirling forms and
captivating materiality that responds to an intricate program and an industrial urban context..
Constructed of titanium, limestone, and glass, the seemingly random curves of the exterior are designed to catch the light and
react to the sun and the weather. Fixing clips make a shallow central dent in each of the .38mm titanium tiles, making the surface
appear to ripple in the changing light and giving an extraordinary iridescence to the overall composition.
12

13. Because of their mathematical intricacy, the twisting curves were designed using a 3-D design software called
CATIA, which allows for complex designs and calculations that would not have been possible a few years ago.
Essentially, the software digitizes points on the edges, surfaces, and intersections of Gehry’s hand-built
models to construct on-screen models that can then be manipulated.
13

14. The building’s walls and ceilings are load-bearing, containing an internal structure of metal rods that form grids with triangles.
CATIA calculated the number of bars required in each location, as well as the bars ’positions and orientations. In addition to this
structure, the walls and ceilings have several insulating layers and an outer coating of titanium. Each piece is exclusive to its
location, determined by the CATIA software.
ISOMORPHIC SPACES- (ISOMORPHIC ARCHITECTURES)
Isomorphism is a very general concept that appears in several areas of mathematics. The word derives from the Greek iso,
meaning "equal," and morphosis, meaning "to form" or "to shape."
Formally, an isomorphism is bijective morphism. Informally, an isomorphism is a map that preserves sets and relations
among elements. " is isomorphic to " is written . Unfortunately, this symbol is also used to denote geometric
congruence.
Blobs or meta balls, as isomorphic surfaces are sometimes called, are amorphous objects constructed as composite
assemblages of mutually inflecting parametric objects with internal forces of mass and attraction. They exercise fields or
regions of influence, which could be additive (positive) or subtractive (negative).
14

15. The geometry is constructed by computing a surface at which the composite field has the same intensity – hence the name –
isomorphic surfaces.
The surface boundary of the whole (the isomorphic surface) shifts or moves as fields of influence vary in their location and
intensity. In that way, objects begin to operate in a dynamic rather than a static geography (Lynn 1999).
15

16. Isomorphic polysurfaces" in the special effects and animation industry is referred to as "meta-clay," "meta-
ball" or "blob" models.
“ BLOB “– means BINARY LARGE OBJECT
 Blobs have a centre, a surface and a mass area that is relative to other objects, and internal forces due to mass
attraction
The weight of one spline surface can affect those of another spline surface. These resulting structures are called
blobs for their ability to mutually inflect one another and form composite assemblages.
Disconnected primitives used to compose an isomorphic polysurface.
Difference between sphere and blob
•Sphere symmetries are the index of a low level of interaction.
•Blob has an index of a high degree of information in the form of differentiation of components in time.
•Sphere can be identified as a blob without influence (attractive force)
Examples : Cardiff Opera by Greg Lynn, BMW-Pavilion by B. Franken, Kunsthaus Graz, Grazer Kunsthaus, or Graz Art
Museum
16

17. Example: BMW Pavillion is exclusively based on the computational concepts of isomorphic surfaces.
Architect - Bernhard Franken - 1999
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18. Example ; Kunsthaus Graz, Grazer Kunsthaus, or Graz Art Museum
The Kunsthaus Graz, Grazer Kunsthaus, or Graz Art Museum was built as part of the European Capital of Culture
celebrations in 2003 and has since become an architectural landmark in Graz, Austria. Its exhibition program specializes in
contemporary art of the last four decades.
18

19. Designed by Peter Cook and Colin Fournier, the Kunsthaus, Graz is characterised geometrically by its blob-like
form. The architects wanted to establish the ‘alien’ nature of the object and so a sleek continuous surface was the
best way to smooth out the conventional differences between elements such as roof, walls and floors.
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20. CONTEMPORARY PROCESS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Digital blob modelling techniques are based on the NURBS technology (non-uniform rational B- Splines). The
structural digital model began as a sphere which was then distorted by pulling on parametric control points in
software -Rhino-3D.
The building also features a media façade, the BIX (big pixel). The giant low-resolution screen surface of the
Kunsthaus can display simple image sequences and varying text streams, making it an innovative medium for
digitally presenting art and other information.
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21. Cardiff Opera by Greg Lynn
Welsh National Opera House on the Inner Harbor of Cardiff Bay
mandates a new concept for waterfront urban space.
not as a monument to a bygone era but as the generator of a new waterfront
public space and as the starting point for a new civic institution. The Oval Basin
becomes the chrysalis out of which the Opera House emerges. Like the graving
docks that are indigenous to Cardiff's waterfront, the Opera House is sited so that is
an interface between land and water.
The project is structured through two systems; portalized wall fins and rib structured hulls. The inspiration for these two
structural systems and their relationship to the site came from the graving docks in Cardiff, such as the Oval Basin. These fins
walls act like the lateral supports of the wooden cribs upon which the dry docked boats were supported and constructed in the
graving docks of Cardiff. These walls are of concrete construction and run continuously from a height of 32m to grade level though
a series of variable slopes. These walls can be punctured at any point at which they can support transmitted loads from above, as
they are based on the structural principle of portalized masonry walls.
Our proposal uses the empty shell of the defunct technology of the Oval Basin,
MOTION KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS ( ANIMATE ARCHITECTURE )
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics concerned with the motions of objects without being concerned with the forces that
cause the motion. In this latter respect it differs from dynamics, which is concerned with the forces that affect motion.
Kinematics studies without consideration given to mass or external forces, whereas Dynamics takes into consideration physical
properties such as mass, elasticity and physical forces such as gravity and inertia.
21

22. There are three basic concepts in kinematics - speed, velocity and acceleration.
 Speed
The speed of an object is how fast it is moving (the same as the ordinary, everyday definition). Speed in physics is defined as the
rate of change of position with no respect to direction.
 Velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position of a body in a given direction. The velocity of an object (such as
a bus) is how fast it is moving in a particular direction. To specify the velocity, both a speed and a direction must be given.
Continuing with the bus from the example above, if it is moving east of west, then its velocity is 50 km/h, e of w.
 Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Recalling the definition of velocity, this could mean a change in speed or
direction. So, if the bus (yes, it's still with us!) goes around a curve without slowing down, still traveling at 50 km/hr, but now
turning toward the south (say), then it is accelerating, even though its speed isn't changing.
Acceleration will prove to be an important topic when it comes to dynamics, which is concerned with the forces that make
objects move.
 Uniform motion
The simplest type of motion is where the change in distance is the same for every second; in other words the speed is
constant.
 Motion with constant acceleration
The next simplest type of motion is where the velocity (speed) is steadily increasing.
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Kinematics

23. Newton's 1st Law of Motion
Newton's First Law is often stated: "An objects at rest will tend to stay at rest, or an object in motion will tend to stay in motion
unless acted on by an outside force."
Newton's 2nd Law of Motion
Newton's 2nd Law of Motion states:"the rate of change of the momentum of an object is directly proportional to the resultant
force acting upon it".
Newton's 3rd Law of Motion
Newton's Third Law of Motion is often stated as "For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction."
Greg Lynn (1999)
was one of the first architects to utilize animation software not as a medium of representation, but of form generation. According to
Lynn, “Animate design is defined by the co-presence of motion and force at the moment of formal conception.”
Force, asan initial condition, becomes “the cause ofboth motionandparticular inflections ofa form.” According to Lynn, “while motion
implies movement and action, animation implies evolution of a form and its shaping forces.” In his projects, Lynn utilizes an
entire repertoire of
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DYNAMICS
Dynamics is the study of why things move, in contrast to
kinematics, which is concerned with describing the motion of
objects. An object's motion typically is described using Newton's
Laws of Motion

24. Keyframe animation
A keyframe in animation and filmmaking is a
drawing that defines the starting and ending
points of any smooth transition. The drawings
are called "frames" because their position in
time is measured in frames on a strip of film. A
sequence of keyframes defines which movement
the viewer will see, whereas the position of the
keyframes on the film, video, or animation defines
the timing of the movement. Because only two or
three keyframes over the span of a second do not
create the illusion of movement, the remaining
frames are filled with inbetweens.
24

25. What is Forward Kinematics?
The Forward Kinematics function/algorithm takes a pose as the input, and calculates the position of the end effector as the output.
Forward Kinematics is the inverse function of Inverse Kinematics. With Forward Kinematics, you need to define the whole pose of
an articulated body so as to provide the function/algorithm with the pose input. This means you need to define the articulation of each
joint in the articulated body. This might be fine if you have a low number of joints, but with a high number of joints this tends to be
tedious.
What is Inverse Kinematics?
Now, imagine if you’d like the end effector of your articulated body to reach a particular target position. This means that you know the end
effector position you’d like to target, but you don’t know what the pose of the articulated body needs to be for the end effector to reach
this target position. This is where Inverse Kinematics shines!
25

26. Figure 6: The target position is represented by a red circle. The target position is defined as the input, and the resulting pose required for the
end effector to reach the target position is the output.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-inverse-kinematics-approach-and- forward-kinematics-approach
Particle system in motion modelling
A particle system is a technique in game physics, motion graphics, and computer graphics that uses a large number of very small sprites, 3D
models, or other graphic objects to simulate certain kinds of "fuzzy" phenomena,
Introduced in the 1982 film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan for the fictional "Genesis effect",other examples include replicating the
phenomena of fire, explosions, smoke, moving water (waterfall), sparks, fallingleaves, rock falls, clouds, fog, snow, dust,
meteortails, stars and galaxies, or abstract visual effects like glowing trails, magic spells, etc. - these use particles that fade out
quickly and are then re-emitted from the effect's source.
Another technique can be used for things that contain many strands - such as fur, hair, and grass - involving rendering an entire
particle's lifetime at once, which can then be drawn and manipulated as a single strand of the material in question.
Particle systems may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional.
Typically a particle system's position and motion in 3D space are controlled by what is referred to as an emitter. The emitter acts as the source
of the particles, and its location in 3D space determines where they are generated and where they move to. A regular 3D mesh object, such
as a cube or a plane, can be used as an emitter. The emitter has attached to it a set of particle behavior parameters. These parameters can
include the spawning rate (how many particles are generated per unit of time), the particles' initial velocity vector (the direction they are emitted
upon creation), particle lifetime (the length of time each individual particle exists before disappearing), particle color, and many more.
26

27. A typical particle system's update loop (which is performed for each frame of animation) can be separated into two distinct
stages, the parameter update/simulation stage and the rendering stage.
Simulation stage
During the simulation stage, the number of new particles that must be created is calculated based on spawning rates and the
interval between updates, and each of them is spawned in a specific position in 3D space based on the emitter's position and
the spawning area specified.
Each of the particle's parameters (i.e. velocity, color, etc.) is initialized according to the emitter's parameters. At each update, all
existing particles are checked to see if they have exceeded their lifetime, in which case they are removed from the simulation.
Otherwise, the particles' position and other characteristics are advanced based on a physical simulation, which can be as simple as
translating their current position, or as complicated as performing physically accurate trajectory calculations which take into
account external forces (gravity, friction, wind, etc.).
It is common to perform collision detection between particles and specified 3D objects in the scene to make the particles bounce
off of or otherwise interact with obstacles in the environment.
Rendering stage
After the update is complete, each particle is rendered, usually in the form of a textured billboarded quad (i.e. a
quadrilateral that is always facing the viewer). Particles can be rendered as Metaballs in off-line rendering; isosurfaces computed
from particle-metaballs make quite convincing liquids.
Finally, 3D mesh objects can "stand in" for the particles — a snowstorm might consist of a single 3D snowflake mesh being
duplicated and rotated to match the positions of thousands or millions of particles.
27

28. Particle systems can be either animated or static; that is, the lifetime of each particle
can either be distributed over time or rendered all at once. The consequence of this
distinction is similar to the difference between snowflakes and hair - animated particles
are akin to snowflakes, which move around as distinct points in space, and static
particles are akin to hair, which consists of a distinct number of curves.
A cube emitting 5000 animated particles, obeying a "gravitational" force in the negative Y direction.
28

29. The same cube emitter rendered using static particles, or strands.
Developer-friendly particle system tools
Havok provides multiple particle system APIs. Their Havok FX API focuses especially on particle system effects.
Ageia - now a subsidiary of Nvidia - provides a particle system and other game physics API that is used in many games,
including Unreal Engine 3 games.
Both GameMaker: Studio and Unity provide a two-dimensional particle system often used by indie, hobbyist, or student
game developers, though it cannot be imported into other engines. Many other solutions also exist, and particle systems are
frequently written from scratch if non- standard effects or behaviors are desired.
Greg lynn projects
In some of Lynn’s projects, such as the House Prototype in Long Island , skeletons with a global envelope are deformed
using inverse kinematics under the influence of various site-induced forces.
In contrast to kinematics, the dynamic simulation takes into consideration the effects of forces on the motion of an object or a
system of objects, especially of forces that do not originate within the system itself. Physical properties of objects, such as mass
(density), elasticity, static and kinetic friction (or roughness), are defined. Forces of gravity, wind, or vortex are
applied, collision detection and obstacles (deflectors) are specified, and dynamic simulation computed. 29

30. Greg Lynn’s design of a protective roof and a lighting scheme for the bus terminal in New York offers a very effective example of
using particle systems to visualize the gradient fields of “attraction” present on the site, created by the forces associated with the
movement and flow of pedestrians, cars, and buses on the site.
Animate architecture: Lynn’s Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York.
KEY SHAPE ANIMATION (METAMORPHIC ARCHITECTURE)
Metamorphosis
Metamorphic architectures are generated by the deformation of modelling space. Morphing represents an additional
deformation and transformation techniques, which involve a time based strategy.
Metamorphic generation of form includes several techniques such as key shape animation, deformations of the modelling
space around the model using a bounding box (lattice deformation), an spline curve, or one of the coordinate system
axis or planes, and path animation, which deforms an object as it moves along a selected path.
bounding box (lattice deformation)
30

31. Spline curve deformation
Path curve deformation
 TOPOLOGICAL INVARIANT TRANSFORMATIONS:
Simple, topologically invariant transformations, such as twisting and bending, are particularly effective means
for creating alternative morphologies.
For instance, Gehry.s Üstra Office Building in Hannover, Germany (1999), has a simple prismatic form, which
twists in the direction of the nearby open park area .
31

32. By adding a fourth, temporal dimension to the deformation processes, animation software adds a possibility to literally express the
space and form of an object’s metamorphosis
Gehry.s Üstra Office Building in Hannover, Germany (1999)
KEYSHAPE – KEYFRAME ANIMATION
In keyshape (keyframe) animation, different states of an object (i.e. keyshapes or keyframes) are located at discrete points in
time, and the software then computes through interpolation a smooth, animated, time encoded transition between them. A
designer could choose one of the interpolated states for further development, or could use the interpolation as an iterative
modelling technique to produce instances of the object as it transitions, i.e. morphs from one state to another .
Morphing
A particularly interesting temporal modelling technique is morphing, in which dissimilar forms are blended to produce a range of
hybrid forms that combine formal attributes of the base and target objects.
32

33. CONTEMPORARY PROCESS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
face morph
object morphing
Kolatan and Mac Donald used morphing in a number of their projects. In
Housings, a normative three bedroom, two-and-a-half bathroom colonial house
was used as a base object that was then morphed into a range of everyday
objects as targets producing a large range of what they call chimerical
designs .
33

34. In the Ost/Kuttner Apartments (1996,), they digitally blended cross referenced sectional profiles of common household furniture,
such as a bed, sink, sofa, etc., to generate new hybrid forms that establish a chimerical condition between furniture, space, and
surface.
Root Chair by Sulan Kolatan and William MacDonald
Other techniques for the metamorphic generation of form include deformations of the modeling space around an object using a
bounding box (lattice deformation), a spline curve, or one of the coordinate system axis or planes, whereby an object’s shape
conforms to the changes in geometry of the modeling space.
PATH ANIMATION
In path animation, for example, an object is deformed as it moves along a selected path
Metamorphic architecture: Peter Eisenman’s Offices of BFL Software
34
Kolatan and Mac Donald intentionally
employed digital generative processes
whose outcomes were unknown and
impossible to preconceive or predict, i.e.
they relied on processes characterized by
nonlinearity, indeterminacy and
emergence.

35. Modelling of movement in architecture
There are two recent models for the modeling of movement in architecture; the first method involves procession and the
second involves superimposition.
Architectural form is typically conceived as a modulating frame through which a mobile eye moves.
In processional models of time, architecture is the immobile frame through which motion passes. There are two recent alternatives
to the processional model of the static frame; both of which formalize time. Where processional time depends on static frames,
formal time indexes time through the multiplication and sequencing of static frames.
Examples of formal or phenomenal time include "shearing," "shifting" and "rotating" operations. Superimposed snap-shots of
motion imply time as a phenomenal movement between frames or moments.
"Rotational" is one such example of time being used to describe the movement between superimposed formal moments.
These motion picture models of time instance a sequence into frames that are later reanimated with motion. They differ from
the processional models of architecture as a static frame because they introduce the idea of architecture as multiply framed and
therefore dynamic
35

36. PARAMETRIC DESIGN – ( PARAMETRIC ARCHITECTURE)
In parametric design the parameters of a particular design are defined, and not its shape. By assigning different values to the
parameters, different objects or configurations can be created. It is defined by control parameters , such as dimensions, angles,
relative distances, etc.
Equations can be used to describe the relationships between objects, thus defining an associative geometry— the
“constituent geometry that is mutually linked” (Burry 1999). That way, interdependencies between objects can be established, and
objects’ behaviour under transformations defined. As observed by Burry, “the ability to define, determine and reconfigure geometrical
relationships is of particular value.”
36

37. Examples for the parametric architecture
Paracube by Arch. Marcos Novak
Parametric design often entails a procedural, algorithmic description of geometry. In his “algorithmic spectaculars”,
i.e., algorithmic explorations of “tectonic production” using Mathematica software, Marcos Novak (1996) constructs
“mathematical models and generative procedures that are constrained by numerous variables initially unrelated to any
pragmatic concerns … Each variable or processis a ‘slot’ into which an external influence can be mapped, either statically or
dynamically.” In his explorations, Novak is “concerned less with the manipulation of objects and more with the manipulation of
relations, fields, higher dimensions, and eventually the curvature of space itself.”
Using Mathematica software, Marcos Novak constructs "mathematical models and generative procedures that are constrained
by numerous variables initially unrelated to any pragmatic concerns each variable or process is a' slot' into which an external
influence can be mapped, either statically or dynamically". In his explorations, Novak is "concerned less with the
manipulation of objects and more with the manipulation of relations, fields, higher dimensions, and eventually the curvature
of space itself"
This project was defined by six parametric surfaces, each with its own coordinate system. The parametric equations governing
each surface were arranged so that a variation on a particular surface would cause reactions or permutations on adjoining
surfaces, effectively creating a topological cube.
The parametric equations governing the cuboid, was manipulated to create two forms: a skeletal frame and a smooth skin.
Parameterization allowed the smoothness of each element to be defined and manipulated through computational formulas.
Paracube Interior of the project
37

38. The implication is that the parametric design doesn’t necessarily predicate stable forms. As demonstrated by Burry (1999),
one can devise a paramorph – an unstable spatial and topological description of form with stable characteristics.
Asymptote architects-Yas Viceroy Hotel Abu
38

39. GENETIC ALGORITHM - EVOLUTIONARY ARCHITECTURE
Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others,
stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that
increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
Darwin's theory consisted of two main points;
1)diverse groups of animals evolve from one or a few common ancestors;
2)the mechanism by which this evolution takes place is natural selection
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40. Darwin's 3 parts of - Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
 More individuals are produced each generation that can survive.
 Phenotypic variation exists among individuals and the variation is heritable.
 Those individuals with heritable traits better suited to the environment will survive.
Note : phenotype means - organism's observable characteristics or traits, such as its morphology, development,
biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior (such as a bird's nest).)
A genetic algorithm is a search heuristic that is inspired by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural evolution. This algorithm reflects the
process of natural selection where the fittest individuals are selected for reproduction in order to produce offspring of the next
generation.
Notion of Natural Selection
The process of natural selection starts with the selection of fittest individuals from a population. They produce offspring which inherit
the characteristics of the parents and will be added to the next generation. If parents have better fitness, their offspring will be
better than parents and have a better chance at surviving. This process keeps on iterating and at the end, a generation with the
fittest individuals will be found.
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41. This notion can be applied for a search problem. We consider a set of solutions for a problem and select the set of best ones out of
them.
Five phases are considered in a genetic algorithm.
1. Initial population
2. Fitness function
3. Selection
4. Crossover
5. Mutation Initial Population
The process begins with a set of individuals which is called a Population. Each individual is a
solution to the problem you want to solve.
An individual is characterized by a set of parameters (variables) known as Genes. Genes are joined into a string to form a
Chromosome (solution).
In a genetic algorithm, the set of genes of an individual is represented using a string, in terms of an alphabet. Usually, binary
values are used (string of 1s and 0s). We say that we encode the genes in a chromosome.
Fitness Function
The fitness function determines how fit an individual is (the ability of an individual to compete with other individuals). It gives a
fitness score to each individual. The probability that an individual will be selected for reproduction is based on its fitness
score.
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42. The idea of selection phase is to select the fittest individuals and let them pass their genes to the next generation.
Two pairs of individuals (parents) are selected based on their fitness scores. Individuals with high fitness have more chance to be
selected for reproduction.
Crossover
Crossover is the most significant phase in a genetic algorithm. For each pair of parents to be mated, a crossover point is chosen
at random from within the genes.
For example, consider the crossover point to be 3 as shown below.
Crossover point
Offspring are created by exchanging the genes of parents among themselves until the crossover point is reached.
Exchanging genes among parents = A1 & A2
The new offspring are added to the population.
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43. New offspring – A5 and A6
Mutation
In certain new offspring formed, some of their genes can be subjected to a mutation with a low random
probability. This implies that some of the bits in the bit string can be flipped.
Mutation: Before and After
Mutation occurs to maintain diversity within the population and prevent premature convergence.
Termination
The algorithm terminates if the population has converged (does not produce offspring which are significantly different from the
previous generation). Then it is said that the genetic algorithm has provided a set of solutions to our problem.
Comments
The population has a fixed size. As new generations are formed, individuals with least fitness die, providing space for new
offspring. 43

44. Example Implementation in Java
Given below is an example implementation of a genetic algorithm in Java. Given a set of 5 genes, each gene can hold one of the
binary values 0 and 1.
The fitness value is calculated as the number of 1s present in the genome. If there are five 1s,
then it is having maximum fitness. If there are no 1s, then it has the minimum fitness.
This genetic algorithm tries to maximize the fitness function to provide a population consisting of the fittest individual, i.e. individuals
with five 1s. 44

45. Note: In this example, after crossover and mutation, the least fit individual is replaced from the new fittest offspring.
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46. https://towardsdatascience.com/introduction-to-genetic-algorithms-including-example-code- e396e98d8bf3
https://www.neuraldesigner.com/blog/genetic_algorithms_for_feature_selection
The rules that direct the genesis of living organisms, that generate their form, are encoded in the strands of DNA. Variation within the
same species is achieved through gene crossover and mutation, i.e. through the iterative exchange and change of
information that governs the biological morphogenesis.
The concepts of biological growth and form, i.e. the evolutionary model of nature, can be applied as the generative process for
architectural form as well, argues John Frazer in his book “Evolutionary Architecture”. According to Frazer, architectural
concepts are expressed as a set of generative rules, and their evolution and development can be digitally encoded. The
generative script of instructions produces a large number of prototypical forms which are then evaluated on the basis of their
performance in a simulated environment.. According to Frazer, the emergent forms are often unexpected.
The key concept behind the evolutionary approach to architecture is that of the genetic algorithm, a class of highly parallel
evolutionary, adaptive search procedures,. as defined by Frazer. Their key characteristic is a string-like structure equivalent to
the chromosomes of nature, to which the rules of reproduction, gene crossover and mutation are applied.
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47. the accompanying “gene crossovers” and “mutations”, thus passing beneficial and survival- enhancing traits to new generations.
Optimum solutions are obtained by small incremental changes over several generations.
http://pandalabccc.blogspot.com/2013/02/hyperbodyinteractivebody-workshop-for.html
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48. BIONIC ARCHITECTURE
Bionic architecture is a movement for the design and construction of expressive buildings whose layout and lines borrow from
natural (i.e. biological) forms. The movement began to mature in the early 21st century, and thus in early designs research was
stressed over practicality. One of the tasks set themselves by the movement's early pioneers was the development of aesthetic and
economic justifications for their approach to architecture.
Karl Chu.s approach to digital morphogenesis and to what he calls the proto-bionic architecture is a formal system based on the
generative logic of the Lindermayer System (L-System) and its implementation in digital modeling software, where it is used for the
simulation of plant growth. L-systems are based on a recursive, rule-based branching system, conceived on the simple
technique of rewriting, in which complex objects are created by successively replacing parts of an initially constructed object using a set
of simple rewriting rules. A simple set of carefully defined rules can produce a very complex object in a recursive process consisting of
only a few levels
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49. CONTEMPORARY PROCESS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
https://www.archdaily.com/510167/video-bionic-architecture-that-moves-when-you-do
In both approaches to generative design based on biological metaphors, the task of the architect is to essentially define the
common source of form, the genetic coding for a large family of similar objects, in which variety is achieved through different
processes of reproduction.. As was the case with other contemporary approaches to design, in processes of genetic coding the
emphasis shifts to articulating the inner logic of the project rather than the external form
example: Yokohama International Port Terminal
The brief of the Yokohama International Port Terminal asked for the articulation of a passenger cruise terminal and a mix of civic
facilities for the use of citizens in one building. Designed by Foreign Office Architects (FOA) in 1995, the futuristic terminal
represented an emergent typology of transportation infrastructure.
The project starts with what the architects have named as the "no-return pier", with the ambition to structure the precinct of the pier as
a fluid, uninterrupted and multidirectional space, rather than a gateway to flows of fixed orientation. A series of programmatically
specific interlocking circulation loops allow the architects to subvert the traditional linear and branching structure characteristic of the
building
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