Civil Handbook during internship at "Vizag Profiles Pvt. Ltd." (May,2015-July,2015)

CIVIL HANDBOOK
By
Students of
BITS Pilani
May 2015 – July 2015

CIVIL HANDBOOK
First Edition
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Preface
In recent years, civil engineering has accomplished rapid and dynamic
development, and the influence which it has on other branches of engineering
continues to grow. In the inside of such a situation, every engineer is expected to
know the basics of civil engineering.
This handbook is a genuine attempt by us to help anyone understand the basics in
construction of a building. We are a group of undergraduate students and we
made this book as a project in our internship under expert guidance. In the
process of making this book we learned a lot about the practical problems in civil
engineering and how to tackle them in the field.
Lucid language and crisp explanations make this book a quick reference in the
field of construction. This book may not be of any use to an expert civil engineer
but it definitely helps a beginner to understand the concepts of civil engineering.
Finally we express our gratitude to green city management which helped us in
every aspect for the making of this book.
16th
July 2015

Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to our college, BITS Pilani University for
giving us this wonderful opportunity of doing our Practice School-1 here at Green
City, Vishakhapatnam.
We would like to thank Mr. K V Bhaskar, Managing Director of VPL Integral CFS
(P) Ltd. and Correspondent of Green City School, for giving us all the resources and
ideas that we need for completing this Handbook. Also we would like to thank
him for all the visits that he suggested or arranged for us.
Next, we would like to thank Mr. K V Ramarao, Project In-charge (Civil), VPL
Projects Pvt. Ltd. who took all the pains and time out of his busy schedule to guide
us in completing the handbook. Without him this handbook would never have
been a reality.
We would also like to thank Mr. B Suresh, Director of VPL Projects Pvt. Ltd. for
giving us the opportunity to our Practice School at Green City and being the
backbone of the entire program.
A special thanks to all the people Mr. D Vijay Kumar Reddy, Mr. K Sridhar, Mr.
Siva Prasad, Mr. K K Rao and Mr. S M Roy Bera who took some time of their
busy schedule to give us lectures on various topics. Apart from these people we
would also like to thank Dr. G V Subbaraju and Mr. Sachin Narayana for sharing
their valuable knowledge and experience with us.
We would also like to thank Mr. Sreeni Babu and Mr. M N Rao for guiding us
during our visit to VCTPL.
We would also like to thank Mr. Anand Galpade and Mr. Sathish for guiding us
during our visit to Eisai Knowledge Centre.

We would also like to thank Mr. Joshi for sharing with us the working of steel
plant during our visit to SEIL.
A special thanks to all the green city employees and all other people who
contributed in their small bits to make this wonder possible.
Last but not the least; we would like to thank Ms. B Vani who acted as a mentor
and motivated us to continue our hard work in completing this handbook.

CONTENTS
Construction .............................................................1
1. Site Selection and Analysis......................................................................................... 3
2. Site Surveying.......................................................................................................................... 7
3. Preparation of Project Plans ...................................................................................14
4. Obtaining Approvals......................................................................................................16
5. Building Design...................................................................................................................19
6. Estimation.................................................................................................................................23
7. Preparation of Detail Drawing..............................................................................31
8. Costing and Budgeting................................................................................................39
9. Manpower and Material .............................................................................................42
10. Scheduling.............................................................................................................................45
11. Layout of the Site............................................................................................................51
12. Excavation of Earth and Leveling ....................................................................59
13. Material Arrangement................................................................................................63
14. Casting.......................................................................................................................................68
15. Curing of Concrete Surfaces................................................................................77
16. Brick Work..............................................................................................................................82
17. Doors and Windows.....................................................................................................87
18. Sanitary Items.....................................................................................................................90
19. Flooring ....................................................................................................................................93

20. Electrical Works..............................................................................................................102
21. Painting and Finishing ............................................................................................109
22. Handing Over to Customers.............................................................................117
23. Maintenance.....................................................................................................................122
Expert Advise........................................................ 125
1. Marketing Strategies...................................................................................................127
2. Customer Retention.....................................................................................................129
3. Finance......................................................................................................................................130
4. Construction management...................................................................................133
5. Vocational Training.......................................................................................................135
Visits......................................................................... 137
1. VCTPL .........................................................................................................................................139
2. Eisai...............................................................................................................................................142
3. SEIL................................................................................................................................................146

CONSTRUCTION | SITE SELECTION AND ANALYSIS
3
1 Site Selection
and Analysis
Site selection indicates the practice of new facility location, both for business and
government. It involves measuring the needs of a new project against the merits
of potential locations. Choosing a site on which to locate a new home is not a
simple task. Countless factors such as natural, man-made, social and economic
and many other must be examined. Where we choose to build and how we build
on a site have an impact on the local and global environments, ongoing costs
(utility bills, maintenance) and our physical and psychological well-being. With
today’s rapid growth, dwindling resources and increasing pollution threats,
concern for human and environmental health are causing us to take a closer look
at our building practices, starting with the building site. Site Selection is done by
keeping these mentioned points in mind:
LOCATION
1. Selecting a building site close to work, schools, shopping, etc. will minimize
travel distances and time.
2. A lot in an established neighborhood located close to town is a particularly
good choice for many people. This land has already been dedicated to
residential development, so more natural land does not have to be destroyed
and the costly roads and utilities are already in place.
3. Avoiding environmentally sensitive areas helps protect some of the features
that makes many areas so special – our creeks, lakes, aquifer, tree-covered
hills, wildlife, native wildflowers & plants.
4. Flat to moderately sloped sites are preferable to steeply sloped lots, as soil
erosion, loss of hillside vegetation and damage to waterways are more difficult
to avoid when building on steep slopes.

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5. “Site Repair” is a special approach to selection of a building site that can have
economic and aesthetic benefits for the prospective homeowner while
restoring the local environment rather than burdening it.
6. Choosing a site that has been abused (stripped of vegetation, eroded, invaded
by exotic (non-native) vegetation, etc.) for the location of the home is
advisable.
DESIGN FOR THE CLIMATE, FLORA, FAUNA & SOILS
The chosen building site can greatly affect the comfort and energy efficiency of
the home built upon it.
1. A south-facing slope or good southern exposure on a lot which allows for the
long sides of the building to face north and south will facilitate the utilization
of our prevailing summer breezes and desirable winter solar heat gain.
2. A hot, bare site will require a greater investment in wide overhangs, shading
devices such as sunshades or grills, and shade trees to keep utility bills down
and comfort levels up.
3. Examination of a particular site’s unique characteristics is important. The top
of a hill may be too windy, drying and exposed to the hot sun. A valley may be
too damp, windless, fogy or subject to flooding.
4. Location and type of trees should be evaluated for shading assistance, breeze
channeling or blocking, wind blocking, and winter solar heat gain penetration.
5. A lot that allows for placement of the house on a relatively flat area and in a
natural clearing will minimize disruption of the natural vegetation. This will
avoid erosion, discourage growth of invasive exotic vegetation, and be less
expensive than massive reconstruction.
6. Minimizing disruption of natural drainage patterns is generally less expensive
up front and avoids costly maintenance of elaborate constructed drainage
systems.

CONSTRUCTION | SITE SELECTION AND ANALYSIS
5
MINIMIZATION OF RAW MATERIALS
1. One of the best ways to minimize the use of raw materials is to select a site
that already has a home on it, and remodel as necessary.
2. At times it makes sense to move an existing home to a new site.
3. Some sites may offer sources of usable building materials such as wood, stone,
clay and sand which, if carefully and thoughtfully considered, can be a sound
alternative to importation.
4. One of the best ways to minimize the amount (and cost) of building materials
required is to keep the size of the home reasonable. With thoughtful design a
small home can be very comfortable, functional and respectful of privacy.
SOCIAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL/FUNCTIONAL
How the site “feels” – inviting or forbidding, hot or cool, open or intimate – may
affect how much the new homeowners take advantage of outdoor living spaces.
1. Maximum use of patios, decks, natural clearings, or other outdoor rooms can
result in the need for less indoor square footage that needs to be constructed
then heated and cooled, not to mention the psychological and physical
benefits of being outdoors.
2. A prospective building site should be examined for existing tree groupings,
landforms or structures that will aid in creating pleasant, usable outdoor
spaces.
3. Offsite conditions which may affect outdoor livability or indoor living with
open windows (such as traffic noise, odors or pollution) should be considered
before selecting a site.
Many site selection and home design decisions that are good for the environment
also have direct positive benefits on the occupants’ health, well-being and
budget. Helping to preserve our environment through more thoughtful site
selection and home design is one very important step toward a continued high
quality of life.

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THE SITE SELECTION PROCESS
The site selection process includes a detailed evaluation of project needs which
are then measured against the merits of potential locations. The process typically
includes selecting and evaluating communities, real estate site analysis and
acquisition, and may include negotiating tax incentives.
GIS map data for the Region of Interest using databases available from
government agencies and/or commercial sources is first assembled. A Geographic
Information System (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate,
analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data. Primary
data layers include administrative and political boundaries; transportation routes;
power transmission lines and services; population centers; parks and open
spaces; federal lands; water bodies; habitats of endangered species; geologic
faults; and air quality non-attainment areas.
Site selection considerations should begin early in the capital development
process and play a significant role in pre-planning discussions. The process
includes the following steps:
1. Define project criteria
2. Evaluate communities
3. Create short list of communities based upon project criteria
4. Identify real estate sites within each finalist community
5. Real estate analysis
6. Negotiate tax incentives
7. Site acquisition

CONSTRUCTION | SITE SURVEYING
7
2 Site
Surveying
Site surveys are detailed studies carried out to supplement and verify site
information provided by the client and site appraisals carried out by
the consultant team.
Site surveys might be carried out by the consultant team if they have the required
skills, or might be commissioned from specialists. The consultant team should
assess what surveys are required (generally after initial feasibility studies have
been carried out) and request approval from the client to commission those
surveys or carry them out themselves.
Site surveys include:
EXISTING BUILDINGS:
This survey basically includes valuation, measured surveys, structural surveys,
structural investigations, condition surveys and demolition surveys. These surveys
and measured drawings help stimulate the planning, design, construction,
preservation, and renovation of properties.

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AIR QUALITY SURVEY:
Air quality surveys are also necessary near the site so that we can check the air
pollution level, humidity, etc. in order to check that the site is suitable for
construction or not.
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL:
Geotechnical investigations are performed by geotechnical
engineers or engineering geologists to obtain information on the physical
properties of soil and rock around a site to design earthworks and foundations for
proposed structures and for repair of distress to earthworks and structures
caused by subsurface conditions.
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS:
If the purpose of the survey is to serve as a base map for the design of a residence
or building of some type, or design a road or driveway, it may be necessary to
show perimeter boundary lines and the lines of easements on or crossing the
property being surveyed, in order for a designer to accurately show zoning and
other agency required setbacks. Perhaps it is done by laser scanning, LIDAR or
photogrammetry.

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ACOUSTIC OR NOISE MONITORING SURVEY:
Acoustic surveys are required to check the noise pollution levels in all areas of
construction. Noise and vibration assessment is done for both small and large
scale developments and proper modelling and prediction of construction is done.
ECOLOGICAL SURVEY:
Ecological surveys identify the habitats and/or species that exist within an area at
the time of the survey. Most development proposals will have the potential to
impact on the local biodiversity of the development site either through
the direct loss of habitats, the reduction in the value of the habitat or the ability
of the habitat to support the species that depend on them.
TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORT:
Traffic nearby site should be easily manageable so that it may not hinder the
construction process. On the other hand there must be proper transport facility
nearby site for the exchange of materials and other constructional purposes.
There are various methods for traffic surveying.
The major intrusive methods include:
1. Bending plate: A weight pad attached to a metal plate embedded in the road
to measure axel weight and speed. It is an expensive device and requires
alteration to the road bed.
2. Pneumatic road tube: A rubber tube that is placed across the lanes that uses
pressure changes to record the number of axle movements in a counter
placed on the side of the road.
3. Piezo-electric sensor: A device that is placed in a groove cut into the roadbed
of the lane(s) being counted. This electronic counter can be used to measure
weight and speed.
4. Inductive loop: A wire embedded in the road in a square formation that
creates a magnetic field that relays the information to a counting device at the
side of the road.

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The major non-intrusive methods include:
1. Manual observation: A very traditional method involving placing observers at
specific locations to record vehicle or pedestrian movements.
2. Passive and active infra-red: A sensor detecting the presence, speed and type
of vehicles by measuring infra-red energy radiating from the detection area.
3. Passive magnetic: Magnetic sensors that count vehicle numbers, speed, and
type are placed under or on top of the roadbed.
4. Microwave - Doppler/Radar: Mounted overhead the devices record moving
vehicles and speed.
5. Ultrasonic and passive acoustic: Devices that use sound waves or sound
energy to detect vehicles.
6. Video image detection: Use of overhead video cameras to record vehicle
numbers, type and speed.
LAND CONTAMINATION SURVEY:
Survey regarding the land contamination is done in order to check the presence of
heavy metals, oils, tars, Asbestos and other hazardous materials and chemical
substances in the soil. They are used for selecting sites for development, road
building, pipeline corridors, and waste disposal; for pollution control; for
minimizing risks to human life and property; and for wildlife management,
wetlands identification, and soil or water conservation and they enable the land
user to manage the land in a sustainable manner.
FOUL SEWERS AND DRAINS INFRASTRUCTURE AND CAPACITY:
These surveys provide us the information about the private drainage
infrastructure which is supplied on a fully annotated Ordnance Survey plan. This
includes details of the sewers owned, including their length, size and location plus
information about ancillary assets such as interceptors, pumping stations etc.

11
RAILWAY AND TUNNEL SURVEYING:
Railway and tunnel surveying should be done properly so that the foundation of
the buildings can be constructed accordingly in order to bear the vibration levels
that are produced nearby railway tracks and tunnels.
FLOOD RISK SURVEY:
We should take care that the land where the site exists has been properly leveled
and there must be a proper drainage system so that the site is not prone to
floods.
PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEY:
1. There are basically two types of Photographic Survey:
a. Terrestrial or Ground Photogrammetry:
The terrestrial photographic surveying considered as the further
development of plane table surveying
In terrestrial photogrammetry maps are prepared from terrestrial (or
ground) photographs or terrestrial photogrammetry employees photograph
taken form points on earth surface for measurement purposes.
b. Aerial Photogrammetry:
In aerial photogrammetry maps are produced from air photograph’s
(photographs taken from the air)

CIVIL HANDBOOK
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2. Photogrammetry encompasses two major areas of specialization:
a. Metrical:
The first area is of principal interest to surveyors since it is applied to
determined dittanies, elevations, areas, volumes, cross-section’s to compile
topographic maps form measurement made on photographs.
b. Interpretive:
Interpretive photogrammetry involves objects from photographic images
and judging their significances. Critical factors considered in identifying
objects are shape, sizes, patterns, shadow.
WIRELESS NETWORKS AND SATELLITE RECEPTION:
Proper surveying about wireless networks and other satellite receptions should
be done for various telecommunication and other purposes. There must be no
hindrance for these wireless signals nearby and the site should be near to signal
transferring towers.
ELECTRICAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND CAPACITY:
A site survey will provide you with a review of your installation and highlight any
issues that maybe inherent in your infrastructure. A typical survey will provide
details about the following:
1. Available capacity of electrical supply
2. Available capacity of generator supply
3. Obsolescence of components or switchgear
4. Effective use of electrical power

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5. Improvements to the resilience of your system
6. Regulation compliance
EXISTING WATER SUPPLY INFRASTRUCTURE AND CAPACITY:
Water-supply infrastructure consists of what is built to pump, divert, transport,
store, treat, and deliver safe drinking water and water for daily use. This
infrastructure consists of vast numbers of groundwater wells, surface-
water intakes, dams, reservoirs, storage tanks, drinking-water facilities, pipes,
and aqua-ducts.
Wherever possible, any information prepared or obtained should be in a format
which can be readily shared and used, and should be stored and named in a way
consistent with the long-term project and operational needs.

CIVIL HANDBOOK
14
3 Preparation of
Project Plans
1. Participants in project planning process:
a. Owner/ Promoter
b. Architect
The above two are in communication with:
i. Draughtsman
ii. Landscape architect
iii. Interior Designer
iv. Structural Engineer
v. Quantity Surveyor
vi. And depending on need, with:
1. Environment
2. Acoustics
3. HVAC
4. Fire
5. Electrical
6. Mechanical
7. Other Specialists
2. Role of the above mentioned agencies:
a. Owner: Site, Finance and Proposal
b. Architect: Basic overviewing on behalf of the owner as technical advisor
c. Draughtsman: Working Drawings, Submission Drawings, Completion
Drawings as instructed by architect.
d. Landscape Architect: To design landscape of the building.
e. Interior Designer: Furniture, color and lighting for indoors.

CONSTRUCTION | PREPARATION OF PROJECT PLANS
15
f. Structural Designer: RCC and Steel Design, supervision of structural
work and different types of foundations. Have to report architect for any
changes done.
g. Quantity Surveyor: Estimation of quantities and costs up to the latest
working drawing. Has to be in touch with architect about latest drawings
h. Specialists: Have to give their inputs to architect for accommodating
their facilities into the drawings.

CIVIL HANDBOOK
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4
Obtaining
Approvals
1. Various authorities involved in approval process:
a. Code By-laws of Municipal Corporation
b. Plan sanctioning authorities
c. Industrial Development Corporation (for industrial buildings)
d. National building Organization
e. Electricity Board
f. Pollution Control Authority
2. Documents to be submitted for permit
a. Owners notice – conveying intention to construct
b. Proof of ownership of site
c. Key plan (extracted from village survey map or town map) – showing
boundaries and location of site w.r.t. neighborhood landmarks (Scale
not less than 1:10000)
d. Subdivision/layout plan (Scale not less than 1:500)
e. Site plan (scale not less than 1:1000) showing:
i. Boundaries and positions of plot in relation to main street, North
direction etc., and physical features such as wells, trees, rocks, in
the site
ii. All existing and proposed buildings in the site with details of
access, set back etc.
iii. Particulars of development immediately outside the plot and
other particulars as prescribed by the local authority.
f. Building plan – indicating plans, elevations, and sections of proposed
building drawn to a scale of 1:100 including:

CONSTRUCTION | OBTAINING APPROVALS
17
i. All floor plans showing size and use of rooms, openings, positions
of staircases, W.C., bath, sink, etc. including terrace plan
indicating roof slope and drainage
ii. All street elevations and sectional drawings indicating
construction details from foundation to roof, vertical heights, and
a sectional view through the staircase
iii. Location and details of common lobbies, chutes, ramps, lift,
electric control room, water storage tanks, firefighting
installations, first aid etc. for multistoried buildings
iv.
g. Service plan showing all locations and details of water supply and
sewage disposal systems, plumbing details, electrical connections and
other building services
h. A certificate from the designer to the effect that the work shall be
carried out with the sanctioned plans and under his supervision.

CONSTRUCTION | BUILDING DESIGN
19
5
Building
Design
Whole Building Design draws upon the concepts of synergies and
interconnectedness and consists of two components: an integrated design
approach and an integrated team process. The "integrated" design approach asks
all the members of the building stakeholder community, and the technical
planning, design, and construction team to look at the project objectives, and
building materials, systems, and assemblies from many different perspectives.
This approach is a deviation from the typical planning and design process of
relying on the expertise of specialists who work in their respective specialties
somewhat isolated from each other.
Whole Building design in practice also requires an integrated team process in
which the design team and all affected stakeholders work together throughout
the project phases and to evaluate the design for cost, quality-of-life, future
flexibility, efficiency; overall environmental impact; productivity, creativity; and
how the occupants will be enlivened. The 'Whole Buildings' process draws from
the knowledge pool of all the stakeholders across the life cycle of the project,
from defining the need for a building, through planning, design, construction,
building occupancy, and operations.
THE INTEGRATED DESIGN APPROACH
Design of the 'whole building' concept: The High-Performance Building is centered
and surrounded by the Integrated Team Process and the Integrated Design
Approach; in the outer ring are the design objectives - Accessible, Aesthetics,
Cost-Effective, Functional/Operational, Historic Preservation, Productive,
Secure/Safe and Sustainable

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Each design objective is significantly important in any project, yet a truly
successful one is where project goals are identified early on and held in proper
balance during the design process; and where their interrelationships and
interdependencies with all building systems are understood, evaluated,
appropriately applied, and coordinated concurrently from the planning and
programming phase. A high-performance building cannot be achieved unless the
integrated design approach is employed.
DESIGN OBJECTIVES OF WHOLE BUILDING DESIGN:
In buildings, to achieve a truly successful holistic project, these design objectives
must be considered in concert and in balance with each other:
1. Accessible: Pertains to building elements, heights and clearances
implemented to address the specific needs of disabled people.
2. Aesthetics: Pertains to the physical appearance and image of building
elements and spaces as well as the integrated design process.
3. Cost-Effective: Pertains to selecting building elements on the basis of life-cycle
costs (weighing options during concepts, design development, and value
engineering) as well as basic cost estimating and budget control.
4. Functional/Operational: Pertains to functional programming—spatial needs
and requirements, system performance as well as durability and efficient
maintenance of building elements.

CONSTRUCTION | BUILDING DESIGN
21
5. Historic Preservation: Pertains to specific actions within a historic district or
affecting a historic building whereby building elements and strategies are
classifiable into one of the four approaches: preservation, rehabilitation,
restoration, or reconstruction.
6. Productive: Pertains to occupants' well-being—physical and psychological
comfort—including building elements such as air distribution, lighting,
workspaces, systems, and technology.
7. Secure/Safe: Pertains to the physical protection of occupants and assets from
man-made and natural hazards.
8. Sustainable: Pertains to environmental performance of building elements and
strategies.
Whole Building Design provides the strategies to achieve a true high-performance
building: one that is cost-effective over its entire life cycle, safe, secure,
accessible, flexible, aesthetic, productive, and sustainable.
Through a systematic analysis of these interdependencies, and leveraging whole
building design strategies to achieve multiple benefits, a much more efficient and
cost-effective building can be produced. For example, the choice of a mechanical
system might impact the quality of the air in the building, the ease of
maintenance, global climate change, operating costs, fuel choice, and whether
the windows of a building are operable. In turn, the size of the mechanical system
will depend on factors such as, the type of lighting and controls used, how much
natural daylight is brought in, how the space is organized, the facility's operating
hours, and the local microclimate. At the same time, these same materials and
systems choices may have an impact on the aesthetics, accessibility, and security
of the project. A successful Whole Building Design is a solution that is greater than
the sum of its parts.
THE INTEGRATED TEAM PROCESS:
To create a successful high-performance building, an interactive approach to the
design process is also required. It means all the stakeholders—everyone involved
in the planning, design, use, construction, operation, and maintenance of the

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22
facility—must fully understand the issues and concerns of all the other parties
and interact closely throughout all phases of the project.
Who needs to be at the table at the outset of a project to ensure an integrated
team process? Each project is unique and will require the team and expertise to
be matched to the goals of the project. The team may include but is not limited
to: the Architect, Landscape Architect, Owner, Client, Tenants, Engineers,
Programmers, Interior Designer, Contractor, Specialists (Security, Telecom,
Acoustics, and LEED AP), Community Members or Other Stakeholders, Operations
and Maintenance Personnel, and others such as a Real Estate Buyer.
EMERGING ISSUES
As the world of buildings continues to change and grow in complexity, additional
programs and information will have an impact on the entire design, planning and
construction community. Among them is Building Information Modelling (BIM)
software that is a continued trend in computer-aided design. Many buildings have
been built directly from the electronic models that BIM creates, and some
architects no longer create drawings but instead "build buildings inside their
computers." BIM has the potential to change the role of drawings for the
construction process, improve architectural productivity, and make it easier to
consider and evaluate design alternatives. BIM also aids in the process of
integrating the various design teams' work, furthering encouraging and
demanding an integrated team process.

CONSTRUCTION | ESTIMATION
23
6 Estimation
1. Estimating is the technique of calculating or computing the various quantities
and the expected expenditure to be incurred on a particular work or project.
2. In preparing detailed estimate, two things to be known:
a. Quantities of the items involved.
b. Obtaining cost of the items involved.
3. Methods of obtaining quantities of the items involved is called quantity
estimate and method obtaining unit cost of the items involved is called rate
analysis.
4. An estimation is not the actual cost of work. The idea is to keep the difference
between two to the minimum.
REQUIREMENTS FOR ESTIMATION
1. Detailed drawings like, plan, elevation, and sections of important points.
2. Detailed specifications about workmanship & properties of materials etc.
3. Standard schedule of rates of the current year.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. A specific description of a particular object.
2. Engineering specification contains detailed description of all workmanship and
materials which are required to complete an engineering project with
accordance to drawing and details
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS:
This gives the nature, quality, class, work and materials in general terms to be
used in various parts of work. It helps to form a general idea of item. Useful for
estimation

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DETAILED SPECIFICATIONS:
These gives the detailed description of the various items of work laying down the
quantities and qualities of materials, their proportions, the method of preparation
workmanship and execution of work. They from part of contract document.
ANALYSIS OF RATES
1. For preparing the estimate the unit rates of each item of work are required
2. For arriving at the unit rate of each item.
3. The rates of various materials to be used in the construction.
4. The cost of transport of materials.
5. The wages of labor, skilled or unskilled, of masons, carpenters, mazdoor, etc.
NEED FOR ESTIMATION
1. Estimate give an idea of the cost of the work and hence its feasibility can be
determined i.e. whether the project could be taken up with the funds available
or not.
2. For public construction works, estimates are required to get administrative
approval , funds allotment and technical sanctions
3. To ascertain quantities of materials, their timely procurement, tools, plant,
equipment and volume of work to fix up completion time.
4. To calculate different categories of workers to be employed to finish the work
in time
5. To draw up a schedule and program for construction.
6. To invite the tenders and quotations and to arrange contract.
7. To arrange for funds according to the schedule and control the expenditure
during execution of work.
8. Justify the investment from cost benefit ratio.
9. For valuation of existing property

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PRINCIPLE FOR UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Mass, voluminous and thick works shall be taken in cubic unit or volume. The
measurements of length, width and height or depth shall be taken to compute
the volume or cubic contents
2. Shallow, thin and surface works shall be taken in square unit or in area. The
measurement of length and width or height shall be taken to compute the
area (Sq. m)
a. Long and thin work is taken in running unit.
b. Piece work, job work, etc. shall be taken in number.
DEGREE OF ACCURACY IN ESTIMATING
According to IS 1200 All works shall be measured subject to the following
tolerances:
1. Dimensions measured to nearest 1cm (0.01m)
2. Areas (0.01m2
)
3. Volume (0.01 m3
)
4. Thickness of slabs, partitions(nearest half cm) (0.005m)
TYPICAL MEASUREMENT UNITS
PARTICULARS OF ITEMS MEASURE PAYMENT
Earth filling under floors cu m per % cu. M
Concrete: cu m per cu m
Damp Proof Course
(D.P.C)
sq. m per sq. m
Brick work cu m per cu m
Stone Work cu m per cu m
Wood work cu m per cu m
Reinforcement Quintal per quintal
Roofing cum per cu m
Plastering, points &
finishing
sq. m per sq. m
Flooring sq. m per sq. m

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Rain water pipe /Plain
pipe
RM per RM
Steel wooden trusses 1No per 1No
Glass panels (supply) sq. m per sq. m
Fixing of glass panels or
Cleaning
No per no
MEASUREMENT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
1. IS 3861:2002 Method of measurement of plinth, carpet and rentable areas of
buildings
2. IS 1200 (Parts 1 -28) Method of measurement of building and civil engineering
works
TYPES OF ESTIMATES
1. Preliminary / Approximate / Rough estimate
2. Detailed estimate
PRELIMINARY / APPROXIMATE / ROUGH ESTIMATE
1. Approximate cost in short time to consider financial aspect of the scheme
2. To investigate feasibility
3. Cost benefit analysis
4. Adjustments in planning
5. To obtain administrative approval
6. For insurance and tax schedule
DETAILED ESTIMATE
The preparation of detailed estimate consists of working out quantities of various
items of work and then determine the cost of each item.
This is prepared in two stages:
1. Details of measurements and calculation of quantities
2. Abstract of Estimated Cost

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LUMP SUM ITEMS
1. Items difficult to measure or assess
2. A lump sum rate is provided in the estimate
The following are some of L.S. items in the estimate.
a. Site cleaning, site dressing
b. Removing roots of trees
c. Water supply (4 to 5%) and sanitary arrangements (4 to5 + 3to 4% = 9%)
d. Electrical installations like meter, motor, etc., (9+3=12%)
e. Architectural features.
f. Contingencies and unforeseen items.
g. In general certain percentage on the cost of estimation is allotted for the
above L. S. items.
CONTINGENCIES
1. Incidental expenses
2. Extra 3 to 5% of estimated cost
WORK CHARGED ESTABLISHMENT
1. During the construction of a project considerable number of skilled
supervisors, work assistance, watch men etc., are employed on temporary
basis.
2. The salaries of these persons are drawn from the L.S. amount allotted towards
the work charged establishment.
3. That is, establishment which is charged directly to work.
4. An amount of 1½to 2% of the estimated cost is provided towards the work
charged establishment.

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DETAILS OF MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATION OF QUANTITIES
1. The complete work is divided into various items of work.
2. Main Items of work (for a typical small building)
Earth work, Concrete in foundation, soiling, damp-proof course, masonry, RCC
and RB work, Flooring and Roofing, Plastering and pointing, door windows,
woodwork, ironwork, whitewashing, painting etc.
3. The details of measurements are taken from drawings and entered in
respective columns of prescribed proforma.
4. The quantities are calculated by multiplying the values that are in numbers
column to depth column as shown below.
ABSTRACT OF ESTIMATED COST
The cost of each item of work is worked out from the quantities that already
computed in the details measurement from a workable rate.
But the total cost is worked out in the prescribed form is known as abstract
estimation form.
4% of estimation cost is allowed for petty supervision contingencies and
unforeseen items.

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DETAILED ESTIMATE REPORT
The detailed estimate generally accompanied with:
1. Report
2. Specification
3. Drawings (plans, elevation, sections)
4. Design charts and calculations
5. Standard schedule of rates
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE PREPARING DETAILED ESTIMATE:
1. Quantity and transportation of materials: For bigger project, the requirement
of materials is more. Such bulk volume of materials will be purchased and
transported definitely at cheaper rate.
2. Location of site: The site of work is selected, such that it should reduce
damage or in transit during loading, unloading, stocking of materials.
3. Local labour charges: The skill, suitability and wages of local labours are
considered while preparing the detailed estimate

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DATA FOR DETAILED ESTIMATE:
The process of working out the cost or rate per unit of each item is called as Data.
In preparation of Data, the rates of materials and labour are obtained from
current standard scheduled of rates and while the quantities of materials and
labour required for one unit of item are taken from Standard Data Book (S.D.B).
FIXING OF RATE PER UNIT OF AN ITEM:
1. Quantity of materials & cost: The requirement of materials is taken strictly in
accordance with standard data book (S.D.B). The cost of these includes first
cost, freight, insurance and transportation charges.
2. Cost of labour: The exact number of labourers required for unit of work and
the multiplied by the wages/ day to get of labour for unit item work.
3. Cost of equipment (T&P): Some works need special type of equipment, tools
and plant. In such case, an amount of 1 to 2% of estimated cost is provided.
4. Overhead charges: To meet expenses of office rent, depreciation of
equipment salaries of staff postage, lighting an amount of 4% of estimate cost
is allocated.
OTHER TYPES OF ESTIMATES
1. Revised
2. Supplementary
3. Quantity estimate or Quantity Survey
4. A complete estimate
5. Annual maintenance or repair estimate
QUANTITY ESTIMATING METHODS
1. Long wall - short wall method.
2. Centre line method.
3. Partly center line and short wall method.

CONSTRUCTION | PREPARATION OF DETAILED DRAWINGS
31
7 Preparation of
Detail Drawing
1. A drawing showing a detailed plan section and elevation along with other
necessary data is called a detailed drawing. While drawing detailed drawing,
following should be drawn:
a. North line
b. References
c. Scale
d. Dimension and heights of rooms.
e. Lintels over doors and windows and other open

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2. Detail drawings provide a detailed description of the geometric form of a part
of an object such as a building, bridge, tunnel, machine, plant and so on. They
tend to be large-scale drawings that show in detail parts that may be included
in less detail on general arrangement drawings.
3. Detail drawings may be used to demonstrate compliance with regulations and
other requirements, to provide information about assembly and the junctions
between components, to show construction details, detailed form and so on,
that would not be possible to include on more general drawings.
4. They may include dimensions, tolerances, notation, symbols and specification
information, but this should not duplicate information included in separate
specifications as this can become contradictory and may cause confusion.
5. They may consist of 2 dimensional orthogonal projections showing plans,
sections and elevations and may be drawn to scale by hand, or prepared using
Computer Aided Design (CAD) software. However, increasingly, building
information modelling (BIM) is being used to create detailed 3 dimensional
representations of buildings and their components.
6. Detail drawings may be confused with ‘detailed design drawings’ which might
describe the drawings produced during the detailed design stage, (sometimes
referred to as 'developed design' or 'definition'). Detailed design is the process
developing the design so that it is dimensionally correct and coordinated,
describing all the main components of the building and how they fit together.
Not all drawings produced during this stage will necessarily be detail drawings.
7. They are also distinct from the definition of ‘working drawings’ which provide
dimensioned, graphical information that can be used by a contractor to
construct the works, by suppliers to fabricate components of the works or to
assemble or install components. Again, not all working drawings will
necessarily be detail drawings.

33
8. Conventions and symbols used in detailed drawing are:

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9. Example of detailed drawing of simple one floor building:

35

37

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Everything mentioned above are the necessary things in detailed drawing.

CONSTRUCTION | COSTING AND BUDGETING
39
8 Costing and
Budgeting
1. Costing: Project costing is the process of assembling and confirming the capital
costs, from project conception to project completion.
2. Here is a list of general categories and specific items that we will need to
consider for our capital budget:
a. Land: Purchase price; taxes, fees, legal costs related to acquisition of the
property.
b. Servicing: The costs of bringing power, telephone, water and sewer
service, roads or sidewalks to the site.
c. Municipal Fees: Development and building permits, levies, fees,
development cost charges; property taxes during construction.
d. Professional Fees: Architect, structural, mechanical and electrical
engineers, geotechnical engineer, landscape architect; quantity
surveyor; development consultant; legal counsel for land transfer,
contract advice.
e. Construction Financing: Interest on monies borrowed during the
construction period only, mortgage insurance premium; lender fee.
f. Organizational Expenses: Marketing; utilities to the site; liability and
builder's risk insurance premiums during construction.
g. Construction, Renovation, or Conversion Costs: All construction or
renovation materials and labour; in-suite appliances; common laundry,
kitchen, and office equipment; amenity and dining furniture;
landscaping; new home warranty fees.
h. Contingencies: An allowance to cover unexpected expenditures.
i. GST (Goods and Services Tax): If the Goods and Services Tax applies to
your project, build this expense into your capital budget.

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3. Here’s an example of what a typical BOQ (Bill of Quantity) looks like
4. Budgeting: The budgeting process establishes a means for developing and
tracking the cost goals for all contractually authorized work.
Preliminary budgets will show you whether or not the numbers work, or
whether the project is even in the realm of feasibility. If your projections are
detailed enough, the budget can also help you to identify places where costs
can be cut or modified.
5. There are two budgets that need to be projected when estimating the
feasibility of a housing project, the development budget and the operating
budget.
a. The development budget identifies all costs which will be incurred in
developing the housing, and all sources of funds to pay for them. These are

CONSTRUCTION | COSTING AND BUDGETING
41
one-time costs incurred between the time a project is conceptualized and
the time it is fully occupied.
b. The operating budget is a projection of the actual costs expected to be
incurred in operating the housing from year to year. It also identifies the
income you expect to realize from monthly payments or rents. Model
budgets are included in these materials.
Based on the Project Scope and available resources, the project budget is
allocated across the scheduled activities and across time.
This example shows the budgeting done along with the scheduling (which will be
explained in another section)
Preliminary Design 1.1.1 Hours Jan Feb Mar Apr May
1.1.1.1 Define Specifications & Req.
1,500 1,000
1.1.1.2 Develop Preliminary Design
2,000 2,000
1.1.1.3 Review Preliminary Design
500 500
1.1.1.4 Incorporate Comments
320 320
1.1.1.5 Preliminary Design Complete
1,000

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9 Manpower
and Material
1. Manpower management is most important in construction industry. This is
because:
a. Manpower is non-pool type of resource, i.e.; if manpower is not used in
time, they are lost and they have to be paid for it. But, other resources
like money, materials, equipment are not lost when they are not used in
time.
b. Manpower is an active resource where as other resources are passive.
Other resources are to be utilized by manpower. So, if the manpower is
utilized in a better way other resources can be used effectively and
economically.
c. Unskilled manpower is available in a large number, but skilled
manpower is not available in large numbers. Thus, proper management
of manpower will help in balancing this problem.
2. Manpower Planning: The number of workers required for each activity has to
be calculated from the standard data or from the past experience so that on
that basis the number of days required for completing the respective activity
can be calculated. As it involves a large amount of computations, computers
are normally used to estimate the total requirement of manpower. Most of
the commercial software have the features to estimate the resource demands.
The summary of the manpower requirements is normally presented in tables
and graphs.
3. Building Materials can be broadly classified into two categories:
a. Naturally occurring substances: Mud, clay, sand, rock, stone, wood and
timber, etc.
b. Man-made substances: Fired bricks, cement composites, concrete,
foam, glass, metal, geotextiles, plastics, ceramics, etc.

CONSTRUCTION | MANPOWER AND MATERIALS PLANNING
43
4. Materials management can be defined as "the function responsible for the
coordination of planning, sourcing, purchasing, moving, storing and controlling
materials in an optimum manner so as a pre-decided service can be provided
at a minimum cost".
5. Materials planning and control
6. Purchasing: This includes selection of sources of supply, finalization of terms of
purchase, placement of purchase orders, follow-up maintenance of smooth
relations with suppliers, approval of payments to suppliers, evaluating and
rating suppliers.
7. Stores and Inventory Control: This involves physical control of materials,
preservation of stores, minimization of obsolescence and damage through
timely disposal and efficient handling, maintenance of stores records, proper
location and stocking. Store is also responsible for the physical verification of
stocks and reconciling them with book figures. The inventory control covers
aspects such as setting inventory levels, fixing economical ordering quantities,
setting safety stock levels, lead time analysis and reporting.
8. Importance of Material Management: In any construction project, raw
materials consist of nearly 75% of the project cost. Thus, the importance of
materials management lies in the fact that any significant contribution made

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by the materials manager in reducing materials cost will go a long way in
improving the profitability and the rate of return on investment. Such increase
in profitability, no doubt, can be affected by increasing sales. But with the
increased competition in the market, this alternative is not very easy to
achieve.

CONSTRUCTION | SCHEDULING
45
10 Scheduling
INTRODUCTION
A project represents a unique set of activities that must take place to produce a
unique product. The success of a project is judged by meeting the criteria of cost,
time, quality, safety, and resource allocation. Construction schedules are the key
part of the project management basics needed by construction professionals. A
thorough understanding of planning and scheduling is needed to not only plan
projects, but to use for direction, forecasting, control, changes, claims, managing
subcontractors, resource planning, and reporting. The purpose of Project
Management is to achieve goals and objectives through the planned expenditure
of resources that meet the project’s quality, cost, time, and safety requirements.
SCHEDULING PROCESS:
1. PLANNING
Planning is a general term that sets a clear road map that should be followed to
reach a destination. The term, therefore, has been used at different levels to
mean different things. Planning involves the breakdown of the project into
definable, measurable, and identifiable tasks/activities, and then establishes the
logical interdependences among them. Generally, planning answers three main
questions:
1. What is to be done?
2. How to do it?
3. Who does it?

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Planning involves 4 main steps:
1. Performing breakdown of work items involved in the project into activities.
2. Identifying the proper sequence by which the activities should be executed.
3. Activities representation.
4. Estimating the resources, time, and cost of individual activities.
(All scheduling procedures rely upon estimates of the durations of the various
project activities as well as the definitions of the predecessor relationships
among activities. A straightforward approach to the estimation of activity
durations is to keep historical records of particular activities and rely on the
average durations from this experience in making new duration estimates.)
Planning requires a rigorous effort by the planning team. A planner should know
the different categories of work and be familiar with the terminology and
knowledge used in general practice. Also, the planning tem should seek the
opinion of experts including actual construction experience. This helps produce a
realistic plan and avoids problems later on site.
2. SCHEDULING
Even though, we know activities, their sequence, duration and cost, we do not
know how long the total project duration is. Also, we need to evaluate the early
and late times at which activities start and finish. In addition, since real-life
projects involve hundreds of activities, it is important to identify the group of
critical activities so that special care is taken to make sure they are not delayed.

47
All these statements are the basic objectives of the scheduling process, which
adds a time dimension to the planning process. In other words, we can briefly
state that:
Scheduling = Planning + Time.
DEFINITION:
Scheduling is the determination of the timing of the activities
comprising the project to enable managers to execute the project in a timely
manner.
USES OF SCHEDULING:
1. Knowing the activities timing and the project completion time.
2. Having resources available on site in the correct time.
3. Making correction actions if schedule shows that the plan will result in late
completion.
4. Assessing the value of penalties on project late completion.
5. Determining the project cash flow.
6. Evaluating the effect of change orders on the project completion time.
7. Determining the value of project delay and the responsible parties.
The two main methods/techniques for scheduling are:
1. CPM(AOA&AON)
2. PERT
The most widely used scheduling technique is the critical path
method (CPM) for scheduling. This method calculates the minimum completion
time for a project along with the possible start and finish times for the project
activities. The critical path itself represents the set or sequence of activities which
will take the longest time to complete. Thus, the critical path can be defined as
the longest possible path through the "network" of project activities. The duration
of the critical path represents the minimum time required to complete a project.
Any delays along the critical path would imply that additional time would be
required to complete the project. There may be more than one critical path
among all the project activities.

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The CPM is a systematic scheduling method for a project network and involves
four main steps:
1. A forward path to determine activities early-start times;
2. A backward path to determine activities late-finish times;
3. Float calculations; and
4. Identifying critical activities.
DRAWBACKS:
1. Assume all resources are available
2. Ignore costs and deadlines
3. Use deterministic durations
In some situations, estimating activity duration becomes a difficult
task due to ambiguity inherited in and the risks associated with some work. In
such cases, the duration of an activity is estimated as a range of time values
rather than being a single value. PERT is such scheduling technique. It explicitly
consider the uncertainty in activity duration estimates by using the probabilistic
distribution of activity durations. That is, the duration of a particular activity is
assumed to be a random variable that is distributed in a particular fashion.
3. MONITORING
1. tracking actual starts and finishes (AS/AF)
2. modifying the remaining duration to reflect
3. the current status of an activity
4. must keep schedule current to realize its full
5. value
6. serves as documentation for determining
7. damages or eligibility for time extensions
4. UPDATING
It is common that actual durations of activities differ from those
estimated. Furthermore, there may be additions or deletions to the scope of the
contract that will affect the time at which activities can be started or completed.
Schedule updating is a procedure for introducing the latest progress information

49
into the schedule. A procedure for manual schedule updating can be summarized
in the
Following steps:
1. Change the duration of all completed activities to zero.
2. Identify all activities on which work is currently processing as Live Activities
3. Put early start time of live activities equals the updating date and their
duration’s equal remaining duration.
4. Change duration of future activities as given in the update report.
5. Carry-out network analysis in the normal way and prepare a new activity
schedule.
General steps if using software:
1. Status updating
2. reasonable modifications to logic
3. change orders
4. insert or modify coding for better organization in working with and presenting
the schedule
More significant changes are usually referred to as Schedule Revisions
REVISING OR MODIFYING
1. necessary reaction to change
2. modify logic to reflect work plan
3. internal or external pressure to accelerate or regain lost time
CONTROLLING
In construction, no project, almost, is executed as planned. Control
needs to be carried out due to the dynamic nature of the construction process.
Controlling after project finish is trivial and updates are usually done periodically.
Controlling can be done for project schedule and/or project cost. As the
construction stage of project starts, the project mostly will face delays and/or cost
overruns.

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The following is a list of the factors that may cause such problems:
1. weather
2. acts of God
3. better or worse productivity than anticipated
4. delivery problems
5. greater insight to the actual scope of work
6. subcontractor performance/availability
7. change in scope of work
8. differing site conditions

CONSTRUCTION | LAYOUT OF THE SITE
51
11 Layout of
the Site
INTRODUCTION
Site design and building form refer to the arrangement of buildings, space and
landscape within a site. They involve a careful consideration of building scale and
form, movement patterns, and external spaces. The interrelationships between
these, rather than their individual characteristics, will largely determine the
effectiveness of the design. In addressing these issues, new development should
achieve the highest architectural standards possible. The arrangement and
configuration of different internal spaces and uses has a significant impact on
their amenity, function and accessibility. Apartments and flats are normally
smaller than other forms of housing. The careful use of space is critical to creating
well laid out efficient and comfortable apartments.
DEFINITION
“Layout” means the laying out a parcel of land or lands into building plots with
laying of roads/streets with formation, levelling, metalling or black topping or
paving of the roads and footpaths, etc. and laying of the services such as water
supply, drainage, street lighting, open spaces, avenue plantation. Etc.,
PREPARATION OF A LAYOUT
For any layout preparation the site should be acquired depending on the
capability of the layout owner. After acquiring the site, the site should be
surveyed with total station instrument for getting the topography of the site.
The site plan is prepared and the layout plan is drawn duly following the norms
specified by the government. An application has to be submitted to the
concerned authority for layout approval.

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GOVERNMENT SPECIFICATIONS
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR APPROVAL OF LAYOUT:
The Layout proposal shall conform to the following requirements:
1. Shall have approach through an existing road, the width of such shall not be
less than 10 meters. In case of land-locked plots
(real property which has no access or egress (entry or exit) to a public street a
nd cannot be reached except by crossing another's property), the owner has to
ensure the approach road through neighbouring lands accordingly.
2. Minimum width of proposed roads in the layout shall be 10 meters for
residential and 12 meters for all non-residential layouts.
3. Minimum open space set apart in the proposed layout for
playground/park/educational institution or for any other public purpose shall
be at the rate of 10% of the total site area.
4. The minimum plot size for non-residential layouts shall be 300 SQ. Meters
except in case of Commercial or Mercantile buildings for which the minimum
plot size shall be 18 Sq. meters.
5. The applicant should provide a service road of minimum 10 meters width for
the layout if the land is abutting to National Highway having less than 60
meters width.
REQUIRED SPECIFICATIONS AND CONDITIONS:
1. The owner of a site shall undertake the following works under the supervision
of Executive Authority with the surveyors after intimation of the layout
approval by the Executive authority
a. Levelling with suitable gradient and formation of all roads with sub-
surface, kerbstones, metalling of the carriageway, side drains as per
specifications by government.
b. Construction of drains and channelization of nalas for allowing storm
water run-off. These may be channelised in such a way as to
conserve or harvest the water in nearest water body or public open
space, etc.;

53
c. Undertake greenery in the layout including avenue plantation, in
public open spaces, etc.;
d. Fencing of open spaces;
e. Unless the conditions specified above are fulfilled, the owner shall
not be entitled to utilize, sell, lease or otherwise dispose of the land
or any portion thereof;
2. The following works shall be undertaken through the Executive Authority upon
payment of proportionate charges at a later date:
a. Street lighting and electricity facilities;
b. provision of sewerage disposal system and protected water supply
system are optional;
3. Application scrutiny fees and other charges to be levied by the Executive
Authority:
The Applicant shall pay the layout inspection and scrutiny fees in the
Personal Deposit account of Director of Town and Country Planning as
prescribed by the Government from time to time.
4. Other Charges:
In addition to the above, the Executive Authority shall levy development
charges and betterment charges as specified by the Collector or
Government as the case may be.
After approval of the layout by the concerned authority the owner can sell the
plots. Each plot owner then apply for building plan approval to the concerned
local body. The plot owner has to prepare building plan duly keeping the setbacks
as specified by the government. The plan should be signed by a licensed surveyor.
An application has to be submitted to the concerned authority for building plan
approval as per the rules specified by the government.

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BUILDING LAYOUT SPECIFICATIONS:
SITES CONSIDERED FOR BUILDING ACTIVITY:
No site or parcel of land shall be used for building activity unless it is approved as
building plot or forms part of an approved layout. This rule, however, shall not be
applicable in case of:
1. Sites and properties in existing settlement areas;
2. Farm buildings;
3. Industrial and non-residential buildings abutting highways/main roads.
MINIMUM PLOT SIZE REQUIREMENTS
1. The minimum requirement of plot area for non-residential, industrial buildings
and the building proposals consisting of G.F. +2 floors and above except
Commercial or Mercantile buildings shall be 300 Sq. Meters.
2. The minimum requirement of plot area for residential Apartments, complexes
shall be 335 Sq. Meters.
MEANS OF ACCESS FOR CONSIDERING BUILDING PERMISSION
Minimum approach road/ Means of Access requirement
1. In Gram Khantam / Settlement area shall be 3.6 meters;
2. Outside settlement area shall be 10 meters;
3. For residential Complexes/ all non-residential buildings shall be 12 meters
PROXIMITY OF ELECTRIC SUPPLY LINES WITHHOLDING PERMISSION
The proximity of electric supply lines, if any, and shall with-hold permission for
such construction, reconstruction addition or alteration, unless suitable
arrangements are made by the applicant to meet the requirements of the
permission of the Indian Electricity Act, 1910. And the rules made thereunder and
unless the clearance between the electric supply lines; and the building are kept
as shown in the fig. below.

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PERMISSIBLE HEIGHT AND SETBACK REQUIREMENTS:
1. In Minor Gram Panchayats:
a. Height permissible:
i. 9 meters or G+2 floors in Gram Khantam
ii. 13 meters or G+3 floors height in Revenue survey number
areas.
b. Setbacks:
i. In Gram Khantam:
1. Front setback or building line: 1.50 meters
2. Rear Setback: 1.00 meters
c. Where the lighting and ventilation of a building is through the
means of a chowk or inner courtyard, such open space shall be
open to sky and of area at least 3.0 sq. meters and no side less
than 1.5 meters
i. In Revenue survey number areas:
1. Front Setback: 3.00 meters
3. Sides Setbacks 1.50meters on each side
In case of corner plots the front building setback shall be left on
all sides abutting the roads.

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2. In Major Gram Panchayats:
a. In Gram Khantam/ Settlement areas:
i. Height permissible: 9 meters or G+2 floors
ii. Setbacks:
1. Front setback: 1.50 meters
b. Where the lighting and ventilation of a building is through the
means of a chowk or inner courtyard, such open space shall be
open to sky and of area at least 3.0 sq. meters and no side less
than 1.5 meters
3. In Revenue survey numbers:
a. Height permissible:
i. 13 meters or G+3 Floors for Residential
ii. 15 meters or G+4 Floors for Non -residential
iii. For Industrial as per requirement
b. Setbacks and Coverage permissible:
4. For buildings abutting highways a building line of 6 meters shall be maintained
irrespective of the plot size.
5. In case of corner plots the front building setback shall be left on all sides
abutting the roads.
6. Where the lighting and ventilation of a building is through the means of a
chowk or inner courtyard, such open space shall be open to sky and of area at
least 9.0 sq. meters and no side less than 3 meters

57
RESTRICTIONS OF BUILDING ACTIVITY IN VICINITY OF CERTAIN AREAS:
1. No building activity shall be allowed in the bed of water bodies like river, lake,
pond or nalas, etc.
a. No building activity shall be carried out within:
b. 30 meters from the boundary of Rivers and Lakes of surface area for
10 Hectares and above;
c. 15 meters from the boundary of lakes of surface area for less than 10
Hectares
d. 9 meters from Nalas, Canal, etc.
2. For building activity within the restricted zone near airport or Defense areas
necessary clearance from the concerned authorities.
3. In case of sites in vicinity of high tension electricity transmission lines
minimum safety distance 3 m.
4. In case of Railway line, a minimum distance of 30m shall be maintained from
the edge of the Railway property.
PROJECTIONS AND EXEMPTIONS IN OPEN SPACES:
1. Chajjas/weather shades of width not exceeding 60 cm shall be allowed in the
mandatory setbacks.
2. In case of plots more than 300 sq. m, a cow shed, and open staircase may be
allowed in residential areas. Nonresidential area parking sheds, guardroom,
overhead tank, sump, septic tank, well, balconies shall be allowed in Rear or
Front setbacks.

CIVIL HANDBOOK
58
PARKING REQUIREMENTS:
1. The cellar shall be restricted to building line and a minimum of 1.5meters safe
distance has to be maintained on sides and rear side.
2. The width of the ramp shall not be less than 3.6meters and the slope of the
ramp shall not be less than 1 in 8.

CONSTRUCTION | EXCAVATION OF EARTH AND LEVELING
59
12
Excavation of
Earth and
Leveling
Excavation of earth is done by moving a part of the soil to another location so that
the foundation can be laid.
TYPES OF EXCAVATION:
1.TYPE OF MATERIAL:
a. Topsoil excavation: Topsoil excavation is the removal of the exposed
layer of the earth’s surface, including vegetation. It is advantageous to
remove the topsoil because it is moist due to the presence of trees and
can be easily removed. This removed soil can be later used for
landscaping or to support growth of vegetation.
b. Rock excavation: Earth excavation is removal of the layer of soil
immediately under the topsoil and on top of rock. It is used to construct
embankments and foundations. In this, excavation cannot be done
without drilling or blasting. Rock when deposited in an embankment is
placed in thick layers usually exceeding 18 in.
c. Muck excavation: Muck excavation is the removal of material that
contains an excess amount of water and undesirable soil. Removal of
water can be done by spreading muck over a large area and letting it
dry, by changing soil characteristics or by stabilising muck with some
other drying agents. This can be often used in embankment.
d. Unclassified excavation: Unclassified excavation is the removal of the
combination of earth, rock, muck and topsoil. Much excavation is done
as unclassified because no distinguishing is required for the materials
encountered.

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60
2.BY THE PURPOSE
a. Stripping: Stripping usually includes removal of all material between the
original surface and the top any material that is acceptable for
permanent embankment.
b. Roadway excavation: Roadway excavation is that portion of a highway
cut that begins where stripping was completed and terminates at the
line of finished subgrade or bottom of base course. Often, however,
stripping is made part of roadway excavation.
c. Drainage excavation: Drainage excavation is removal of material
encountered during installation of drainage structures other than
bridges. Those structures are sometimes referred to as minor drainage
structures and include roadway pipe and culverts. After a pipe or culvert
has been installed, backfilling must be done with acceptable material.
This material usually is obtained from some source other than drainage
excavation, which generally is not acceptable or workable.
d. Bridge excavation: Bridge excavation is the removal of material
encountered in digging for footing during the foundation process. Often
this is divided into wet, dry and rock excavation. The dividing line
between these is the ground elevation. A different type is used for a
particular depth of foundation.
e. Channel excavation: Channel excavation is the excavation done so as to
relocate or redirect a channel of water such as creek or stream. A
contracting agency will pay for the inlet or outlet channel needed to
route water to the desired path.
f. Footing excavation: Footing excavation is the digging of earth along a
column or wall foundation for a building. This work usually is done to as
neat a line and grade as possible, so that concrete may be cast without
forms. This type of excavation is not done normally used because of the
extra handwork which is needed.
g. Borrow excavation: Borrow excavation is the work done in obtaining
material for embankments or fills from a source other than required

CONSTRUCTION | EXCAVATION OF EARTH AND LEVELING
61
excavation. A borrow pit usually has to be cleared of timber and debris
and then stripped of topsoil before desired material can be excavated.
LEVELLING
Levelling is the measurement of geodetic height using an optical levelling
instrument and a level staff or rod having a numbered scale.
Common levelling instruments include the spirit level, the dumpy level, the digital
level, and the laser level.
TYPES OF LEVELLING:
There are two main types of levelling:
1. Single levelling: A typical procedure is to set up the instrument within 100
meters (110 yards) of a point of known or assumed elevation. A rod or staff is
held vertical on that point and the instrument is used manually or
automatically to read the rod scale. This gives the height of the instrument

CIVIL HANDBOOK
62
above the starting (back sight) point and allows the height of the instrument
(H.I.) above the datum to be computed.
The rod is then held on an unknown point and a reading is taken in the same
manner, allowing the elevation of the new (foresight) point to be computed.
The procedure is repeated until the destination point is reached. It is usual
practice to perform either a complete loop back to the starting point or else
close the traverse on a second point whose elevation is already known. The
closure check guards against blunders in the operation, and allows residual
error to be distributed in the most likely manner among the stations.
Some instruments provide three crosshairs which allow stadia measurement
of the foresight and back sight distances. These also allow use of the average
of the three readings (3-wire levelling) as a check against blunders and for
averaging out the error of interpolation between marks on the rod scale.
2. Double-levelling: In double-levelling, a surveyor takes two foresights and two
back sights and makes sure the difference between the foresights and the
difference between the back sights are equal, thereby reducing the amount of
error. Double-levelling costs twice as much as single-levelling.

CONSTRUCTION | MATERIAL ARRANGEMENT
63
13 Material
Arrangement
1.STEEL:
1. Steel is largely chosen for its corrosion resistance and aesthetic appearance (in
steel structures).
2. Steel is known for its tensile strength whereas concrete is known for its
compressive strength therefore reinforced structures provide the benefits of
both. Steel allows for improved quality of construction and less maintenance,
while offering improved safety and resistance.
3. There are five main types of structural components that make up a steel frame
- tension members, compression members, bending members, combined force
members and their connections.
4. Tension members are usually found as web and chord members in trusses and
open web steel joists. Ideally tension members carry tensile forces, or pulling
forces, only and its end connections are assumed to be pinned. Pin
connections prevent any moment (rotation) or shear forces from being applied
to the member.
5. Compression members are also considered as columns, struts, or posts. They
are vertical members or web and chord members in trusses and joists that are
in compression or being squished.
6. Bending members are also known as beams, girders, joists, spandrels, purlins,
lintels, and girds. Each of these members have their own structural application,
but typically bending members will carry bending moments and shear forces
as primary loads and axial forces and torsion as secondary loads.
7. Combined force members are commonly known as beam-columns and are
subjected to bending and axial compression. Connections are what bring the

CIVIL HANDBOOK
64
entire building together. They join these members together and must ensure
that they function together as one unit
2.CEMENT:
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together. There are several types of cements based on their properties:
1. Portland cement
2. Portland blast-furnace slag cement, or Blast furnace cement
3. Portland fly ash cement
4. Portland pozzolanic cement
5. Portland silica fumes cement
6. Masonry cements
7. Expansive cements
8. White blended cement
9. Colored cements
10.Very finely ground cements
11.Pozzolana-lime cement
12.Slag-lime cements
13.Supersulphated cements
14.Calcium sulphoaluminate cements
3.METAL:
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or
as an external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building.
Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures. It requires a great
deal of human labour to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed
for the building industries. Corrosion is metal's prime enemy when it comes to
longevity.
1. Lead: Lead has been a popular roofing material for centuries, being used for
roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, and conductor heads. Lead was best
suited for low-pitched roofs, as steep roofs experienced creep. Lead was also

65
frequently used for window panes in skylights and stained glass. It was also
used for small pieces of sculpture and garden ornamentation. Lead was
frequently added to paint, with red lead used as an anti-corrosive pigment for
iron, and white lead used as paint for wooden houses. Lead-based paint was
one of the most durable materials developed as a protective exterior coating.
The use of lead paint has been restricted on most buildings, due to concerns of
lead poisoning.
2. Tin: The principal architectural uses of tin fall into two categories: the alloying
of tin with other metals such as copper to form bronze, and the coating of tin
on harder metals, such as tinplated iron or steel. Architectural bronzes usually
contain about 90% copper and 10% tin, although the content may vary widely.
Tinplate was a type of architectural material consisting of sheet iron coated
with tin. “Tin roofs,” a type of tinplate, was originally used for armour but
eventually as a roofing material. Tinplate was also used for decoration, such as
ornamental windows and door lintels.
3. Zinc: Pure zinc was used for roofing in Belgium, France and Germany, where it
replaced more expensive copper and lead in roofing. Galvanisation was done
using zinc so as to protect the surface of metals from corrosion. Zinc was also
cast for sculptures and decorative elements. Decorative architectural elements
were frequently cast in zinc, since it moulded readily, was inexpensive
compared to stone, and could be painted to imitate more expensive metals.
Zinc oxide paints were nontoxic and resistant to pollution. They had the added
benefit of being good rust inhibitors on iron and steel.
4. Copper and its alloys: Sheet copper used as roofing is lighter than wooden
shingles and much lighter than slate, tile, or lead. Roofing copper can be folded
readily into waterproof seams, or shaped over curved frameworks for cupolas
and domes. Copper could also be shaped to the bends and angles around
chimneys and at roof edges and dormers. All nails, screws, bolts, and cleats
used with sheet copper must be made of copper or a copper alloy, otherwise
galvanic action between the dissimilar metals would occur, causing
deterioration. Copper was also used for decorative purposes, including
architectural ornaments or sculptures.

CIVIL HANDBOOK
66
5. Nickel and its alloys: Nickel has been used for plating architectural details.
Nickel is most frequently used for building components in the form of alloys:
nickel silver, Monel metal and stainless steel. Monel metal is an alloy of
approximately two-thirds nickel and one-third copper. It is similar to platinum
in colour. Monel pioneered many of the present uses of stainless steel. Monel
was popular during the Art Deco periods.
6. Aluminium: Much like copper, Aluminium is highly resistant to corrosion. It
also has the added benefit of being a third lighter than steel with comparable
strength. Aluminium can also be easily and repeatedly recycled. Architectural
use of aluminium increased in the 1920s, mainly for decorative detailing. It
was used for roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, wall panels, and
spandrels. Art Deco designs frequently used aluminium for ornamental
features.
7. Iron and its alloys: Wrought iron was used for minor structural and decorative
elements starting in the 18th century. Its structural use became more
widespread as iron mills began to roll rails, bulb-tees, and eventually I-beams.
It was also used for decorative purposes, such as ornamental balconies or
hardware. Cast iron was frequently used for structural purposes, such as
columns, building fronts, domes and light courts. Decorative uses have
included stairs, elevators, lintels, grilles, verandas, balconies, railings, fences,
streetlights, and tombs. Sheet iron can be subject to rapid corrosion, forming
rust. Pressed decorative sheet iron used for ceilings was frequently called a
“tin ceiling,” although tin was generally not used indoors.

67
4.BRICKS:
A brick is a block or a single unit of a kneaded clay-bearing soil, sand and lime,
or concrete material, fire-hardened or air-dried, used in masonry construction.
Lightweight bricks (also called "lightweight blocks") are made from expanded
clay aggregate.
5. CERAMICS:
A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid primarily held in ionic and
covalent bonds. The crystalline structure of ceramic materials ranges from
highly oriented to semi-crystalline, and often completely amorphous (e.g.,
glasses). Ceramic forming processes may be classified as traditional - die
pressing, cold isostatic pressing, slip casting and extrusion - or as new and
emerging, such as injection moulding and tape casting. All ceramics start as
granular powder, made up of a base material, for example alumina or zirconia;
they are then mixed with other stabilizers and binders that give each "ceramic
body" its own unique characteristics.

CIVIL HANDBOOK
68
14 Casting
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforced concrete (RC) is a composite material in which concrete's relatively
low tensile strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of
reinforcement having higher tensile strength and ductility. The reinforcement is
usually, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the
concrete before the concrete sets. However, modern reinforced concrete can
contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate
composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforcing schemes are
generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete
that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Many different
types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced
concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more.
Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete.

CONSTRUCTION | CASTING
69
There are two main categories and purposes of reinforcement by steel:-
1. The main reinforcement, to take care for the tension forces.
2. Distribution reinforcement, to spread the load and to keep the main
reinforcement in position during casting.
For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have
the following properties at least:
1. High relative strength.
2. High toleration of tensile strain.
3. Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH and moisture.
4. Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses in response to
changing temperatures.
5. Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained
stress for example.
SPECIAL PROPERTIES:
1. The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel,
eliminating large internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or
contraction.
2. When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the
surface details of the steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently
between the different materials. Usually steel bars are roughened or
corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the concrete and
steel.
3. The alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH)
and the portlandite (calcium hydroxide) contained in the hardened cement
paste causes a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it
much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic
conditions.

CIVIL HANDBOOK
70
MODES OF FAILURE OF STEEL REINFORCED CONCRETE:
Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical
failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles
may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar
corrodes, the oxidation products (rust) expand and tends to flake, cracking the
concrete and unbounding the rebar from the concrete.
Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below:
1. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This
is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is normally the result of
an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The
concrete then cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects
such as early thermal shrinkage while it cures. Cracking of the concrete section
is nearly impossible to prevent; however, the size and location of cracks can be
limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing
methodology and concrete mix design.
2. Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing the concrete,
which occurs when compressive stresses exceed its strength, by yielding or
failure of the rebar when bending or shear stresses exceed the strength of the
reinforcement, or by bond failure between the concrete and the rebar
3. Other ways of failure include carbonation, alkali silica reaction, presence of
detrimental minerals like sulphates, chlorides etc.
FORMWORK
Formwork is the term given to either temporary or permanent molds into
which concrete is poured. Most structural concrete is made by casting concrete
into previously made molds. Usually wall, column, beam and slab forms are built
by joining wooden board’s edge on edge. Sometimes plywood may be nailed on
since it is tighter and more wrap resistant. In certain cases metal forms are used,
e.g. when a large number of equal structural members (pre-cast elements) have
to be erected or when the parts should be very exact in measurements.

71
TYPES OF FORMWORKS:
1. Traditional timber formwork: The formwork is built on site out
of timber and plywood or moisture-resistant particleboard. It is easy to
produce but time-consuming for larger structures, and the plywood has a
relatively short lifespan. It is still used extensively where the labor costs are
lower than the costs for procuring reusable formwork. It is also the most
flexible type of formwork, so even where other systems are in use,
complicated sections may use it.
2. Engineered Formwork System: This formwork is built out of prefabricated
modules with a metal frame, usually steel or aluminum. The two major
advantages of formwork systems, compared to traditional timber formwork,
are speed of construction and lower life-cycle costs.
3. Re-usable plastic formwork: These interlocking and modular systems are used
to build widely variable, but relatively simple, concrete structures. The panels
are lightweight and very robust. They are especially suited for low-cost, mass
housing schemes.
4. Permanent Insulated Formwork: This formwork is assembled on site, usually
out of insulating concrete forms (ICF). The formwork stays in place after the
concrete has cured, and may provide advantages in terms of speed, strength,
superior thermal and acoustic insulation.

CIVIL HANDBOOK
72
5. Coffor: It is a structural stay-in-place formwork system to build constructions
in concrete. It is composed of two filtering grids reinforced by vertical
stiffeners and linked by articulated connectors that can be folded for
transport. After Coffor is placed, concrete is poured between the grids. Coffor
remains in the construction after concrete is poured and acts as
reinforcement. It can be used in the construction of individual houses, multi-
story buildings including high-rise buildings, industrial, commercial or
administrative buildings. Coffor is delivered completely assembled from the
factory. No assembly is necessary on the construction site.
6. Stay-In-Place structural formwork systems: This formwork is assembled on
site, usually out of prefabricated plastic forms. These are in the shape of
hollow tubes, and are usually used for columns and piers. The formwork stays
in place after the concrete has cured and acts as axial
and shear reinforcement, as well as serving to confine the concrete and
prevent against environmental effects, such as corrosion and freeze-
thaw cycles.
7. Flexible formwork: In contrast to the rigid molds described above, flexible
formwork is a system that uses lightweight, high strength sheets of fabric to
take advantage of the fluidity of concrete and create highly optimized,
architecturally interesting, building forms. Using flexible formwork it is
possible to cast optimized structures that use significantly less concrete than
an equivalent strength prismatic section, thereby offering the potential for
significant embodied energy savings in new concrete structures.

73
USAGE:
All form work material (planks, boards, steel etc.) and elements formwork (molds)
are sprinkled with water before placing concrete.
For removable forms, once the concrete has been poured into formwork and has
set (or cured), the formwork is struck or stripped to expose the finished concrete.
The time between pouring and formwork stripping depends on the job
specifications, the cure required, and whether the form is supporting any weight,
but is usually at least 24 hours after the pour is completed.
After striking or dismantling, the formwork is cleaned and eventually oiled as well
as properly stored and protected from sun and rain. This will guarantee the use of
many times.
Duration for which the formwork has to be in place for different components.
EFFECT OF CONCRETE ON FORMWORK:
Concrete exerts less pressure against the forms as it hardens, so forms are usually
designed to withstand a number of feet per hour of pour rate to give the concrete
at the bottom time to firm up. Wet concrete also applies hydrostatic pressure to
formwork. The pressure at the bottom of the form is therefore greater than at the
top.
Failure of formworks occur when the forms were either removed too soon or are
under-designed to carry the load imposed by the weight of the uncured concrete.
Less critical and much more common are those cases in which under-designed
formwork bends or breaks during the filling process (especially if filled with a
high-pressure concrete pump), due to which fresh concrete escapes out of the
formwork in a form blowout, often in large quantities.
REMOVAL OF THE FORMWORK:
Under ordinary circumstances, forms for various types for construction be
removed after intervals as follows:

CIVIL HANDBOOK
74
PLACING OF CONCRETE
Placing of concrete is the process of pouring the concrete mix into the molds or
forms. This activity is followed by the compaction of the placed concrete in the
forms. Concrete after mixing must be placed in the defined position and
compacted before the initial setting of cement starts.
Before placing of concrete starts, it must be ensured that the forms are rigidly
braced, true to their position, oiled, cleaned and dried of any standing water.
Side forms on beams, lintels, walls, columns 1 to 2 days
Slabs, lintels, beams
Clear span 3 m and below
Clear span 3 – 6m
Clear span more than 6m
8 to 14 days
16 to 14 days
24 to 35 days
Cantilever constructions as long as possible but min. 35 days

75
Special care must be taken that before placing the concrete that the steel
reinforcement is properly distanced from the formwork to ensure appropriate
coverage of the steel members.
Always a final check of the formwork before placing the concrete into the form
has to be made as there are chances of some supporting pools or bracing being
dislocated during placing of the reinforcement. If now concrete is poured into the
framework, side shuttering or even slab shuttering might collapse.
Place the concrete as close to its final position as possible. If concrete is placed on
the ground, the soil should be thoroughly damp, but without any standing water
when the concrete is placed. Work the concrete right into the corners and along
the edges on the form or hole with a spade or a trowel.
In slab construction, placing should be started along the perimeter at one end of
the work with each batch placed against previously dispatched concrete. Concrete
should not be dumped in separate piles and then levelled together; nor should it
be deposited in large piles and moved horizontally into final position.
COMPACTION OF CONCRETE:
The concrete is placed in forms, and then consolidated. Consolidation compacts
fresh concrete to mold it within the forms and around embedded items and
reinforcement. It is extremely important that the concrete is thoroughly

CIVIL HANDBOOK
76
compacted immediately after placing in to the forms. Not properly compacted
concrete results into so called “honey comb” spots that expose the steel
reinforcement to air and resulting in rusting. Besides, not properly compacted
concrete has a reduced bearing capacity and is overall weakening the casted
structure, stone pockets and entrapped air.
A vibrator needle can achieve best compaction. Vibration, either internal or
external, is the most widely used method for consolidating concrete. When
concrete is vibrated, the internal friction between the aggregate particles is
temporarily destroyed and the concrete behaves like a liquid; it settles in the
forms under the action of gravity and the large entrapped air voids rise more
easily to the surface.
Concrete that will be visible, such as driveways, highways, or patios, often needs
finishing. Slabs can be finished in many ways, depending on the intended service
use. Screeding or strike-off is the process of cutting off excess concrete to bring
the top surface of the slab to proper grade. A straight edge is moved across the
concrete with a sawing motion and advanced forward a short distance with each
movement. Bull-floating eliminates high and low spots and embeds large
aggregate particles immediately after strike-off.

CONSTRUCTION | CURING OF CONCRETE SURFACES
77
15
Curing of
Concrete
Surfaces
DEFINITION:
Curing is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture and
kept within a reasonable temperature range. This process results in concrete
with increased strength and decreased permeability. It helps in mitigating cracks,
which affects durability.
NEED FOR CURING:
When cement is mixed with water, a chemical reaction called hydration takes
place. The extent to which this reaction is completed influences the strength and
durability of the concrete. Hydration depends on 2 factors: temperature and
moisture content.
As cement hydrates the internal relative humidity decreases causing the paste to
self-desiccate (dry out) if no external water is provided. The paste can self-
desiccate to a level where hydration stops. This may influence desired concrete
properties, especially if the internal relative humidity drops below 80% within the
first seven days.
Although fresh concrete has more water than required for hydration, it eventually
gets evaporated, leading to inadequate hydration. The surface is particularly
susceptible to insufficient hydration because it dries first. Therefore, it is
important for water to be retained in the concrete by prevention or reduction of
evaporation.
FACTORS AFFECTING CURING:
1. Climatic conditions
2. Method of construction

CIVIL HANDBOOK
78
3. Construction materials
4. Water-Cement Ratio
CURING METHODS:
Concrete can be kept moist by three curing methods:
1. Methods that maintain the presence of mixing water in the concrete during the
early hardening period. These include ponding or immersion, spraying or fogging,
and saturated wet coverings. These methods afford some cooling through
evaporation, which is beneficial in hot weather.
2. Methods that reduce the loss of mixing water from the surface of the concrete.
This can be done by covering the concrete with impervious paper or plastic
sheets, or by applying membrane-forming curing compounds.
3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and additional
moisture to the concrete. This is usually accomplished with live steam, heating
coils, or electrically heated forms or pads.
TYPES OF CURING:
1. Ponding and Immersion: On flat surfaces, such as pavements and floors,
concrete can be cured by ponding. Earth or sand dikes around the
perimeter of the concrete surface retain a pond of water. The most
thorough method of curing with water consists of total immersion of the
finished concrete element. This method is commonly used in the laboratory
for curing concrete test specimens.
2. Wet Coverings: Wet, moisture-retaining fabric coverings saturated with
water, such as burlap, cotton mats, rugs, or other moisture-retaining
fabrics, are used. These should be placed as soon as the concrete has
hardened sufficiently to prevent surface damage. During the waiting period
other curing methods such as fogging, membrane-forming compounds are
used. The coverings should be kept continuously moist so that a film of
water remains on the concrete surface throughout the curing period. Use
of polyethylene film over wet burlap is a good practice; it will eliminate the

Civil Handbook during internship at "Vizag Profiles Pvt. Ltd." (May,2015-July,2015)

Civil Handbook during internship at "Vizag Profiles Pvt. Ltd." (May,2015-July,2015)

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