5161252.ppt

Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 6-1
Process Versus Need-Based
Theories of Motivation
Need-Based Theories
–Reflect a content perspective.
–Try to list __________________________________________.
Process-Based Theories
–Focus on how motivated behavior occurs.
–Explain ____________________________________________.

The Equity Theory of Motivation
Equity Theory
– Based on the relatively simple premise that people in
organizations want to be_____________________________.
Equity
– The belief that we are being
treated ______________________________________.
Inequity
– The belief that we are being
treated ________________________________________.

Forming Equity Perceptions
People in organizations form
perceptions of the equity of
their treatment through a
four-step process.
Step 1
A person
evaluates how
he or she is
being treated
by the firm.
Step 2
The person
forms a
perception of
how a
“comparison
other” is
being treated.
Step 3
The person
compares his
or her own
circumstances
with those of
the comparison
other.
Step 4
On the strength
of this feeling,
the person may
choose to
pursue one or
more
alternatives.

The Equity Comparison Process
Equity theory describes the equity comparison
process in terms of an ________________ratio.
Outcomes (self)
Inputs (self)
Outcomes (other)
Inputs (other)
compared with

Responses to
Perceptions of
Equity and
Inequity
figure 6.1

Evaluations and Implications
Research findings support predictions of equity
theory for responses to inequity.
Equity theory offers managers three messages:
–Everyone in the organization needs to understand the ______
___________.
–People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they
perceive and experience ______________ rewards, some
tangible and others intangible.
–People base their actions on their ______________________
_____________________.
IS IT CULTURE BOUND? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER
CULTURES?

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
The Basic Expectancy Model
– Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something
and the likelihood they perceive of getting it.
Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
– A person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to
successful performance.
Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy
– A person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to
certain (desired) outcomes.
Outcomes and Valences
– The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (valence) of a
particular outcome (reward that results from performance) to a person.

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
figure 6.2

The Porter-Lawler Model
figure 6.3
The model predicts that satisfaction is
determined by the perceived equity of
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for
high-level performance.
Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler,
Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright © 1968.
Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Evaluation and Implications
Research studies have confirmed:
– The association of both kinds of expectancies and valences
with ____________ ______ ___________________-.
– That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing
expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance,
and that performance _____ _____ _________ ___________.
– That expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S.
better than elsewhere. What is its applicability in other
cultures?
• IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES?
• WOULD IT APPLY HERE?

Guidelines for the Use of
Expectancy Theory
Practical use of the theory by managers:
–Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
–Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals.
–Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
–Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
–Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
–Make sure the rewards are large enough.
–Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.

Learning as a Cognitive Process
figure 6.4
Prior learning influences our behavioral
choices. The perceived consequences of
those choices become in turn a part of
learning and affect future behavioral choices.

Reinforcement Theory and Learning
Reinforcement Theory
– Based on the idea that behavior is a
function of its consequences.
• Behavior that results in pleasant
consequences (reward) is likely
to be _________________.
• Behavior that results in unpleasant
consequences (punishment) is _________
likely to be repeated.

Types of Reinforcement
in Organizations
Positive Reinforcement
Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement)
Extinction
Punishment

Kinds of Reinforcement
figure 6.5
Positive reinforcement and avoidance can be used
to motivate desired behaviors by employees.

Kinds of Reinforcement
figure 6.5
Extinction and punishment can be used
to change undesired employee

Schedules of Reinforcement
in Organizations
Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement
Continuous Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Fixed-Interval Behavior is reinforced according to some
predetermined constant schedule based on
time.
Variable-Interval Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but
the time span varies from one time to the next.
Fixed-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number
of behaviors exhibited, with the number of
behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held
constant.
Variable-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number
of behaviors exhibited, but the number of
behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies
from one time to the next.
table 6.1

Organizational Behavior Modification
Behavior Modification in Organizations
–Organizational behavior modification (OB mod) is the
application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings.
–Reinforcement theory says that the frequency of desirable
behaviors can be increased by linking those behaviors with
positive consequences.
–Behavior modification uses positive reinforcement to
encourage desirable behavior in employees.

Organizational Behavior Modification
The Effectiveness of Behavior Modification
–Has__?__been ____effective in every workplace application.
• Managers frequently have only limited means for providing
meaningful reinforcement for their employees.
–Laboratory research is hard to generalize to the real world.
–Behavior modification may be effective for a limited time.
• The impact of the positive reinforcement wanes and employees
come to view it as a routine part of the compensation system.
The Ethics of OB MOD
–OB mod may compromise individual freedom of choice.
–OB mod may be considered managerial manipulation.
Is it CULTURE BOUND?

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