history of batniyah during Fatamids

1. An Assessment Batiniyya in
History of Seljuk
In this essay, we discuss about history of Batinids through to the Seljuk state. This article was
prepared for Seljuk History (HIST 209) lecture which given by Prof. Dr. Tufan Buzpınar at
Istanbul Şehir University. This article also discusses how they became a regional power with
Hasan Sabbâh of the Nazari which born from the Ismaili sect and the effect of this power on
the Seljuks. The article describes that brief history of Batinids and their effects of Seljuks.
Finally, Turkish sources have been translated into English. Please look at the references list to
see the originals of the quotations.
JANUARY 29. 2018
BÜŞRANUR BEKMAN
Undergraduate student at Istanbul Şehir University
Department of History

2. 1
The Seljuks have been in a critical position in the region since the first steps towards
becoming a state. Within a very short period, this position has turned into a regional power,
and the modern states have also engaged attention to the Seljuks. Especially, when the Seljuqs
took the first steps on the way to becoming a state, they decided to obey to Abbasid power
and they become to represent Sunni Islamic identity. The Shia Fatimids, another power of the
age, were not pleased with this situation. For this reason, the Shiites have a great problem for
the Sunni Seljuks. On the one hand, Shia state wanted to spread their both religious and
political power and became leader in the region. Thus, the Shiite groups formed within the
Fatimids began to enter relations with the Seljuks. The Batinids have had a profound impact
on the states and societies of the period and the propaganda activities and assassination
attempts that have been seen and established in the Islamic world. This community was
founded by Hasan Sabbâh, a member of the Ismaili sect. In later periods, Hasan Sabbâh was
brought to court for service to the case with the help of Fatimids. The political turbulence in
the Seljuk state took the attention of the Batinids. They began to press on the Seljuks by
making use of these confusions. Hasan Sabbâh’s becoming a local power at Castle of Alamut
caused a great balance change in Seljuks. Because this group was not living only by their own
people, they were in fact carrying out terrorist activities in the state. In this essay, we discuss
about history of Batinids through to the Seljuk state. The article divided into three parts which
includes brief history of Batinids and their effects of Seljuks.
A) History of Batinids:
Batinids was born the belief that there are deeper meanings under the verses in the
Qur'an. Also, they were followers of Shia. When the word is examined original version of that
” ‫باطنية‬” which means “secret” in Arabic. It is defined as a mind-set system of Batinids.
Furthermore, it’s also known as false sect, which does not stand on the apparent meaning of
Quran but, gives the meanings and interpretations of the religious orders. As can be

3. 2
understood from the word origins, the events were experienced with the thought of secrecy.
Batinids known as Ismailism from many researchers but, there have many debates about
similar character of them. On the one hand, scholars accept that Ismailism are sect of Shiism
and within the rising of Hasan Sabbâh’s power Batinids born and became new sect. After the
death of Prophet Muhammad, the imamate problem in the Islamic civilization caused the
world of Islam to split into two branches, Shia and Sunni. “At the time, the Muslims were
confronted by many gaps in their religious knowledge and understanding of Islam, revolving
around issues such as the unity and attributes of God, nature of religious authority and
definitions of true believers. Different religious communities and schools of thought, which
were later enumerated in heresiographical writings, elaborated their doctrines in stages and
eventually acquired their distinctive identities and names.”1
Later, the Shiites were divided
into many branches due to the imamate problem. One of the problems of this led to the
formation of this new sects.
One the other hand, various opinions have been put forward on the development of
Batinids. We still find it appropriate to mention in our article the most accepted information in
academy. Therefore, it should be start emergence of Batinids that begun in late 10th
century
onwards. At first, they were contingent upon Jaʿfar ibn Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq (702–765 C.E.)
who was sixth imam of Shia. However, some groups of them divided from followers of al-
Sadıq because of that, after his death they did not accept the imam, Moses al-Qadhim's (745-
799 A.D) successor but began to accept Muhammad ibn Isma'il (740-813 A.D) as the seventh
imam. “Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadiq had originally designated his second son Ismaʿil as his successor
to the imamate, by the rule of the nqass. But according to the majority of the sources, Ismaʿil
either predeceased his father or was otherwise not accessible at the time of his father’s death
1
Farhad Daftar, Ismaili Literature A Bibliography of Sources and Studies (London: I.B.Tauris Publishers, 2004), 1-
2.

4. 3
and subsequently, al-Sadiq does not seem to have openly designated another of his sons. As a
result, on al-Sadiq’s death in Medina in Shawwal 48 ah, three of his sons, ʿAbd Allah, Musa
and Muhammad, simultaneously claimed his succession.”2
Thus, the Ismailia spread from
Egypt to Transoxiana, Khorasan to Kufa in a very wide geography. During the first thousand
years we see many groups with different activities. Although these groups were distant from
one another, they were still centred on Ismailia. It would not be wrong to comment that they
were in the process of formation rather than transformation period. “After the formation
process of the first name, which is divided into various branches, we can say that the process
of extension of the new formation is realized in two stages. The first phase is the Qarmati
movement and the Fatimid State (Ismailism of Fatimids) and the second is the Musta
(Ismailism of Musta'li), which emerged in response to the Nizari (Ismailism of Nizari) the
predecessor of Hasan Sabbah.”3
At this point, the Batinids had become a turning point.
Fatimids, the greatest representative of Shi'ism on the history scene, were the only dynasty
born from Ismailis. Not only in politics, but also in spreading Shiism to the in this geography,
they have made a mission to themselves. Hence, Abbasids and their supporters were the
greatest competitors of them. They wanted to destroy Sunnism and make Shiism dominant to
whole world. With this goal in hand, they gained sovereignty in Egypt and soon began to
influence Baghdad. Ismailism was a very crucial feature for Fatimids because of all these
reasons. At this time, the Abbasids began to lose both religious authority and political power,
that caused the Fatimids to gain more power in the region. When the dates indicated the year
1094, Al-Afdal Shahanshah (1066-1121 A.D) was declared as the ninth imam of the Shi’as,
and Ismailism divided into as Nizari and Musta'li. “The period after the great schism caused,
on the death of al-Mustansir, by the brutal dethronement of the prince Nizar, legitimate heir to
2
Farhad Daftar, Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies (London: I.B.Tauris Publishers, 2005), 47-48.
3
Ayse Atı ı, "Büyük Selçuklu İ paratorlugu’ da Bâti i Hareketi Hasa Sa ah ile ilk Halefleri ve İra Nizârî
İs âilîleri -1157)" (master thesis, Ankara University, 2005), 12.

5. 4
the Imamate, in favour of the prince al-Mustacll. The Isma'ili religion then split into two
branches: (a) the Western Isma'ilis of the Fatimid tradition (the Musta'liydri), whose history
includes a Yemenite period, after the assassination of the last titular Fatimid imam (al-Amir 5
24/1130), when the centre of the davat was transferred to the Yemen, and an Indian period
when, at the end of the 16th
century, the headquarters of the head of the community (the dā’i
mutlaq) was moved to India, (b) The other branch, the Eastern Isma'ilis, represented the
Nizari tradition of the reformed Isma'ilism of Alamut, the principal centre of which was the
fortress of that name in Iran.”4
Nizari was undoubtedly the side that gains strength from day to
day. This group, which was established around Iran and then around Syria, was going to be
stamped by Hasan Sabbâh with the power of this group.
B. Hasan Sabbâh and the Batiniyya against the Seljuks:
Hasan Sabbâh, a member of this rise of the Nizari, laid the foundations of an esoteric
sect along with the organization he founded. He was born in Qumm where modern day Iraq
and he was not directly member of them. Qumm, the centre of the Imamate in early 11th
century, was the place that started the story of Sabbah. He joined Ismail with an Amira
Zarrab whom he met while still very young and adopted Nizari. He first stayed in various
parts of Mesopotamia and Syria. Then he settled in Iran. When the general profile of the
Ismailia is looked at in this period, it seems that they were in a structure that support of peace,
they did commercial activities, and they tended to social and cultural development. As a
matter of fact, they spread to a wide geographical area as we have already mentioned in the
previous paragraph. However, there was one feature that separated the Sabbah from the other
members. He was a charismatic leader. The 11th
century of Southwest Asia was always
remembered for its wars. By this time, wars had been in the fields, but he find a new method
4
He ry Cor ı , "Nasır-I Khusrau a d Ira ıa Is a'llıs " The Ca brıdge Hıstory of Ira , Volu e 4, edited by R.
N. Frye (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 522.

6. 5
that instead of destroying the enemy army with war, Sabbah preferred to destroy the enemy's
leader on his own place. “To an increasing extent he began to concentrate his attention on the
far north of Persia - on the Caspian provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, and especially on the
highland region known as Daylam. These lands, lying north of the mountain chain that
bounds the great plateau of Iran, are markedly different in geographical configuration from
the rest of the country, and were inhabited by a hardy, warlike and independent people, for
long regarded by the Iranians of the plateau as alien and dangerous. In ancient times, the
rulers of Iran had never been able effectively to subjugate them, and even the Sasanids had
found it necessary to maintain border fortresses as defensive bastions against their
incursions.”5
In addition, this group wanted to settle a place which restricted by geographical
borders. Sabbah wanted to turn Alamut Castle which also named Elemût or Belde’t-ûl’İkbâl
into a centre. Alamut, a natural mountainous fortress, is next to the Elbriz Mountain. Also,
Alamut River flows from underneath. The castle built by king of Daylam also known as
Justanids. Later, castle rebuild in 860 A.D by Alid called Mihdi 6
and then missionaries of
Sabbah taken there in very harshly way. “With his followers now installed in the castle, Hasan
left Qazvin for the neighbourhood of Alamut, where he stayed for some time in concealment.
Then, on Wednesday, 4 September 1090, he was brought secretly into the castle. For a while
he remained in the castle in disguise, but in due course his identity became known. The
former owner realized what had happened but could do nothing to stop or change it.”7
The
technique they have done was not perceived only as terrorist activity. Although Sabbah
dictates the people with a very strict regime, it has worn very large masses. At this point, the
propaganda of Sabbah and the aliens is also an important point. When Hasan Sabbah settled
5
Bernard Lewis, The Assassins A Radical Sect of Islam (Newyork: Paper Back, 2003), 49.
6
Al-Hasan al-Utrush who was ruler of Tabaristan. (d. 917)
7
İ id. .

7. 6
in Alamut, he sent many letters for legitimizing itself and showed member of under Caliphate
of Fatimid. Then the Alamut Castle was a solid foundation for his plans.
During the periods when Hasan Sabbâh’s power increased from day to day, the
Seljuks in the same geographical region took the attention of the Batinids. In the first place,
the state became strong in a short time, and despite the decreasing power of the Abbasids,
they followed Sunnah rather than more powerful Shia Fatimids. Even though, they seem
followers of Shia tradition, their basic goal was directly related to destroying of Sunni sect in
the region. All these things, internal affairs living in the Seljuk state prepared the ground for
spreading the Batinids in this region. The group, who said that everywhere they went, would
bring prosperity and peace to the people, was making propaganda especially against the
Abbasid caliphate. There were circles among the people who did not hold the Seljuk
government and opposed some religious rules. Since the Seljuk administration did not allow
them to develop, there was a tendency to spread a horror among them. They suddenly acted
and confiscated some of the highlights in the mountainous places. These souls, with a sort of
holy war in the form of martyrdom, have succeeded in a blind obedience and will power to
those who follow them. For instance, there is a general opinion that Hassan Sabbah has
provided the use of haşaş 8
. Moreover, this group is known as Assassins especially in modern
historiography, because of the fleeing movements of the fugitives, such as throwing
themselves away from the castle. The Crusaders, recognizing their branch in Syria and
systematically witnessing the murders of their protagonists, introduced them to Europe with
this name. From the perspective of the Great Seljuk Empire, one of the biggest problems that
faced and had to deal with after the leadership of the Islamic world was the Shiite and Sunni
conflict. The Shi'is are organized as much as Seljuk’s in various regions. In particular, the
Fatimid attracted the Shiite arm of the Ismaili state. Hasan Sabbâh spent three years working
8
A kind of drug.

8. 7
in this region, which was heavily influenced by the propaganda of Shiite-Ismaili and won the
people of the region with the letters he sent to his ranks. But, Sabbâh managed to escape from
Rey and went to Kazvin. In the end, he settled in the fortified Alamut Fortress, where he
chose his headquarters in the Rodbar Valley, and established the Nizari-Ismaili State.
The Batinids knew they were not able to defeat the Seljuks, who were a great empire,
with a regular army. For this reason, they have adopted a strategy of targeting the leaders to
determine and take some important regions in the leadership of Hasan Sabbâh in the Seljuk
lands as a strategy. Therefore, they have adopted the strategy of taking as many bases as
possible and initiating a simultaneous uprising in order to conquer this fragmented political
and social structure. Besides, Batinids movement wanted to shake the social order of the
Great Seljuk state. Seeing the danger rising on its own limits, Malik-Shah I (1055-1092 A.D)
set a political relationship firstly because of death of a muezzin in 1087, the Sultan sent a letter
to the Sultan. “Indeed, the Seljuk Sultan warns him in his letter to the Bâtînî leader (Sheikh ul-
Cebel), saying that he organized the people with the new religion that Sabbâh ah established,
and that he damaged position of the Islamic caliphs and Abbasids. He suggested to Sabbâh to
giving up these propagandas and return to Islam or they would have destroyed in their castle”9
But in response to this letter of the Sultan, Sabbâh invited the Seljuks to recognize the Shiite
Fatimid state authorities. In these lines, the Seljuk Vizier Nizâmü'l-Mülk who carefully
watched their activities commanded the officers in the Rey to catch him; Then, Seljuks
decided to destroy the Alamut castle in 1092 within the leader of Emir Arslantaş and Emir
Koltas aganist to Hasan Sabbâh with a large army. First, the Seljuks won and conquered the
castle, but only four months later, the Batinids took it again. Sabbah knows very well that it is
not possible to defeat the army which is superior to them, and attention has been paid to vizier
Nizâmü'l-Mülk, who is the most opposing name to him. As we have already mentioned from
9
Osman Turan, Selçuklular Tarihi ve Türk İslâ Mede iyeti A kara, Ötüke Neşriyat, , .

9. 8
the beginning of the verse, Sabbah was using as a method of assassinating those against his
own authority. As a matter of fact, the Seljuk state needed to be institutionalized
bureaucratically although they were very strong politically. For this reason, the bureaucracy
was often carried out by foreign and experienced statesmen. In this direction Nizâmü'l-Mülk
was the most important statesman for the state administration. Moreover, the fact that it was
of Iranian origin attracted even more attention of the Batinids. In Siyasatnama which is the
most important work of Nizâmü'l-Mülk, has been given very extensive information related to
the Batinids. He described them as a heretic in “Bâtınî and Karmatîs Extract Possible Sects on
the Prosperity and the Curse of God.”10
“Their position is considerable; their only case is how
to dry the roots of Muslims and how to deflect the people and get them out of the right
way.”11
He had been educated against the teachings of Shi'i, not only in politics but in the
madrasa where he was established.
Furthermore, Hasan Sabbah, who wants to kill Sunni leaders with a radical solution,
decides not to assassinate Nizâmü'l-Mülk at the top of the Persian hierarchy. On the other
hand, the turbulence experienced within the state directed the Sultan to reduce the position of
the vizier. Therefore, the first important victim of the Batinids was Nizâmü'l-Mülk. Sabbâh,
who has developed a special fleet for this mission, decides to use Sufism, the weak point of
Nizâmü'l-Mülk. So, for this planned assassination, a bouncer seems to be attached to the Sufi
tradition. At this point, it is not be wrong to interpret that Islam is not a direct aim in the
Seljuk administration under any circumstances. As a matter of fact, when a Sufi man comes to
Nizâmü'l-Mülk, he will accept it without hesitation. Indeed, this man, trained by Hasan
Sabbâh, except that he wanted to speak to Nizâmü’l-Mülk during the siege of the Alamut
Castle. This man who is dressed according to the Sufi tradition and who is in an ordinary
10
Chapter 41.
11
Niza 'ül Mülk, Siyasetname tra slated y Meh et Taha Ayar İsta ul: Türkiye İş Ba kası Kültür Yayı ları,
2009), 355.

10. 9
people appearance hit Nizâmü’l-Mülk with his knife. Nizâmü’l-Mülk, a victim of the
assassination of the Batinids, died in 1092.
As a result, Malik-Shah I left the vizier to Nizâmü'l-Mülk to fight against the Batınids.
With the death of Nizâmü'l-Mülk, the Batinids spread and became stronger in the Great
Seljuk lands. One of the most important issues that the state has to deal with at that time is the
Batınids. However, if Sultan Malik-Shah I had a prior need for military struggle, then he
realized the seriousness of the event and made the struggle with them a state policy. After
this, Sultan Malik-Shah I death in 1092 led to a great chaos in Seljuks.
On the Great Seljuks side, died of Sultan Malik-Shah and the political usability period
of the Great Seljuk Empire began. The main reason for this is the struggle for the reign of
some of the throne claimants. The bloody throne between his sons and his brothers who broke
out on the death of Sultan Malik-Shah. In the period which is a mixed and depressed period,
the throne struggles between Muhammad or Mehmed Tapar (1082-1118 A.D) and (1082-
1105) continued. The Batinids turn this to an advantage, and during the throne struggles. Also
they were mixed between the soldiers of both side. On the one hand, the throne struggles and
the rapidly spreading Batinids propagandas forced the Great Seljuk Empire. At the same time,
the Crusades have worn away the lands of the Seljuks, which were ruled by them. “The
general pattern, however, it clear enough: as sultanic authority and Seljuk state weaked, in
both Syria and Iran, Ismails were able to move into the gap. The years of the civil war
between Berkyaruk and Muhammad represent the high-water mark of Ismailism.”12
In the
Berkyaruk period, the Batinids multiplied their activities in a very systematic manner and
increased their power. Those who are aware of this situation have planned to spread fully to
the Islamic world. These events have not been of much relevance to Berkyaruk about
Batinids. Throughout the reign of Berkyaruk, the Batinids were active in the Seljuk lands and
12
Andrew C. S Peacock, The Great Seljuk Empire. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 2015), 87.

11. 10
grew up in a successful manner. On the one hand, they could enter the Berkyaruk army and
even increased in number. However, the reason why they enter the army comfortably is that
Sultan Berkyaruk victoriously over his brother and bequeathed it. Later, Sultan Berkyaruk
found important attacks on them to completely remove the Batinids.
Along with this, Hasan Sabbâh and Batinids were in their places. Sultan Muhammad
Tapar began to make efforts to restore order in the Seljuk State through the throne. After
taking power completely, he acted decisively on the Batinids, which posed a great threat to
the Seljuks, and tried to remove them from the centre with their regular flights. The Sultan,
sent forces on the remains in the hands of the Batinids and moved to take possession of them.
As a matter of fact, he decided to act on the city of Tikrit where was in the hands of the
Batinids. After these successes, Sultan Muhammed sent the vizier, Ahmed and Emir Çavli
purpose of digging the roots of the Batinids in 1109 and he killed a number of Batinids.
Ahmed was the son of the vizier Nizâmü'l-Mülk who had been in great service to the Great
Seljuk state. Due to the success he has shown, he became a vizier of Sultan Muhammad Tapar
so, Sultan sent Ahmed and his soldiers to the main headquarters of Alamut to Rudbal to fight
against Batinids. The Seljuk forces have been bastardized here. However, when the winter
was over, he returned without getting anything. unfortunately, he was assassinated by the
Batinids as his father. Obviously, Batinids have been assassinated not only by the statesmen
but also against all kinds of people who are against or perceived to be dangerous to them.
These assassinations were against anyone who did not think like them. In this respect, the
most serious damage has been seen by civilian people.
Because of the assassinations they have undertaken, while the politically great strains
of the Great Seljuk State were lived, the Seljuks also suffered profound wounds within the
society. On the one hand, the security of life and property has not remained in the face of the
attitudes of the Batinids against the people and statesmen, who have benefited from the void

12. 11
of authority in the state of mixed state, on the other hand. It caused great fear and anxiety on
the people. The people who were in panic and fear at the end of the assassination campaigns,
who had never been fired, were divided into groups, almost like Batinids supporters and non-
Bâtini ones. This division has become almost ideological on the point of destroying or
eliminating one of the two opposing case from among the people. The same situation was also
experienced among the subjects of other Seljuk states. In the period of Mehmet Tapar, it was
their power to break with the Batinids to be very serious struggles. “Warfare with the Seljuqs
continued under Muhammed I, thought as a reduced intensity, and the Nizaris captured a
number of new fortress. But all this activity was relatively petty and there was beginning to be
an increasing discrepancy between the original high hopes of the community and what had
actually been achieved.”13
The Batinids have been organized on a very good level, and some statesmen have also
taken their side. Muhammad Tapar punished the Batinids and the statesmen who were both
inside, namely the statesmen who were pro-Batini, as well as the statesmen who were battled
to destroy in these groups. Muhammad Tapar, the only sultan who brought the Batinids
problem within the Seljuk sultans to the stage of solving it. He has devastated the Batinids
with regular attacks, falling into a weak state. However, his untimely death also became a new
salvation gate for the Batinids and his moral ascendancy.
In period of Sultan Sancar the struggle between Batinids and Sultan started from early
times. He sent an army to Kohistan, one of the regions where the Batinids settled for it, and
left Hasan Sabbah and his men in a very difficult situation. During the reign of Sultan Sancar,
the Batinids affairs became much easier. “Sultan Sancar has provided some facilities to the
Batinids for the peace. The most important reason for this is that he is also afraid that he will
13
Anthony Campbell, The Assassins of Alamut (Lulu Publishing, 2008), 19.

13. 12
be victimized by an assassination. In other words, Sancar made a peace with the Batınids in
order to prevent the assassination that could be done to him. This is important in terms of
formally recognizing the Nizarî Ismâilîs of the Great Seljuk Empire.”14
After this date, it is
not wrong to say that the Seljuk power has gradually decreased and that no contact has
occurred between the two sides after the dissolution of the state.
Conclusion:
From the centuries when the Islamic civilization reached its peak, the Shiite Sunni
struggle has ensured. This conflict has shaped the history of the great states that it has
established on both sides. Ismail is a marginal group. Furthermore, this group was
strengthened in a dangerous period of Islamic civilization change. Hasan Sabbâh was the first
leader in history to use an educated group for terrorism. Within the establishment of the
Seljuk state, the attention of the Fatimid was confirmed by the Shi'ism. The esoteric sect
founded by Hasan Sabbâh in the 11th
century, and the history of Shiite Islam, have deeply
affected the history of the Seljuks. The Seljuks, have risen in political terms as a religious
authority and in a very short period especially in the Southwest Asia. However, the internal
confusion, an attitude that needs to be seen, laid the groundwork for the rise of the Nizari in
the region Although the scholars discussed how much Hasan Sabbâh is attached to the Nizari
arm, it should be accepted as a general fact that the unsuspecting Seljuks are forcibly forced.
They have become a threat to the Great Seljuk Empire reign of Melik-sash to Sultan Sancar.
“The Nizari state lasted for some 166 years until it too was uprooted by the Mongol hordes in
654/1256. However, the Nizari Ismaili daʿwa and community survived the Mongol
14
Ayse Atı ı, "Büyük Selçuklu İ paratorlugu’ da Bâti i Hareketi Hasa Sa ah ile ilk Halefleri ve İra Nizârî
İs âilîleri -1157)" (master thesis, Ankara University, 2005), 102.

14. 13
catastrophe.”15
As a result, after the longest religious and political developments, Batinids
organized by Hasan Sabbâh and they gained an important position in the history of Seljuk.
15
Farhad Daftar, Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies (London: I.B.Tauris Publishers, 2005), 82.

15. 14
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Atıcı, Ayşe. “Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorlugu’nda Bâtinî Hareketi (Hasan Sabbah ile ilk Halefleri ve
İran Nizârî İsmâilîleri ) (1090-1157)” Master Thesis, Ankara University, 2005.
Campbell, Anthony. The Assassins of Alamut, Lulu Publishing, 2008.
Daftar, Farhad Ismaili Literature A Bibliography of Sources and Studies, London: I.B.Tauris
Publishers, 2004. 2.
Daftar, Farhad. Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies, London: I.B.Tauris Publishers, 2005.
Frye, Richard. The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 4, The Period from the Arab Invasion to the
Saljuqs. UK: Cambridge University Press. 1975.
Lewis, Bernard. The Assassins A Radical Sect of Islam, Newyork: Paper Back, 2003.
Nizamülmülk, Siyasetname. İstanbul: İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. 2009.
Peacock, Andrew C.S. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 2015.
Turan, Osman. Selçuklular Tarihi ve Türk İslâm Medeniyeti, Ankara: Ötüken Neşriyat, 2008.