Highlights on some of the Muslim Scholars’ Contributions in the Science of Management . By Yaser Zakariyya Alhindi MGT 501 Project – 2012 MBA Program – KFUPM Yaser.Alhindi@gmail.com

1. Muslim Pioneers in
Management
Highlights on some of the Muslim Scholars’
Contributions in the Science of Management
By
Yaser Zakariyya Alhindi
MGT 501 Project – 2012
MBA Program – KFUPM
Yaser.Alhindi@gmail.com

2. Contents
Introduction
• Objective
• Reasons
• The Importance of Management Sciences to Human Beings
• Administration in Muslims Countries
Part one: Some Muslim Pioneers
• Abu Yusuf (d.798)
• Al Shybani (749-805)
• Ibn Khaldun (732-808)
• Miskawayh (940-1030)
• Almawardi (972-1058)
• Nezam Almulek (1018 -1092)
• Al Ghazali (1058-1111)
• Al Dimashqi (c.1175)
• Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328)
2

3. Contents
Part Two: Some Major Contributions
• Waqf
• Supply and Demand
• Division of labor
• Introduction of Cheque
Conclusion
Bibliography
3

4. Introduction
• Objective
• Reasons
• The Importance of Management Sciences to Human Beings
• Administration in Muslims Countries
4

5. Objective
Shedding light on some of the major Muslim
contrition in the science of management.
5

6. Reasons
One of the benefits of studying the biographies of the
people that went before us; is that our predecessors
inspired us by their lives, thoughts and by their
sacrifices. Among these inspirational people are,
scholars, and even righteous political rulers.
To prompt future researches on the area of
highlighting Islamic contribution.
6

7. Reasons
“seek, with that (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on
you, the home of the Hereafter, and forget not your
portion of legal enjoyment in this world, and do good
as Allah has been good to you, and seek not mischief
in the land. Verily, Allah likes not the Mufsidun (those
who commit great crimes and sins, oppressors, tyrants,
mischief-makers, corrupts).” Surah 28. Al-Qasas, Verse
77
7

8. Importance of Management to
Human Beings
The Latin word Administrare (to Care for).
Man is the purpose of development, development is
meaningful only if it does succeed in creating
conditions, both material and spiritual, which enable
the individual and the species to become their best.
8

9. Administration in Muslims Countries
Islam is the religion of Laws which has rules for nearly
all human activities.
The main function of man in Islam is to worship God
in all spheres of his life, therefore the developmental
process in an Islamic state should be geared toward
that grans objective.( Al Buraey, 1985:123)
9

10. Administration in Muslims Countries
In the Islamic society the ethnic origins of scholars and
scientists were diverse.
The population and wealth of the various regions, are
sufficient to explain why most Islamic scholars and
scientist came from Iraq and Iran and the eastern
provinces.
10

11. Administration in Muslims Countries
Islamic scholars has introduced important element into
their scientific methods, namely that of
experimentation and testing, thereby not being satisfied
with theoretical studies.
Many of the scholars they attempted to to justify their
criticism by theoretical proof, then would attempt to
prove the correctness of the hypotheses by
experimentation.
Convolution of Muslims scholars from 770 to 1377 AD.
11

12. Part one:
Some Muslim Pioneers
• Abu Yusuf (d.798)
• Al Shybani (749-805)
• Ibn Khaldun (732-808)
• Miskawayh (940-1030)
• Almawardi (972-1058)
• Nezam Almulek (1018 -1092)
• Al Ghazali (1058-1111)
• Al Dimashqi (c.1175)
• Ibn Taymiyya (1263-1328)
12

13. Abu Yusuf (Ibn Ibrahim Al-Ansari)
His most famous work was Kitab al-Kharaj, a
treatise on taxation and fiscal problems of the
state.
He served as the chief judge (qadi al-qudat)
during reign of Harun Al- Rashid. the first time
such a title had been conferred upon someone
in Islamic history.
was raised poor but with a ferocious appetite for
knowledge.
13

14. Abu Yusuf (Ibn Ibrahim Al-Ansari)
Abu Yusuf achieved incredible success and helped
develop and spread the influence of the Hanafi
school of Islamic thoughts, Under the guidance of
Abu Hanifa.
Islamic empire was at the height of its power at the
time of his writing and in his treatise, he sought to
advise the caliph on how to appropriately conduct
financial policies in accordance with religious law.
the overall effect was to limit the ruler's discretion
over the tax system.
14

15. Abu Yusuf (Ibn Ibrahim Al-Ansari)
1- "Kitab al-Kharaj" (the book of taxation), upon
Harun Al-Rashid's request, and is known as one of
the earliest works on the Islamic taxation system.
First printed in 1302/1885 in Cairo, its text has
been translated into numerous languages.
2- "Usul al-fiqh" - the earliest known work of
principles of Islamic jurisprudence. A portion of his
works were devoted to international law.
3- "Kitab al-Athar", a collection of traditions
(ahadith) he narrated.
15

16. Abu Yusuf (Ibn Ibrahim Al-Ansari)
4- "Kitab Ikhtilaf Abi Hanifa wa Ibn Abi Layla",
one of the early works on comparative Fiqh.
5- "Kitab al-Radd ‘Ala Siyar al-Awza’i", a refutation
of the famous Syrian jurist and tradition, al-Awza’i
on the law of war.
16

17. Al-Shaybani, Muhammad Ibn Alhasan
the father of Muslim international law
Al-Shaybani wrote advanced treatise on the
subject, and other jurists soon followed with a
number of other multi-volume treatises.
They dealt with both public international law
as well as private international law.
17

18. Al-Shaybani, Muhammad Ibn Alhasan
Including the law of treaties;
the treatment of diplomats, hostages, refugees and
prisoners of war; the right of asylum;
conduct on the battlefield; protection of women,
children and non-combatant civilians; contracts across
the lines of battle; the use of poisonous weapons; and
devastation of enemy territory.
18

19. Ibn Khaldun (Abdulrahman Ibn Muhammad)
Significant contribution to the Foundation of
social sciences.
The methods of organizational improvement
can be developed through the study of the
science of culture.
Book of the lessons and archive of early and
subsequent history “Al Muqaddimah”.
His opinion on the History Documentation “It
is not just a list of correct facts, but is
dependent on who's interpreting them, what
region they come from and their impartiality” 19

20. Ibn Khaldun (Abdulrahman Ibn Muhammad)
He rejected partially unchecked facts.
Came up with the “Asabiyah” a famous
sociology theory.
Labor is the source of prosperity “Adam
Smith”
Later in the 19th century, Western scholars
recognized him as one of the greatest
philosophers to come out of the Muslim
world.
20

21. Ibn Khaldun (Abdulrahman Ibn Muhammad)
Ibn Khaldun's outlines an early example of
political economy.
He describes the economy as being
composed of value-adding processes; that is,
labour and skill is added to techniques and
crafts and the product is sold at a higher
value.
He also made the distinction between
"profit" and "sustenance", in modern
political economy terms, surplus and that
required for the reproduction of classes
respectively. He also calls for the creation of 21
a science to explain society.

22. Miskawayh, Ahmad
• As a philosopher Miskawayh focused on the matter
of ethics.
• In his ideas, Miskawayh always tries to fuse
Aristotle's views and Islamic ethics.
• He made several contributions to economics (Islahi,
2004). He stated that the essence of money, is that it
is able to gauge the value of various goods and
services and create a sense of equality between them,
in a way that is not possible through direct exchange
without money as the medium.
22

23. Miskawayh, Ahmad
• “He regarded gold, in its monetary capacity, as the
standard for all and everything. He considered it the
best way to store value, because he who sells many
things and picks up gold in exchange for the articles
and as a substitute for all of them, has done the right
thing; since he can get thereby whatever he wishes
and whenever he wishes'' (Islahi, 2004).
23

24. Miskawayh, Ahmad
• Other masters of philosophy like al-Ghazali,
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Jalal al-Din al-Dawwani
were influenced by Ibn Miskawayh.
• He wrote "Tajarib al-Umam" (Experiences of
Nations) on history.
• "Tahdhib al-Akhlaq" (Ethical instruction)
contains Greek, Persian and Islamic traditions.
24

25. Al Mawardi (Ali Abu Alhasan)
• Appointed as the chief judge over several
Khorsani districts near Nishspur, and Baghdad
itself. “A high-profile figure."
• Served as a diplomat for the Abbasid caliphs al-
Qa’im and al-Qadir in negotiations with the
Buyid emirs.
• He is well remembered for his treatise on "The
Ordinances of Government."
25

26. Al Mawardi (Ali Abu Alhasan)
• Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya w'al-Wilayat al-Diniyya,
(The Ordinances of Government) provides a
detailed a definition of the functions of caliphate
government which, under the Buyids appeared to
be rather indefinite and ambiguous.
26

27. Al Mawardi (Ali Abu Alhasan)
• the caliphate symbolized an entire politico-
religious system that regulates the lives of men in
a Muslim community to the smallest detail.
Index:
1. On the Appointment of the Sovereign
2. On Ministerial Appointment
III. On the Appointment of Provincial Governors
IV. On Appointing War Commanders
V. On Appointing Commanders of Expeditions for the Public Interest
VI. On the Appointment of Judges
VII. On the Redress of Wrongs
VIII. On Syndics of the Nobility
IX. On the Appointment of Prayer Leaders
X. The administration of Alms
XI. On Dividing the War Spoils
XII. On Tribute and Land Tax
XIV. Of Distinctions Among Countries
XV. On Land Reclamation and Water Supply
XVI. On Enclosures and Public Amenities
XVII. On Land Grants and Concessions
XVIII. On the Status and Rules of the Chancery
XIX. On Crimes and Punishment
XX. On the Market Supervisors Office 27

28. Al Mawardi (Ali Abu Alhasan)
• Other Works:
• Laws regarding the Ministers (Qanun al-Wazarah).
• The Book of Sincere Advice to Rulers (Kitab Nasihat
al-Mulk ).
• The Ethics of Religion and of this World. (Kitab
Aadab al-Dunya w'al-Din ).
28

29. Al Mawardi (Ali Abu Alhasan)
• Mawardi's book has influenced a number of
contemporary political groups and
movements, in particular Hizb ut-Tahrir, who
wish to reestablish the Caliphate and adopt
much of the structure and processes from the
classical period of Islam that was articulated
by AlMawardi.
29

30. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
• He was the sole ruler of the Seljuq Empire.
• "Nizam al-Mulk" was an honorific which he
assumed after achieving prominence. It translates
into English as: "good order of the kingdom.”
• Aside from his extraordinary influence as vizier
with full authority, he is also well known for
systematically founding a number of schools of
higher education in several cities, the famous
Nizamiyyah schools, which were named after
him. In many aspects, these schools turned out to
be the predecessors and models of universities
that were established in Europe. 30

31. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
• He built other great schools as well, one in
Nisapur and another one in Tus. He strongly
encouraged people to study the Islamic sciences
and arts, and he used to spend much money on
the seekers of knowledge.
31

32. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
• Nizam al-Mulk had a great ability in
organizational matters and was also known for
redressing the wrongs that occurred under his
government. The right man in the right job
• also widely known for his voluminous treatise
on kingship titled Siyasatnama (The Book of
Government). He also wrote a book titled Dastur
al-Wuzarā, written for his son Abolfath Fakhr-
ol-Malek.
32

33. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
• The most important administrative approaches used by the
Minister Nezam Al-Mulk in managing the Seljuk State:
1. He stood strongly against the intervention of the Sultan
closest family members and friends in the affairs of the state,
so as not to cause disorder in the management.
2. He was also particularly concerned about post mail as
postmen delivered all news and updates to the government
from all across the Slguk State. In addition to sending
defectives to inspect all disciplines and parties: trader,
tourism and Sufis, dervishes, real estate. The undercover
detectives kept the Sultan posted and well informed about
everything going on his kingdom. 33

34. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
3. He used to change governors and workers once every two or
three years to ensure that no tampering in their work; and
when Sultan Alp Arslan canceled the function «the Mail» and
«the News» job titles, Nizam al-Mulk assigned an honest man in
every city send all updates and to watch the governor, the judge,
the injury and all officers.
.
34

35. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
4. He was also very selective in recruiting employees. He chose
the most knowledgeable, ascetic and the less greedy. He chose
for the jobs of «the Mail» and «the news» man people the most
honest due the sensitivity of these jobs, and are appointed by
the Sultan himself. Nizam Almulk allocated generous salaries
for state employees, as a precaution measure, so as not to force
any employee to steal of public funds, or take advantage of his
position.
35

36. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
5. He made sure to make auditing by the end of every year to
see income and expenses and balance between them.
6. Nizam Almulk consulted a number of senior civil servants
loyal and competent, the to ensure that the administrative plan
is carefully implemented. The mission of that Advisory
Council- apparently - is to study any important decisions and
the development of appropriate solutions to any problem, and
then carefully monitor its implementation.
36

37. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
• The economic thinking of Nizam Almulk played an
important role in the reform and distribution of
agricultural lands.
• The regular practice of the caliphs and princes was to
gather all the of the states’ money in the capital, when the
Suljuk State expanded, He noted that the income of the
state of the agricultural income is little because of the lands
need for reform, as well as lack of interest of governors in
reforming those lands.
37

38. Nizam Almulek, Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Tusi
• found that it is more favorable to the state to distribute the
aspects in the form of Aqtaat the heads of the soldiers, to
pay each section a sum of money to the State Treasury for
investment of the land which Oqtat him, was this
procedure cause in the development of agricultural
resources.
38

39. Al Ghazali (Abu Hā med Mohammad)
• Contributed significantly to The
qualifications and suits of rulers and to the
development of a systematic view of Sufism
and its integration and acceptance in
mainstream Islam.
• Viewed as the key member of the
influential Asharite school of early Muslims
philosophy and the most important refuter
of Mutazilites.
39

40. Al Ghazali (Abu Hā med Mohammad)
• Al-Ghazālī’s greatest work The Revival of
Religious Sciences. (Ihya' Ulum al-Din or Ihya'u
Ulumiddin)
• In 40 books he explained the doctrines and
practices of Islām and showed how these can
be made the basis of a profound devotional
life, leading to the higher stages of Ṣūfism
• It covers almost all fields of Islamic sciences:
figh (Islamic jurisprudence), kalam (theology)
and sufism.
40

41. Al Ghazali (Abu Hā med Mohammad)
• It contains four major sections: Acts of
worship (Rub' al-'ibadat), Norms of Daily Life
(Rub' al-'adatat), The ways to Perdition (Rub'
al-muhlikat) and The Ways to Salvation (Rub'
al-munjiyat).
• Admirable comments were made regarding
this book: "If all Islamic sciences were disappeared,
they could be taken back from Ihya'u Ulumiddin."
41

42. Al Ghazali (Abu Hā med Mohammad)
• Ghazali had an important influence on
Christian medieval philosophers. The greatest
of these Christian writers who was influenced
by Al-Ghazali was St.Thomas Aquinas (1225–
1274), who made a study of the Arabic writers
and admitted his indebtedness to them.
• There are more than 400 books attributed to
Al ghazali today. Many western scholars such
as William Montgomery Watt (The works
attributed to Al-Ghazali), Maurice Bouyges (Essai
de chronologie des oeuvres d'Al-Ghazali) and
others prepared a list of his works along with
their comments on each book. 42

43. Al Ghazali (Abu Hā med Mohammad)
• The most celebrated of Ghazali's works in
Persian is The Counseling Kings (Nasīhatul
Mulūk), written most probably for Sultan
Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malekshah.
• Aims of Philosophers (Maqasid al falasifa)
written in the beginning of his life, in favour
of philosophy and presenting the basic
theories in Philosophy, mostly influenced by
Avicenna's works.
43

44. Al Ghazali (Abu Hā med Mohammad)
• The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut
al-Falasifa) in this book he refutes the Greek
Philosophy aiming at Avicenna and Al-Farabi;
and of which Ibn Rushd wrote his famous
refutation Tahafut al-tahafut (The Incoherence
of the Incoherence).
• Criterion of Knowledge in the Art of Logic
(Miyar al-Ilm fi fan al-Mantiq).
• Touchstone of Reasoning in Logic (Mihak al-
Nazar fi al-mantiq).
• The Correct Balance (al-Qistas al-mustaqim). 44

45. Al Dimishqi, Abu Al Fadl Jaafar
• Jaafar Al-Dimishqi was an economist and an early
Muslim entrepreneur who lived and flourished in
12th century Damascus and Syria.
• He is best known for being the author of Kitab al-
Isharah ila Mahasin at-Tijarah wa Marifat Jayyid al-
A’rad wa Kadiiha wa Ghush-ush al-Mudallisin fiha (A
Guide to the Merits of Commerce and to
Recognition of Both Fine and Defective
Merchandise and the Swindles of Those Who
Deal Dishonestly).
45

46. Al Dimishqi, Abu Al Fadl Jaafar
• He advised his readers: "Everything that is being
bought and sold shall be measured by the dry
measure, or by time, or in numbers.
• Therefore a merchant should know the swindler
and the methods which he applies when
measuring, weighing and counting, so that he
shall not be dependent upon unreliable people".
46

47. Al Dimishqi, Abu Al Fadl Jaafar
• His work praises trade as an economic activity and
demonstrates a thorough understanding of the roles
of supply and demand and the uncertainty
associated with them.
• According to Louis Baeck, professor of International
Economics and Development at the Catholic
University of Leuven (Belgium), al-Dimashqi
"formulated what modern economists would call
price theory".
47

48. Al Dimishqi, Abu Al Fadl Jaafar
• In this theory, al-Dimashqi "makes a distinction
between normal periods in which market prices are based
on cost of production, as opposed to periods of scarcity or
oversupply, in which speculators’ drive manifest itself".
• In the Guide to the Merits of Commerce, he
expresses disapproval of the state becoming directly
involved in the economy.
• Al-Dimashqi also emphasizes the necessity of
division of labor for economic development.
48

49. Al Dimishqi, Abu Al Fadl Jaafar
• "No individual can, because of the shortness of his
life span, burden himself with all industries. If he
does, he may not be able to master the skills of all of
them from the first to the last. Industries are all
interdependent. Construction needs the carpenter
and the carpenter needs the ironsmith and the
ironsmith needs the miner, and all these industries
need premises. People are, therefore, necessitated by
force of circumstances to be clustered in cities to
help each other in fulfilling their mutual needs“.
49

50. Ahmad Ibn Taymiyya
• Elaborated a circumstantial analysis of the
market mechanism, with a theoretical insight
unusual in his time. His discourses on the
welfare advantages and disadvantages of
market regulation and deregulation, have an
almost contemporary ring to them.
• Ibn Taymiyyah commenting on the power of
supply and demand:"If desire for goods
increases while its availability decreases, its
price rises. On the other hand, if availability
of the good increases and the desire for it
decreases, the price comes down."
50

51. Ahmad Ibn Taymiyya
• Ibn Taymiyyah left a considerable body of
work (350 works listed by his student Ibn
Qayyim Al-Jawziyya and 500 by his student al-
Dhahabi) that has been republished
extensively in Syria, Egypt, Arabia, and India.
• One of them which is the study of the
economic thoughts of an Islamic scholar on
the role of the state in the economy, public
finance, money, interest, prices, partnership,
profit sharing and other economic issues,
reported and analyzed in their historical
context.
51

52. Ahmad Ibn Taymiyya
• In addition to innumerable fatwās (legal
opinions based on religious law) and several
professions of faith, the most beautiful of
which is the Wāsitīyah, two works merit
particular attention.
• One is his As-Siyā-sat ash-sharʿīyah (Treatise on
Juridical Politics), available in French and
English translations. The other, Minhāj as-
sunnah (The Way of Tradition), is the richest
work of comparative theology surviving from
medieval Islam.
52

53. Ahmad Ibn Taymiyya
• In politics Ibn Taymiyyah recognized the
legitimacy of the first four caliphs, but he rejected
the necessity of having a single caliphate and
allowed for the existence of many emirates.
• Within each emirate Ibn Taymiyyah demanded
that the prince apply the religious law strictly and
rely on it for his legal opinion, and demanded
from those under the prince’s jurisdiction that
they obey the established authority except where it
required disobedience to God, every Muslim
being required to “will the good and forbid the
bad” for the benefit of the common welfare.
53

54. Part two:
Some Major Contributions
• Waqf
• Supply and Demand
• Division of labor
• Introduction of Cheque
54

55. Waqf (Trusts)
• Waqfs or trusts are charitable foundations in which
its revenue acts as an ongoing source of funding to
finance public and charity projects. Awaqf also
means religious charitable institutions that manage
various gifted and donated financial assets.
• In the Muslim world, waqfs were the main source of
income in financing public facilities, such as
schools, hospitals and mosques, while taxes were a
minor source.
55

56. Waqf (Trusts)
• Financing schools by waqfs used to cover
maintenance, teachers' salaries, accomodation,
food for students, and also bursaries for those
in need.
• Hospitals were also funded by waqfs, though
some money from the state coffers was also
used for the maintenance of some hospitals. It
was partly due to this funding they became
strongholds of scientific medicine and an
integral part of city life in less than two
centuries.
56

57. Waqf (Trusts)
• Influenced by the east, many western colleges
and universities were founded on the basis of
charitable trusts such as church inns and other
foundations.
• However, the role of waqfs has been greatly
undermined today, and lost its status as an
important source of income for public
facilities and social security.
• Waqf were introduced during the Prophet's
time, and Muslims derived its legitimacy from
Hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad.
57

58. Supply and Demand
• Muslim scholars explained the market forces of supply and
demand, and their role in determining the prices of goods
and services.
• Al-Jahiz contributed to economics with his work “Al-
Tabassur bi'l-Tijarah" (Insight in Commerce) is without a
doubt the first to deal exclusively with the trading of good
and commercial activities. (Islahi, 2004)
58

59. Supply and Demand
• In its text, Al-Jahiz mentions an early
expression of the role of demand and supply:
"Everything becomes cheaper if its amount increases,
except knowledge; as its value is enhanced if it
increases" - referring to it as an Indian wisdom.
59

60. Division of Labor
• Division of labor is the specialization of
cooperative labor in specific, defined tasks
and roles, intended to increase the
productivity of labor.
• Muslim scholars such as Al-Ghazali
contributed in economic theories on the
division of labor.
60

61. Introduction of the Cheque
• Like today, coins weren't the only way of
paying, Cheques were around centuries ago as
well. Cheque comes from the Arabic saqq, a
written vow to honor payment for
merchandise when its destination is reached.
61

62. Introduction of the Cheque
• In the time of Harun al-Rashid, under a highly
developed ‘banking system’, a Muslim
businessman could cash a cheque in Canton,
China drawn on his bank account in Baghdad. The
use of saqq was born out of the need to avoid
having to transport coin as legal tender due to the
dangers and difficulties this represented.
• Bankers took to the use of bills of exchange, letters
of credit and promissory notes, often drawn up to
be, in effect, Cheques. In promoting the concept of
the bill of exchange, saqq or check, Muslims made
the financing of commerce and intercontinental
trade possible. 62

63. Conclusion
• In this research project, one hopes that the younger
generations get inspired by the achievements of the
predecessors, in particular in the science of
management.
• Not only to follow them in footsteps but also to follow
them in minds set that prompt the critical thinking,
innovation and creativity for the best of all mankind.
63

64. Bibliography
• Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1985), Administrative Development:
An Islamic Perspective, London, KPI.
• Choudhury, Masudul Alam (1989), Studies in Islamic Social
Sciences, London, Macmillan Press LTD.
• Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1994), Mabady’a Al-Idara wa Al-
Qyada fi Al-Islam: Dirasa Muqarana (Leadership and
Administrative Principles in Islam: A Comparative Study), 1st
ed. Nadi Al-Mantiqa Al-Shargyya Al-adabi.
64

65. Bibliography
• Shafritz, Jay M. and J. Steven Ott (1991), Classics of
Organization Theory, 3rd ed. Pacific, Books Cole Publishing
Company.
• Dhaouadi, Mahmoud (1997), New Explorations Into the
Making of Ibn Khaldun’s Umran Mind, Kuala Lumpur, A.S.
Noordeen.
• Al-Hassan, A.Y. ed, Maqboul Ahmed and A. Z. Iskandar
co-ed (2001), The Different Aspects of Islamic Culture,
vol.4, part1, Beirut, UNESCO.
65

66. Bibliography
• Al Hassani, Salim T S., Elizabeth Woodcock and Rabah
Saud (2007), Muslim Heritage In Our World. 1001
Inventions, 2nd ed. London, International Islamic
Publishing House .
• Alrefai Ahmed, and Michael Brun. Ibn Khaldun: Dynastic
Change and Its Economic Consequences. Journal article, Arab
Studies Quarterly (ASQ), Vol. 16, 1994.
• Islahi, Abdulazim. M contribution of muslim scholars to
economic thought and analysis. (11-905 A.H./632-1500 A.D.)
66

67. Bibliography
• Biography of Nizam al-Mulk
By Imam Shams ad-Deen Muhammad az-Zahabi Translated by
Hamza Yusuf. The Biographies of Our Noble Scholars. Vol. 19.
• Coşgel, Metin, Rasha Ahmed and Thomas Miceli. "Law, State
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• http://www.britannica.com
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• http://consideredbookreviews.blogspot.com/2009/09/al-ahkam-as-sultaniyyah-ordina
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