E J Info Sys Dev Countries - 2017 - Tobie.pdf

EJISDC (2016) 76, 4, 1-20
The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries
www.ejisdc.org
1
A LITERATURE REVIEW OF ERP IMPLEMENTATION IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES
Armand Manga Tobie
University of Yaoundé I
Cameroon
armand.manga@uy1.uninet.cm
Roger Atsa Etoundi
Cameroon
roger.atsa@uy1.uninet.cm
ABSTRACT
This paper is a literature review of articles published in various journals and conference
proceedings, dealing with the topic of the implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) within African countries. It intends to help researchers interested in the topic by
showing the problems that have been addressed in the research. This work also highlights
open issues that can be tackled in future research in the development of African countries
driven by ERP. Conferences and journals that are interested in the implementation of ERP
within African countries have been identified. The paper also discusses whether the
implementation of ERP is an important topic or a market place in the African continent.
Based on the salient information gathered throughout this paper review, this work draws some
recommendations that will contribute to the successful implementation of ERP within African
countries. These recommendations go from the awareness of existing problems and solutions,
the life cycle used in the implementation of ERP, to the successful implementation of ERP by
avoiding failures that are linked to the African context.
Keywords: Enterprise resource planning, ERP implementation, African countries, Project
failure, ERP life cycle, African context.
1. INTRODUCTION
Facing the increasing demand from the market, organisations need to anticipate their
customer’s needs, to establish customer loyalty and improve their business. However, African
organisations are likely to be unable to satisfy their clients. They also seem to be some
barriers that restrict their competitiveness in local and international markets. To overcome
these barriers and become more competitive, a solution might be the adoption and
implementation of robust information systems (IS). Such IS are expected to help organisations
meet their strategic objectives of development, and sustain their visibility within the global
market (Mhlanga et al., 2012). Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) are of this type of
systems. Mutongwa and Rabah (2013) defined an ERP as “the technology that provides the
unified business function to the organization by integrating the core processes”. Ross and
Vitale (2000) believe that ERP systems improve the organisation context by integrating all the
disparate data into a unique database. According to the authors, ERP systems are also
expected to improve and standardize the internal processes, maintain a continuous monitoring,
cut down the operating costs, improve relations with customers and suppliers, and improve
the organisations’ decision-making capacities. Therefore, adopting an ERP might be of value
for organisations in African countries.
Nevertheless, the decision to adopt an ERP is a difficult one (Tome et al., 2014), and
implementation is a complex and risky process (Ramburn et al., 2013). Implementing an ERP
system can be expensive and time consuming (Grabski et al., 2011). The total cost includes
Jean Zoa
Cameroon
jean.zoa@uy1.uninet.cm

EJISDC (2016) 76, 4, 1-20
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2
the package, the maintenance, the updates, the materials, the training, and the consultation
(Rajapakse and Seddon, 2005). A study made by an international consulting company
(Panorama consulting solutions1
) reports that the average implementation cost in 2015 was
$4.5 million and the average implementation time was 14.3 months. Another risk related to
the implementation is the failure; Abdelghaffar (2012) argued that 75% of ERP
implementation attempts are classified as failures.
African countries, like most of the developing countries, are endowed with a specific
context. This context is characterised by low economic capacities, limited infrastructures,
limited human skills, and a particular culture (Al-Debei and Al-Lozi, 2012). Given the
complexities and risks related to ERP systems (Mukwasi and Seymour, 2015), implementing
them within the African context might enhance the difficulties of the implementation. These
difficulties raise the problem of defining an efficient way to implement ERP systems within
the African context. To address this issue, it could be useful to know the reported cases of
implementation, to understand how things are currently done in the field, to learn from the
past studies and to identify existing gaps that need to be filled in future studies. We hope to
contribute to this problem with this paper, which presents a literature review for a better
understanding of what is done in the field of ERP implementation within African countries.
In the present paper, we intend to address five goals. First, we want to help researchers
who want to know what questions have been addressed in the area of ERP implementation
within the African context to get more answers. Second, the article could be a good map for
searching open topics in the implementation of ERP in Africa. Third, it will serve as a
comprehensive bibliography of the ERP studies undertaken in Africa. Fourth, the article is
summarized to identify key journals and other key forums such as conferences in the field of
ERP implementation within the African context. Fifth, recommendations for professionals are
given as lessons learned and open issues are identified for future research.
Prior to this study, several researchers have reviewed the ERP literature in a global
sense (Esteves and Pastor, 2001; Botta-Genoulaz, 2005; Moon, 2007; Momoh and Shehab,
2010; Grabski et al., 2011). However, these articles paid less attention to the African context.
The present article follows their legacy and intends to contribute to this gap by bringing to
light the actual context of ERP implementation in Africa.
36 papers were found. 10 of the papers collected are from conference proceedings, and
26 papers are from international journals. No restrictions are imposed on the field of the
journals, thus representing the multi-disciplinary views on ERP implementation. The
remainder of this article proceeds as follows. In Section 2, we explain the methodology used
to perform this study, followed by the categorisation of the collected articles within several
themes. In section 3, we provide a description of every theme with a specific focus on the
various contributions brought. In section 4, an analysis of the collected papers is made in
which we attempt to answer questions relating to the market, and the research interests
according to their local context. Recommendations to professionals related to the topics
observed are also made in this section, followed by the identification of open issues that might
of interest for future research. Section 5 concludes this review by presenting the limitations
and several perspectives.
1
http://panorama-consulting.com/resource-center/2015-erp-report/
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2. METHODOLOGY
To conduct the study, we used two public, available and well known database search engines,
namely Google Scholar and Microsoft Academic Research. The key words used for the
queries were “Enterprise Resource Planning and Implementation and African Ccountries”
and “ERP Implementation and African country”. According to these criteria, a vigorous
attempt has been made to collect all the available journal and conference articles. Table 1
below presents a list of the 23 journals with the number of articles published in each.
Table 1: Journals with the number of articles
Journal title Number
of articles
AIS Transactions on Replication Research 1
Communications of the IBIMA 1
Computers and Industrial Engineering 1
HiLCoE Journal of Computer Science and Technology 1
International Journal of Business and Commerce 1
International Journal of Business and Social Science 2
International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology 1
International Journal of Enhanced Research in Management and Computer
Applications 1
International Journal Enterprise Information System 1
International Journal of Social, Management, Economics and Business
Engineering 1
Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology 1
Journal of Accounting & Organizational change 1
Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences 1
Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies 1
Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences 1
Journal of Enterprise Resource Planning Studies 1
Journal of Hospitality and Management Tourism 1
Journal of Innovation Management in Small & Medium Enterprises 1
Journal of South African Business Research 1
Procedia Technology 1
South African Journal of Industrial Engineering 1
The African Journal of Information Systems 2
The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries 2
Total 26
Table2 reports 9 international conferences and the number of articles published in each.
Table 2: Conferences with the number of papers
Conference title Number of
articles
Annual ISOnEworld Conference 1
IFIP Working Conference on Research and Practical Issues of Enterprise
Information Systems
1
International Conference on Adaptive Science & Technology 1
International Conference on Information Integration and Web-based
Applications & Services
1
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International Conference on Information, Process, and Knowledge
Management 1
International Conference on IS Management and Evaluation 2
IST-Africa Conference Proceedings 1
Multi Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems 1
Re-conceptualizing Enterprise Information Systems 1
Total 10
After completing the data collection, the articles were analysed and classified based on
the issues tackled. This helped us to define several themes or topics addressed and assign each
article within its corresponding theme. The identified topics are Case Study, ERP Adoption,
ERP Acquisition, User Acceptance, ERP Alignment, Critical Success and Failure Factors
(CSF/CFF), ERP Education, Knowledge Management, Cultural Issues, and Implementation
Impact.
Table 3 provides the articles categorised by theme. The references are divided into
conference and journal articles. There is no particular sequence among the references listed in
the table. We classified each article based on its main topic of interest, thus cite an article
under more than one theme was not allowed.
Table 3: List of themes with articles
Themes References Number
of articles
Journals Conferences
Case study Akeel and Wynn (2015),
Boltena and Gomez (2012)
Akeel et al. (2013), 3
ERP adoption Mukwasi and Seymour
(2012), Mukwasi and
Seymour (2014), Nzuki
and Okelo-Odongo (2015)
Mukwasi and Seymour (2015),
Seymour and van Vuuren
(2014),
5
ERP
acquisition
Malie et al. (2008), Tome
et al. (2014)
Lechesa et al. (2012), Faasen
et al. (2013)
4
User
Acceptance
Arekete et al. (2014), Seymour
et al. (2007)
2
ERP alignment Bitsini (2015), Kholeif et
al. (2007)
2
Critical
Success and
Failure Factors
(CSF/CFF)
Samuel et al. (2013),
Kalema et al. (2014),
Frimpon (2012),
Mohamed (2015), Hassan
and Farah (2013),
Mushavhanamadi and
Mbohwa (2013), Njihia
and Mwirigi (2014)
Ramburn et al. (2013),
Abdelghaffar (2012)
9
ERP Education Ansen (2014) Scholtz and Kapeso (2014) 2
Knowledge
management
Ramburn and Seymour
(2014), Adisa and Rose
(2013)
2
Cultural issues Eyitayo (2014) 1
Implementation
impact
Odoyo et al. (2014),
Mutongwa and Rabah
Bailey et al. (2015) 6
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(2013), Elragal and Al-
Serafi (2011), Asamoah et
al. (2015), Mhlanga et al.
(2012)
Next, we provide an overview of the research area on ERP implementation within the African
context.
3. ERP IMPLEMENTATION IN AFRICA
In this section, a summary of the reported themes is presented. We hope that these summaries
will help to understand how ERP implementation research is conducted in Africa.
3.1 Case Study
A qualitative case study is “an approach to research that facilitates exploration of a
phenomenon within its context using a variety of data sources” (Baxter and Jack, 2008). In
this review, three articles are reported to be case studies. Two of them investigated more
deeply the implementation of ERP system within two African countries. The other one
focused on a better way to assess the implementation process in the developing context. The
reported work enhance the knowledge with best practices to adopt when it comes to
implement an ERP system.
Akeel and Wynn (2015) analysed the implementation of a SAP ERP R/3 within a
Libyan Oil company. In this case, defining a good implementation strategy was critical for the
success. The strategy employed consisted of gradually replacing the legacy system modules
with their correspondenting SAP modules. The commitment by senior management and the
users’ involvement in the project positively impacted the success. Meanwhile, the authors
raised the importance of managing the staff workload within the project. This may help to
avoid overwork and keep people focused on the project. Boltena and Gomez (2012) focused
on understanding the reasons that underpin the implementation success in an African country.
The authors followed a case study methodology in an Ethiopian medium-sized organisation
that experimented with the implementation of a Microsoft ERP. In this context, defining a
good project team and identifying and managing risks were critical to the success. Managing
the project by splitting it “into manageable sub projects and put more attention on those
critical management aspects” (Boltena and Gomez, 2012) was revealed to be a good
implementation strategy.
Akeel et al. (2013) defined a framework for ERP implementation evaluation in a
developing context. The framework consists of six steps namely: identify top level business
processes; develop systems portfolio map; allocate IS to process/sub-process areas and
undertake RAG analysis; assess IS function against Nolan’s model; apply Zuboff’s model at
process level; and apply McFarlan-Peppard. This framework was validated on two case
studies that used two different strategies of ERP implementation. One strategy consisted of
implementing a SAP ERP and the other was an in-house development in two Libyan Oil
companies. With this framework it was possible to trace the deployment on each context and
thus assess the implementation process at each step.
3.2 ERP Adoption
The adoption decision phase is considered to be the first step within the ERP life-cycle
(Esteves and Pastor, 1999). In this step, the questions related to the effective need of an ERP
system as a solution that will best address the company’s problems are asked. Some African
studies focused on that subject.
A risk is “an occurrence which threatens the success of a project and may cause a loss”
(Mukwasi and Seymour, 2015). To contribute to ERP adoption risk management, Mukwasi
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and Seymour (2015) examined causal and resultant risks associated with ERP systems
adoption by African SMEs (Small and Medium-sized Enterprises). By following a qualitative
study in South-Africa and Zimbabwe, they defined a risk interdependence framework that
reports the risks and their causes. The authors raised the need for more studies to understand
how risks are executed and hence define good policies to manage them.
A business case is a business proposal that helps to justify the business needs and
secure the capital of a project (Mukwasi and Seymour, 2012). It comes before the effective
adoption and its quality has a “profound effect on the outcome of an investment” (Mukwasi
and Seymour, 2012). To help South-African SMEs to well define a business case, Mukwasi
and Seymour (2012) developed a framework that identifies the direct and indirect costs, the
benefits and the risks associated with the implementation of an ERP. To make easy the cost
estimation process, Mukwasi and Seymour (2014) proposed a cost estimation model. This
model includes some categories like Hardware cost, software cost, implementation cost and
broader organisation cost.
Several studies investigated factors that influence ERP adoption in African countries.
In South Africa, Seymour and van Vuuren (2014) believe that job impact and perceived value
of the system negatively impact on user adoption in SME’s context. In Kenya, Organizational
composite factors effectively influence the adoption, whereas planned change, business
environment and ERP attributes factors are reported to be weak predictors of a successful
ERP adoption (Nzuki and Okelo-Odongo, 2015). Thus more investigations are needed
concerning the prediction of the adoption success; other factors have to be identified.
3.3 ERP Acquisition
ERP acquisition is a step of the implementation process which consists of ERP system
selection. This includes the choice of a specific type of ERP (on-premise, open-source, SaaS
or Cloud ERP) and a specific deliver adapted to the organisation. Malie et al. (2008) identified
the factors that motivate the acquisition of an ERP system by South African SME. The factors
identified are Reliability, service and support, compatibility, vision of the vendor, industry
knowledge, flexibility, vendor references, organisational fit, functionality, Infrastructure,
implementation time, Market position of vendor, Affordability, Corporate compliance.
Understand how these factors impact on the acquisition process may help in the selection of
the appropriate ERP.
ERP systems are also delivered as SaaS (Software as a Service). This type of ERP is
increasingly adopted in the global market2
, but in Africa this approach is seldom encountered
(Lechesa et al., 2012). Faasen et al. (2013) focused on the understanding of the intention to
adopt Saas ERP software in the specific context of South African SMEs. They found that the
system performance and availability risk, data security risk, loss of control and lack of vendor
trust are the factors that caused a reluctance to adopt SaaS ERP in this context. Factors like
Network Limitations, Customization, Security and Cost Concerns were identified to be the
barriers to selection of a SaaS ERP in South-Africa (Lechesa et al., 2012). Hence, investigate
how these factors influence the acquisition decision may help to correctly manage the
selection process.
Another form of delivery is open-source ERP. Given the weak adoption of these
systems in Africa, Tome et al. (2014) was interested to identify the factors which prevent the
choice of this type of ERP. They found that Lack of Knowledge, Lack of Sizable Providers (or
Vendors), and Ironically Low Costs might be the barriers to open-source ERP adoption.
2
http://panorama‐consulting.com/resource‐center/2015‐erp‐report/
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3.4 User Acceptance
End-users are essential for the success of ERP implementation (Grabski, et al. 2011). Thus,
their acceptance becomes a key concept of to succeed the project. This reasoning led to an
investigation of the factors which influence the ERP user acceptance in South Africa made by
Seymour et al. (2007). By means of a quantitative approach, they showed that performance
expectancy, effort expectancy, project communication, training and shared beliefs influence
the end-user acceptance in this context. The age is listed as a moderator of the various
relations between the identified factors and the End-user acceptance of the system.
In a study made in Nigeria, Arekete et al. (2014) found that Performance and Effort
Expectancies, Facilitating Conditions and Attitudes Toward the System significantly impact
the end-user acceptance. The authors suggest putting more attention on the assessment of the
symbolic adoption because it can contribute to avoid user reluctance. Hence, understand these
factors and how they impact on users might enhance the knowledge in this sense.
3.5 ERP Alignment
Organizations in Africa are characterized by specific laws and government regulations, as
well as a specific way of doing business that are different from those that pertain in the West
(Bitsini, 2015). These characteristics are likely to cause misalignments or misfits between the
best practices of a Western-designed ERP system and the organisational context in Africa
(Bitsini, 2015). In a study conducted in South Africa, Bitsini (2015) proposed a classification
of misalignments in: Information, Technology, Role and Skills, Processes, Organisational
Culture and Other Resources (time and money). Misalignment problem can lead to the failure
of the ERP implementation (Bitsini, 2015). Kholeif et al. (2007) agree with this assertion by
raising the need to define a good approach to tackle that problem. As an example, to deal with
this problem, an Egyptian state-owned organization decided to customize the system.
Unfortunately, this attempt ended in a failure and Kholeif et al. (2007) attributes this failure to
the resistance of the user towards the new system. Thus, more studies are needed to best
tackle this problem within the context of Africa.
3.6 Critical Success and Failure Factors (CSF/CFF)
Until now several studies have focused on the discovery and the understanding of factors that
could lead to the success/failure of ERP implementation. In this type of study, the local
environment in which the study was investigated is prominent, since the importance of a
factor may differ from one context to another (Momoh and Shehab, 2010). Hence, identifying
the elements that influence a factor to make it more (or less) critical in one context rather than
in another might be of value to enhance knowledge in ERP implementation.
Samuel et al. (2013) defined a theoretical framework which includes five categories
namely National Context, Organizational Context, ERP System Context, External Expertise
Context, and ERP Success. An investigation using this framework helps to identify and range
14 CSF for the success of the implementation in Ethiopia. The factors are Perceived Benefit,
Training and Education, User Involvement, BPR, User Satisfaction, Team Composition,
System Quality, Communication, Infrastructure, Change Management, Legacy System, Top
Management, External expertise, Project Management. The authors raised the importance of
national factors in the context of developing countries, and conclude with the necessity for a
good management of important factors. This can contributes to the success of ERP system
implementation in Africa.
Ten factors identified from the literature, categorized in environmental and
organizational contexts, were reported by Abdelghaffar (2012) to have a good impact on ERP
implementation success in Egypt. Basing his study on the manager’s perceptions, Mohamed
(2015) reports some factors to be highly perceived in Egyptian Hotels. These factors are:
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Appropriate ERP Consultants, Avoidance of Software Changes, Confirmation of Finalized
Solutions, Extensive Employees’ Training/Education and Involvement of Project Team
Members. This study reports a clear understanding of strategic goals as the lowest perceived
factor in the same context. Financial resource availability, organizational complexities,
employees’ perceptions, regulatory requirements and top management support were reported
to be critical for the success of ERP implementation in Kenyan SMEs (Njihia and Mwirigi,
2014).
In the context of Higher education, Frimpon (2012) identified 28 CSFs of ERP
implementation from the literature. He classified them into 5 roles, namely Top Management,
Technology Management, Process Management, Change Management and Project
Management. The author suggests that metrics should be developed to measure the roles and
their associated CSFs in order to quantify the implementation process. Kalema et al. (2014)
also proposed a classification of 37 CSF obtained from previous literature into Critical,
Active, Reactive and Inert. They explained the direct relationships between these factors and
raised the need to identify the indirect relationships. This could help to identify the main
factors, then investigates each of them with the aim to increase the chances of implementation
success.
While some studies have investigated the factors that contribute to the success of ERP
implementation in Africa, others focused on the factors that are susceptible to cause the
failure. Inadequate Financial Budget and Resources, Failure to Select Committees Needed for
the Successful Implementation of ERP, and Failure to Use Knowledgeable Consultants were
identified to be CFF in South-African companies (Mushavhanamadi and Mbohwa, 2013).
Also, factors like Inadequate Training, Lack of Technical and Process Knowledge, Lack of
Knowledge on Management and Project Initiatives, and Lack of Change Management were
identified to cause the failure of ERP implementation (Ramburn et al., 2013).
Hassan and Farah (2013) believed that defining frameworks based on the use of
intelligent models like artificial neural network and genetic algorithm may help new
organisations that adopt ERP systems to predict the future value of their implementation.
They suggest for future research to elaborate CSF measuring models that define the degree
and the value of each factor.
3.7 ERP Education
Grabski et al. (2011) stated that “the aim of education is to equip users to successfully utilize
the system and motivate employees to accept ERP systems”. Thus, ERP education is a critical
part of an ERP implementation because it contributes to users’ knowledge and to their
acceptance of the system. It was to be a future area of interest within the domain by Moon
(2007).
In the African context, e-learning and m-learning (mobile-learning) solutions seem to
be helpful in educating people to use ERP systems. These solutions might be useful to
contribute to the economic problem of African countries because of their low cost (Scholtz
and Kapeso, 2014). Unfortunately, their introduction in Africa is slow, this observation
motivated the investigation made by Scholtz and Kapeso (2014) in South Africa. Their study
reported a better appropriation of these technologies by South-African students. The latter
were able to improve their productivity and learning skills. The authors identified a problem
related to the contextualization of m-learning systems. They found an impact of the context on
these technologies and raised the need to deeply understand the role played by the context on
the acceptance of these technologies. Ansen (2014) suggests to introduce ERP teaching
classroom in African Universities to address ICT skills shortages and human capital gaps in
this context.
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3.8 Knowledge Management
By investigating knowledge management in ERP implementation within the South-African
context, Ramburn and Seymour (2014) found that Inadequate training, lack of technical and
process knowledge, lack of management support and change management was important
Knowledge Management challenges. According to the authors, “understanding the process,
contextualization and customization of the training content from the users’ perspective”
(Ramburn and Seymour, 2014) has to consider during the implementation process. Adisa and
Rose (2013) believe that knowledge transfer is an important aspect of an ERP implementation
thus it has to be well managed to increase the chance of success. However, with a study made
in 3 Nigerian SMEs, the authors found that factors like acute information asymmetry, absence
of pre-existing related knowledge and consequent difficulties related to shared understanding
in developing, and a tendency to operate with lone consultants impacted negatively the
knowledge transfer.
3.9 Cultural Issues
Another important aspect is the culture. Eyitayo (2014) studied the impact of culture in ERP
implementation in Botswana using the Hofstede’s cultural theory. The author found that the
cultural context in Botswana is different from the context of western countries like Canada
and USA. According to the author, people in Botswana are likely to accept easily hierarchical
orders and avoid uncertainty contrary to western countries. The author has shown in its study
the cultural differences existing between the two contexts and believed in the need for
systems adapted to this kind of context.
3.10 Implementation Impact
This section is devoted to works that focus on the elements impacted by the introduction of
ERP systems in African organizations. Bailey et al. (2015) found that ERP systems affect the
quality of work life in South-Africa, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Zambia and
Zimbabwe. With a quantitative study, they found that ERP systems have a positive effect on
job and career satisfaction, home-work interface, general well-being, working conditions,
control at work and stress at work. They also positively impact on companies’ specific
aspects like cash management (Odoyo et al., 2014) and performance (Elragal and Al-Serafi,
2011; Mhlanga et al., 2012; Mutongwa and Rabah, 2013).
To understand the impact that has ERP implementation on the process outcome in sub-
Saharan African context, Asamoah et al. (2015) replicate a study made in the US within the
context of Ghana. Contrary to the previous study, there were no relationship between the
implementation extent and the process outcome in the Ghanaian context. The authors raised
hence the importance of the local context of the study. They implied the necessity to take care
of the contextual variables when studying ERP implementation.
Next, we present an analysis of this study. In this part, we hope to summarize the
current context by exposing the limits and by proposing aspects that might need more
considerations in future investigations.
4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
This section presents the knowledge retain after the reading of the 36 collected papers. We
first present statistics followed by discussions associated with the evolution of the ERP
implementation field within the context of Africa. Some recommendations are made to
African organisations on the road to implement an ERP system. And finally, several open
issues are highlighted for future investigation in this area.
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4.1 Statistical Analysis and Discussion
Information Systems (IS) research is increasing in the developing regions of Africa (Avgerou,
2008). The ERP implementation field is not an exception. In this domain, the African context
raises more and more interest, as Figure 1 shows. Between 2007 and 2011, 4 publications
have been reported. From 2012, the interest raised with 6 listed publications. This number
increased further in 2013 with 8 reported publications, 11 in 2014 and 7 in 2015. Thus 36
articles were reported between 2007 and 2015 among which there are 32 publications for the
last 4 years. Nevertheless, more involvement is expected.
Moon (2007) reviewed 189 articles published between January 2000 and May 2006 in
the field of ERP in general. The author classified these articles as: Case Study, Critical
Success Factors, Change Management, Focused Stage in the Implementation Process and
Cultural Issues. In spite of the quality of his study, we noticed certain differences in the
African context. Such as in the study of Moon (2007), in Africa, the interest remains split with
several categories. These are Case Study with 8% of the collected works, Critical Factors
with 25% and Cultural Issues with 3%. Added to that, other categories have proved to be
more important in the African context. These categories are Implementation Impacts with
17% of the collected works, ERP Adoption with 14%, ERP Acquisition with 11%, Knowledge
Management and ERP Education with 6% each, ERP Alignment and User Acceptance with
5% each. A visual chart of this repartition is presented in the Figure 2.
The biggest interest seems to be on the problems related to Critical Factors. African
research seems to give more attention on factors that influence positively or negatively the
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success of the implementation. Other problems like those related to the adoption, the
acquisition and the implementation impacts are also well investigated. Yet, Case Studies,
Knowledge Management, Education, Alignment, and User Acceptance present not much
interest, thus need more consideration. ERP Education was associated with the domain of
ERP implementation in this work. Moon (2007) believes in its importance in the use of ERP
but we also found it useful within the ERP Implementation Topic in Africa. Based on the
observations made upon, ERP Education contributes to the acceptance of the system and thus
to the success of the implementation process.
The problems associated with the culture are slowly undertaken. Given the particular
culture that African countries might have (Al-Debei et al., 2012), we would expect more
investigations to clarify this concept.
With a view to predicting how the African market for ERP will develop, we made an
analysis of the reported ERP systems and the sectors in which they were used. As presented in
Table 4, most of the reported cases of ERP implementation in Africa were made with some
commercial ERP systems. The most prevalent ERP providers are Microsoft, SAP, Oracle with
PeopleSoft, and Infor with Baan.
SAP seems to dominate the market with 6 cases listed on the 12 reported. Large
organisations (private and public) have a strong tendency to prefer SAP ERP. Small and
medium-sized Enterprises (SME) with 5 reported cases of implementation present a growing
interest in the market. ERP providers like SAP, Oracle and Microsoft seem to dominate the
African SME market. The Private sector is likely to be the most considered with 8 cases
reported contrary to the public sector with just 4 cases.
Very few investigations have been reported on the other forms of ERP systems such as
in-house ERP, Open source ERP, and Cloud computing ERP (like Software as a Service or
Saas). Just one case of an in-house ERP implementation is reported. This case is from Libya
within a private sector company. No reports were found concerning implementation of Open
source ERP and ERP delivered in the Cloud such as Saas. Considering the weak economic
context of African countries, more involvements are expected to understand the impact that
such solution might have in the African context.
Table 4: Number of ERP Implementations Reported by Country and Enterprise Size
and Sector
Country Number of projects
reported in each
country
ERP system Enterprise Size and sector
(type)
Egypt
2
Oracle JD
Edwards
SME (Chemical
manufacturing)
Baan Large and public
Zimbabwe 1 SAP R/3 Large and private
Ethiopia
1
Microsoft
Dynamics SL
Medium and private (metal
construction and Electro-
mechanical)
Libya
2
SAP Large and public (oil
company)
in-house ERP Large and private (oil
company)
Kenya
1
Oracle Large and public
(government office)
Nigeria
3
SAP Business
One
SME private
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South Africa
2
SAP Large and private
PeopleSoft Large and public (University)
As we mentioned above, the context of the study is important. To understand the most
frequent demographic context in the African research, we made a classification of the works
according to their country and their region of interest. As Table 5 shows, countries like South
Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Egypt seem to be more open for research than the others.
According to the results South Africa is leading with a higher involvement from the research
community in this context. The African continent possesses 53 countries, but only 13 are
reported in this study. An implicit question must be why is there such a lack of studies in the
other 40 remaining countries? Clearly there is a need for more studies in other counties.
Table 5: Studies by countries and regions
Country Region Citations
South Africa South Bitsini (2015), Kalema et al. (2014), Mukwasi and Seymour
(2012), Mukwasi and Seymour (2015), Mushavhanamadi and
Mbohwa (2013), Ramburn and Seymour (2014), Scholtz and
Kapeso (2014), Lechesa et al. (2012), Tome et al. (2014),
Seymour and van Vuuren (2014), Ansen (2014), Bailey et al.
(2015), Faasen et al. (2013), Mukwasi and Seymour (2014), Malie
et al. (2008), Ramburn et al. (2013), Seymour et al. (2007)
Nigeria West Adisa and Rose (2013), Arekete et al. (2014), Ansen (2014)
Kenya East Njihia and Mwirigi (2014), Nzuki and Okelo-Odongo (2015),
Odoyo et al. (2014), Mutongwa and Rabah (2013), Ansen (2014),
Bailey et al. (2015)
Zimbabwe South Mhlanga et al. (2012), Mukwasi and Seymour (2015), Bailey et
al. (2015), Mukwasi and Seymour (2014)
Botswana South Eyitayo (2014), Ansen (2014)
Ethiopia East Boltena and Gomez (2012), Samuel et al. (2013)
Ghana West Frimpon (2012), Ansen (2014), Asamoah et al. (2015)
Egypt North Abdelghaffar (2012), Elragal and Al-Serafi (2011), Eyitayo
(2014), Mohamed (2015), Kholeif et al. (2007)
Malawi East Bailey et al. (2015)
Mozambique East Bailey et al. (2015)
Libya North Akeel et al. (2013), Akeel and Wynn (2015)
Zambia East Bailey et al. (2015)
Sudan East Hassan and Farah (2013)
We have analysed why the less explored regions considering that the African continent
includes 53 countries. Our aim was to identify the regions that need more investigation
because they are far behind. Figure 3 presents the South African region with 53% of the
collected papers and thus a region with a high level of investigation. The Eastern Africa
region comes second with 19%, then the Northern Africa with 17% and the Western Africa
ends with 11% of the collected papers. The Central African region has no papers at all. This
demands more investigations and studies in this context.
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We also wanted to learn who is doing ERP research in Africa? Precisely, we wanted to
know if African issues in ERP implementation are more interested by African scholars or
others. Hence, we analysed the origins or affiliations of the authors’ papers. Table 6 presents
the results of this analysis. We found that all the studies are undertaken or initiated by African
researchers. Several collaborations with external researchers from Germany, Canada, USA
and UK were identified. This denotes the interest from African scholars and the collaboration
that may exist with other countries. However, just 10 African countries are reported in this
study. Thus, African scholars need to get more involved if we are to resolve the existing
problems with solutions adapted to the African context.
Table 6: Statistics of the authors’ origins
Author’s
Country
Citations
Botswana Eyitayo (2014)
Canada Arekete et al. (2014)
Egypt Abdelghaffar (2012), Elragal and Al-Serafi (2011), Eyitayo (2014),
Mohamed (2015), Kholeif et al. (2007)
Ethiopia Samuel et al. (2013)
Germany Boltena and Gomez (2012), Lechesa et al. (2012), Faasen et al. (2013)
Ghana Frimpon (2012), Asamoah et al. (2015)
Kenya Njihia and Mwirigi (2014), Nzuki and Okelo-Odongo (2015), Odoyo et
al. (2014), Mutongwa and Rabah (2013)
Libya Akeel and Wynn (2015)
Nigeria Adisa and Rose (2013), Arekete et al. (2014)
South Africa Bitsini (2015), Mhlanga et al. (2012), Kalema et al. (2014), Mukwasi
and Seymour (2012), Mukwasi and Seymour (2015), Mushavhanamadi
and Mbohwa (2013), Ramburn and Seymour (2014),Scholtz and Kapeso
(2014), Lechesa et al. (2012), Tome et al. (2014), Seymour and van
Vuuren (2014), Ansen (2014), Bailey et al. (2015), Faasen et al. (2013),
Malie et al. (2008), Mukwasi and Seymour (2014), Ramburn et al.
(2013), Seymour et al. (2007)
Sudan Hassan and Farah (2013)
UK Akeel et al. (2013), Akeel and Wynn (2015), Kholeif et al. (2007)
USA Asamoah et al. (2015)
Zimbabwe Mhlanga et al. (2012)
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In this section, we have presented results related to the analysis of the papers and it is
clear that there is a need for more investigations in the African context. We hope that the
results shown here are sufficient to raise the interest of African scholars to the field. Next we
present several recommendations based on the lessons learned from the collected papers.
4.2 Lessons Learned
Based on the papers reviewed and the analysis made, good practices for the implementation of
an ERP within an African organisation are summarized as follows.
4.2.1 Case Study
Case studies surveyed in this review raised the importance of the development of a good
implementation strategy. Senior management must be completely committed to the project
and users should be involved (Akeel and Wynn, 2015). African Organizations must not
neglect the project team definition and the risk management (Boltena and Gomez, 2012). The
project team should monitor the implementation process at each step. The model defined by
Akeel et al. (2013) for the assessment of the implementation might be useful for that purpose.
4.2.2 ERP Adoption
Within the adoption phase, African organisations should not simplify the power of a good
business case. This helps to justify the project so it clarifies in some ways its scope. Enough
time and money should be invested for a business case elaboration (Mukwasi and Seymour,
2012).
4.2.3 ERP Acquisition
The ERP system selection is important. Organisations have to make sure to select a system
that best suits their needs. This can contribute to the avoidance of problems like misfits (Malie
et al., 2008).
4.2.4 ERP Education
Educating future users is important because it may reduce the cost required for user training
and even enhance the level of acceptance of the system. The demand for knowledgeable users
is growing, thus universities should adapt their education system by including ERP training
courses according to the local market of their context (Ansen, 2014). The establishment of
competence centres to face problems of qualified human resources could also be beneficial.
4.2.5 Knowledge Management
Prior to implementation of ERP in an African context, it is important to create a “shared
understanding” with the ERP consultant and the ERP project members (Adisa and Rose,
2013). This might help to remove some hindrances to the effective transfer of knowledge.
Also, consultants when collecting knowledge and requirements about the organisational
processes, must deal with the main process owners and users. Doing that can contribute to the
improvement of the overall success.
4.2.6 The Culture
African organisations must not neglect the power of culture. ERP systems with their good
practices demand more adaptation from the organisation, thus assessing the alignment
between the organisational culture and the ERP is important (Al-Debei et al., 2012). The low
number of reported studies might be justified if organisations are reluctant to accept any
collaborations with scholars. We believe that the collaboration of African organisations with
rresearchers is necessary. Thus, we expect more involvement from organisations for both
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interests. This is because the academic research mainly aims to resolve the problems which
organisations face. Next, we present several open issues observed, which might be interesting
to investigate in future researches within the context.
4.3 Open Issues
We tried in this section to present the existing problems in the literature related to ERP
implementation in Africa. Open issues are highlighted according to their topic of interest and
analysis made.
4.3.1 Case Study
In this review, just three case studies were reported. The three cases were successful, with two
in Libya and one in Ethiopia. This represents an important limit because the knowledge
mainly comes just from these two countries, whilst insights might come from other contexts.
Hence, African research needs for more case studies research to enhance the knowledge in the
ERP implementation field.
This review has a lack of studies that focused on specific sectors like public, private
and university. Understand how ERP are implemented within each sector might be helpful to
highlight their specificities and contribute to the global knowledge. Thus more focused studies
are needed.
We found a lack of interest related to other form of ERP systems delivery. Most of the
systems reported are commercial ERP with just one case of an in-house ERP implementation.
More studies in this frame would be useful. This is because we have none knowledge
concerning the implementation of the open-source ERP, and ERP in the cloud. Thus,
understanding how the ERP is introduced and dreaded by the African organizations may
enhance the knowledge in the domain.
4.3.2 ERP Adoption
In section 3.2, causal and resultant risks associated to ERP systems adoption were identified.
But the fact is that, we don’t know how risks occurred and how they influence each other.
Mukwasi and Seymour (2015) suggest to follow an action research methodology to overcome
that issue.
How can we predict the adoption success? Certain factors were identified as having an
impact on the adoption of the ERP in Africa (Seymour and van Vuuren, 2014). Others were
identified as being bad predictors of the success (Nzuki and Okelo-Odongo, 2015).
Nevertheless, the question persists thus there is a need for more investigations on the subject
in the African context.
4.3.3 ERP Acquisition
The lack of studies in this domain raises the call for more investigations. As we have
previously seen, the problem of misfit might increase the chances of failure. This problem
arises when there is an important gap between the ERP system and the organisation that wants
to implement it. We believe that this problem becomes even more important if there is a bad
acquisition, meaning when the system chosen is not suited to the organisation. Thus,
understanding the link between a bad choice and the implementation failure might help us to
manage the acquisition process and increase the chance of success. Understanding how the
factors that motivate ERP acquisition impact on the acquisition process may be a trend to
attain the aforesaid goal.
Our analysis reported that African organizations seem to be more attracted to buy an
ERP system rather that adopt an open source ERP. SaaS ERP systems are believed to be less
expensive with a lot of time saving (Lechesa et al., 2012). Considering the weak economic
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and infrastructural context of these countries, understanding the reasons for this preference
would be useful. Therefore, we propose that scholars investigate factors that motivate the
acquisition of one system rather than another. Hence, investigating how these factors
influence the acquisition decision may help to correctly manage the acquisition process.
4.3.4 User Acceptance
User’s acceptance or symbolic adoption has been identified as a critical factor for the
implementation success (Seymour et al., 2007). The literature reports many factors that
influence the symbolic adoption, but we don’t know how to assess it (Arekete et al., 2014).
Evaluating the symbolic adoption may help us anticipate the willingness to accept the ERP by
African users.
4.3.5 ERP Alignment
According to the literature, ERP misalignment with the organisation can cause an
implementation failure in Africa. We found in our readings that define a bad solution to
reduce the gap between an ERP system and the organisation might cause other problems. This
implies the need for a good decision methodology to resolve the misalignment problem
(Kholeif et al., 2007).
4.3.6 Critical Success and Failure Factors (CSF/CFF)
Most of the articles reviewed in this study focus on the identification of critical factors for the
success or the implementation of an ERP in Africa. But few studies have made an indepth
investigation on each factor. There is a need to investigate the factors completely (Momoh
and Shehab, 2010) and define methods for their effective management.
Kalema et al. (2014) raised the problem of the identification of indirect relationships
between critical factors. The research demands CSF measuring models that define the degree
and the value of each factor (Hassan and Farah, 2013). Thus, defining the appropriate metric
(Grabski et al., 2011) to measure each factor in Africa may have value from both academic
and practical perspectives.
As we observed in the literature, the importance of critical factors varies according to
the context (Momoh and Shehab, on 2010). Nevertheless, we ignore the contextual elements
which influence the behaviour of these factors so as to influence on their importance. More
investigations would be useful to elucidate this aspect.
4.3.7 ERP Education
Refering to the literature, educating the intended users in new technologies such as ERP is
essential for their eventual acceptance. In view of the low economic capacity and the
emergence of mobile and Internet technologies in Africa, the introduction of m-learning and
e-learning solutions would be an asset. Unfortunately, there is a problem with respect to the
contextualization and the customization of these learning technologies (Scholtz and Kapeso,
on 2014). This raises the need for more investigations. Thus understanding the factors that
may influence the user’s capacity to learn from this technology may be a trend to understand
how to adapt these solutions to them.
4.3.8 Knowledge Management
Customizing or contextualizing the training approaches of ERP systems with a special focus
on users’ perspective may help to manage the knowledge within the organisation (Ramburn
and Seymour, 2014). The research demands more studies to understand the impact of
customized training on ERP users. This may help to define a framework to adapt the training
to the learner needs.
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4.3.9 Cultural Issues
We know that the context is important. But there is a lack of studies that the include elements
related to the African context. Asamoah et al. (2015) identified several elements like culture
of corruption, underdeveloped data culture, and weak organizational control as the elements
that has to be considered when studying ERP implementation in Africa. Eyitayo (2014) also
raised the need for more studies on how to define systems that are suited to the cultural
context of African countries.
4.3.10 Implementation Impact
More investigations are needed to understand how ERP implementation’s impacts influence
the outcome of the project within the African context. A good exploration and definition of
contextual variables that affect ERP implementation in African countries is needed. Several
factors related to the African context like culture, weak organizational control (Asamoah et
al., 2015) have to be studied to define new theories (Grabski et al., 2011), or to enhance their
generalizability of the existing theories. Asamoah et al. (2015) suggest the need for more
replication studies of other important theoretical IS models to enhance their internal validity.
Grabski et al. (2011) reported the lack of theory foundations in ERP research in general, this
can also be observed within the African context. To explain findings observed in the topic of
ERP implementation in Africa, scholars should give a “greater focus on theoretical support
and theory development” (Grabski et al., 2011).
5 CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
In this paper, a literature review of 36 articles is undertaken. The articles focus on the topics
related to ERP implementation within in Africa. This review aims to contribute to the
knowledge in the field by highlighting the actual context of this research area in Africa. We
defined a frame for searching for topics and presented a comprehensive bibliography of the
studies undertaken in Africa. We summarized key journals and scientific forums which are
relevant to ERP implementation within the African context. An analysis of each article
permits us to derive several conclusions as lessons learned for practical recommendations.
The limits of the actual research area are identified and reported upon as open issues. We
identify the reasons for ERP implementation failure in Africa and the African market by
identifying the most prevalent ERP vendors in this context. We have presented the reasons
that motivate the adoption of ERP systems in Africa. We also explored the statistics related to
the regions and countries that need more investigations.
We hope that our objectives are well reached and we expect that the recommendations
made in this paper will be of value for practitioners. We also expect that the issues identified
will incite more involvements from scholars to enhance the associated research areas.
Nevertheless, we have identified a limit related to the number of reported articles which is not
exhaustive. Several existing articles might be missing in this review thus we suggest that the
present review be extended with the possible missing papers.
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EJISDC (2016) 76, 4, 1-20
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Practical Issues of Enterprise Information Systems ( 35-47). Springer Berlin
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