Class notes(week 3) on class objects and methods

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Class Notes on Class Objects and Methods (Week - 3)
Contents:- Defining a class, Data fields Declaration, Creating Objects, Accessing Class Members, Constructors, Methods
Overloading, access specifiers, operators, control statements & loops, array, finalize and garbage collection, this
keyword, use of objects as parameter & methods returning objects, call by value & call by reference, static variables &
methods, garbage collection, nested and inner classes.
What Is a Class?
In the real world, you'll often find many individual objects all of the same kind. There may be thousands of
other bicycles in existence, all of the same make and model. Each bicycle was built from the same set of
blueprints and therefore contains the same components. In object-oriented terms, we say that your bicycle is an
instance of the class of objects known as bicycles. A class is the blueprint from which individual objects are
created.
The following Bicycle class is one possible implementation of a bicycle:
class Bicycle {
int cadence = 0;
int speed = 0;
int gear = 1;
void changeCadence(int newValue) {
cadence = newValue;
}
void changeGear(int newValue) {
gear = newValue;
}
void speedUp(int increment) {
speed = speed + increment;
}
void applyBrakes(int decrement) {
speed = speed - decrement;
}
void printStates() {
System.out.println("cadence:" +
cadence + " speed:" +
speed + " gear:" + gear);
}
}
The syntax of the Java programming language will look new to you, but the design of this class is based on the
previous discussion of bicycle objects. The fields cadence, speed, and gear represent the object's state, and the
methods (changeCadence, changeGear, speedUp etc.) define its interaction with the outside world.
You may have noticed that the Bicycle class does not contain a main method. That's because it's not a complete
application; it's just the blueprint for bicycles that might be used in an application. The responsibility of
creating and using new Bicycle objects belongs to some other class in your application.

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Here's a BicycleDemo class that creates two separate Bicycle objects and invokes their methods:
class BicycleDemo {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Create two different
// Bicycle objects
Bicycle bike1 = new Bicycle();
// Invoke methods on
// those objects
bike1.changeCadence(50);
bike1.speedUp(10);
bike1.changeGear(2);
bike1.printStates();
bike2.speedUp(10);
bike2.speedUp(10);
bike2.printStates();
}
}
The output of this test prints the ending pedal cadence, speed, and gear for the two bicycles:
cadence:50 speed:10 gear:2
cadence:40 speed:20 gear:3
Declaring Member Variables
There are several kinds of variables:
 Member variables in a class—these are called fields.
 Variables in a method or block of code—these are called local variables.
 Variables in method declarations—these are called parameters.
The Bicycle class uses the following lines of code to define its fields:
public int cadence;
public int gear;
public int speed;
Field declarations are composed of three components, in order:
1. Zero or more modifiers, such as public or private.
2. The field's type.
3. The field's name.
The fields of Bicycle are named cadence, gear, and speed and are all of data type integer (int). The public
keyword identifies these fields as public members, accessible by any object that can access the class.

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Objects
A typical Java program creates many objects, which as you know, interact by invoking methods. Through these
object interactions, a program can carry out various tasks, such as implementing a GUI, running an animation,
or sending and receiving information over a network. Once an object has completed the work for which it was
created, its resources are recycled for use by other objects.
The following two statements of BicycleDemo class create two separate Bicycle objects.
Creating Objects
As you know, a class provides the blueprint for objects; you create an object from a class. Each of the following
statements taken from the BicycleDemo program creates an object and assigns it to a variable:
The 2 line creates an object of the Bicycle class.
Each of these statements has three parts (discussed in detail below):
1. Declaration: The code set in bold are all variable declarations that associate a variable name with an object
type.
2. Instantiation: The new keyword is a Java operator that creates the object.
3. Initialization: The new operator is followed by a call to a constructor, which initializes the new object.
Declaring a Variable to Refer to an Object
Previously, you learned that to declare a variable, you write:
type name;
This notifies the compiler that you will use name to refer to data whose type is type. With a primitive variable,
this declaration also reserves the proper amount of memory for the variable.
You can also declare a reference variable on its own line. For example:
Point originOne;
If you declare originOne like this, its value will be undetermined until an object is actually created and
assigned to it. Simply declaring a reference variable does not create an object. For that, you need to use the
new operator, as described in the next section. You must assign an object to originOne before you use it in
your code. Otherwise, you will get a compiler error.A variable in this state, which currently references no
object, can be illustrated as follows (the variable name, originOne, plus a reference pointing to nothing):

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Instantiating a Class
The new operator instantiates a class by allocating memory for a new object and returning a reference to that
memory. The new operator also invokes the object constructor.
Note: The phrase "instantiating a class" means the same thing as "creating an object." When you create an object, you
are creating an "instance" of a class, therefore "instantiating" a class.
The new operator requires a single, postfix argument: a call to a constructor. The name of the constructor
provides the name of the class to instantiate.
The new operator returns a reference to the object it created. This reference is usually assigned to a variable
of the appropriate type, like:
Point originOne = new Point(23, 94);
Initializing an Object
Here's the code for the Point class:
class Point {
public int x = 0;
public int y = 0;
//constructor
Point(int a, int b) {
x = a;
y = b;
}
}
This class contains a single constructor. You can recognize a constructor because its declaration uses the same
name as the class and it has no return type. The constructor in the Point class takes two integer arguments, as
declared by the code (int a, int b). The following statement provides 23 and 94 as values for those arguments:
Point originOne = new Point(23, 94);
The result of executing this statement can be illustrated in the next figure:

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Here's the code for the Rectangle class, which contains four constructors:
class Rectangle {
int width = 0;
int height = 0;
Point origin;
// four constructors
Rectangle() {
origin = new Point(0, 0);
}
Rectangle(Point p) {
origin = p;
}
Rectangle(int w, int h) {
origin = new Point(0, 0);
width = w;
height = h;
}
Rectangle(Point p, int w, int h) {
origin = p;
width = w;
height = h;
}
// a method for moving the rectangle
void move(int x, int y) {
origin.x = x;
origin.y = y;
}
// a method for computing the area of the rectangle
int getArea() {
return width * height;
}
}
Each constructor lets you provide initial values for the rectangle's size and width, using both primitive and
reference types. If a class has multiple constructors, they must have different signatures. The Java compiler
differentiates the constructors based on the number and the type of the arguments. When the Java compiler
encounters the following code, it knows to call the constructor in the Rectangle class that requires a Point
argument followed by two integer arguments:
Rectangle rectOne = new Rectangle(originOne, 100, 200);
This calls one of Rectangle's constructors that initializes origin to originOne. Also, the constructor sets width to
100 and height to 200. Now there are two references to the same Point object—an object can have multiple
references to it, as shown in the next figure:

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The following line of code calls the Rectangle constructor that requires two integer arguments, which provide
the initial values for width and height. If you inspect the code within the constructor, you will see that it
creates a new Point object whose x and y values are initialized to 0:
Rectangle rectTwo = new Rectangle(50, 100);
The Rectangle constructor used in the following statement doesn't take any arguments, so it's called a no-
argument constructor:
Rectangle rect = new Rectangle();
All classes have at least one constructor. If a class does not explicitly declare any, the Java compiler
automatically provides a no-argument constructor, called the default constructor. This default constructor
calls the class parent's no-argument constructor, or the Object constructor if the class has no other parent. If
the parent has no constructor (Object does have one), the compiler will reject the program.
Defining Methods
Here is an example of a typical method declaration:
public double calculateAnswer(double wingSpan, int numberOfEngines,
double length, double grossTons) {
//do the calculation here
}
The only required elements of a method declaration are the method's return type, name, a pair of
parentheses, (), and a body between braces, {}.
More generally, method declarations have six components, in order:
1. Modifiers—such as public, private, and others you will learn about later.
2. The return type—the data type of the value returned by the method, or void if the method does not
return a value.
3. The method name—the rules for field names apply to method names as well, but the convention is a
little different.
4. The parameter list in parenthesis—a comma-delimited list of input parameters, preceded by their data
types, enclosed by parentheses, (). If there are no parameters, you must use empty parentheses.
5. An exception list—to be discussed later.
6. The method body, enclosed between braces—the method's code, including the declaration of local
variables, goes here.
Modifiers, return types, and parameters will be discussed later in this lesson. Exceptions are discussed in a
later lesson.
Definition: Two of the components of a method declaration comprise the method signature—the method's name and
the parameter types.

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The signature of the method declared above is:
calculateAnswer(double, int, double, double)
Naming a Method
Although a method name can be any legal identifier, code conventions restrict method names. By convention,
method names should be a verb in lowercase or a multi-word name that begins with a verb in lowercase,
followed by adjectives, nouns, etc. In multi-word names, the first letter of each of the second and following
words should be capitalized. Here are some examples:
 run
 runFast
 getBackground
 getFinalData
 compareTo
 setX
 isEmpty
Typically, a method has a unique name within its class. However, a method might have the same name as
other methods due to method overloading.
Overloading Methods
The Java programming language supports overloading methods, and Java can distinguish between methods
with different method signatures. This means that methods within a class can have the same name if they
have different parameter lists (there are some qualifications to this that will be discussed in the lesson titled
"Interfaces and Inheritance").
Suppose that you have a class that can use calligraphy to draw various types of data (strings, integers, and so
on) and that contains a method for drawing each data type. It is cumbersome to use a new name for each
method—for example, drawString, drawInteger, drawFloat, and so on. In the Java programming language, you
can use the same name for all the drawing methods but pass a different argument list to each method. Thus,
the data drawing class might declare four methods named draw, each of which has a different parameter list.
public class DataArtist {
...
public void draw(String s) {
...
}
public void draw(int i) {
...
}
public void draw(double f) {
...
}
public void draw(int i, double f) {
...
}
}

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Overloaded methods are differentiated by the number and the type of the arguments passed into the method.
In the code sample, draw(String s) and draw(int i) are distinct and unique methods because they require
different argument types.
You cannot declare more than one method with the same name and the same number and type of arguments,
because the compiler cannot tell them apart.
The compiler does not consider return type when differentiating methods, so you cannot declare two
methods with the same signature even if they have a different return type.
Note: Overloaded methods should be used sparingly, as they can make code much less readable.
Constructors
A constructor is a special method that is used to initialize a newly created objectand is called just after the
memory is allocated for the objectIt can be used to initialize the objects ,to required ,or default valuesat the
time of object creationIt is not mandatory for the coder to write a constructor for the class
If no user defined constructor is provided for a class, compiler initializes member variables to its default
values.
 numeric data types are set to 0
 char data types are set to null character(‘’)
 reference variables are set to null
In order to create a Constructor observe the following rules
1. It has the same name as the class
2. It should not return a value not even void
class Demo{
int value1; int value2;
Demo(){
value1 = 10; value2 = 20;
System.out.println("Inside Constructor");
}
public void display(){
System.out.println("Value1 === "+value1);
}
public static void main(String args[]){
Demo d1 = new Demo();
d1.display();
}
}

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Step 2) Save , Run & Compile the code. Observe the output.
constructor overloading
Constructor overloading is a technique in Java in which a class can have any number of constructors that differ
in parameter lists. The compiler differentiates these constructors by taking into account the number of
parameters in the list and their type
Examples of valid constructors for class Account are
 Account(int a);
 Account (int a,int b);
 Account (String a,int b);
class Demo{
int value1;
int value2;
/*Demo(){
value1 = 10;
value2 = 20;
System.out.println("Inside 1st Constructor");
}*/
Demo(int a){
value1 = a;
System.out.println("Inside 2nd Constructor");
}
Demo(int a,int b){
value1 = a;
value2 = b;
System.out.println("Inside 3rd Constructor");
}
public void display(){
}
public static void main(String args[]){
Demo d1 = new Demo();
Demo d2 = new Demo(30);
Demo d3 = new Demo(30,40);
d1.display();
d2.display();
d3.display();
}
}
Every class has a default Constructor. Default Constructor for class Demo is Demo(). In case you do not provide
this constructor the compiler creates it for you and initializes the variables to default values. You may choose
to override this default constructor and initialize variables to your desired values .But if you specify a
parametrized constructor like Demo(int a) ,and want to use the default constructor Demo(), it is mandatory
for you to specify it. In other words, in case your Constructor is overridden , and you want to use the default
constructor , its need to be specified.
Access Specifiers

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One of the techniques in object-oriented programming is encapsulation. It concerns the hiding of data in a
class and making this class available only through methods. In this way the chance of making accidental
mistakes in changing values is minimized. Java allows you to control access to classes, methods, and fields via
so-called access specifiers.
Java offers four access specifiers, listed below in decreasing accessibility:
 public
 protected
 default (no specifier)
 private
We look at these access specifiers in more detail.
public
public classes, methods, and fields can be accessed from everywhere. The only constraint is that a file with
Java source code can only contain one public class whose name must also match with the filename. If it exists,
this public class represents the application or the applet, in which case the public keyword is necessary to
enable your Web browser or appletviewer to show the applet. You use public classes, methods, or fields only
if you explicitly want to offer access to these entities and if this access cannot do any harm. An example of a
square determined by the position of its upper-left corner and its size:
public class Square { // public class
public x, y, size; // public instance variables
}
protected
protected methods and fields can only be accessed within the same class to which the methods and fields
belong, within its subclasses, and within classes of the same package, but not from anywhere else. You use the
protected access level when it is appropriate for a class's subclasses to have access to the method or field, but
not for unrelated classes.
default (no specifier)
If you do not set access to specific level, then such a class, method, or field will be accessible from inside the
same package to which the class, method, or field belongs, but not from outside this package. This access-level
is convenient if you are creating packages. For example, a geometry package that contains Square and Tiling
classes, may be easier and cleaner to implement if the coordinates of the upper-left corner of a Square are
directly available to the Tiling class but not outside the geometry package.
private
private methods and fields can only be accessed within the same class to which the methods and fields
belong. private methods and fields are not visible within subclasses and are not inherited by subclasses. So,
the private access specifier is opposite to the public access specifier. It is mostly used for encapsulation: data
are hidden within the class and accessor methods are provided. An example, in which the position of the
upper-left corner of a square can be set or obtained by accessor methods, but individual coordinates are not
accessible to the user.

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public class Square { // public class
private double x, y // private (encapsulated) instance variables
public setCorner(int x, int y) { // setting values of private fields
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
public getCorner() { // setting values of private fields
return Point(x, y);
}
}
Summary of Access Specifiers
The following table summarizes the access level permitted by each specifier.
Situation public protected default private
Accessible to class
from same package?
yes yes yes no
Accessible to class
from different package?
yes no, unless it is a subclass no no
Note the difference between the default access which is in fact more restricted than the protected access.
Without access specifier (the default choice), methods and variables are accessible only within the class that
defines them and within classes that are part of the same package. They are not visible to subclasses unless
these are in the same package. protected methods and variables are visible to subclasses regardless of which
package they are in.
Java Control Flow Statements
Java Control statements control the order of execution in a java program, based on data values and
conditional logic. There are three main categories of control flow statements;
 Selection statements: if, if-else and switch.
 Loop statements: while, do-while and for.
 Transfer statements: break, continue.
We use control statements when we want to change the default sequential order of execution
Selection Statements - The If Statement
The if statement executes a block of code only if the specified expression is true. If the value is false, then the
if block is skipped and execution continues with the rest of the program. You can either have a single
statement or a block of code within an if statement. Note that the conditional expression must be a Boolean
expression.
The simple if statement has the following syntax:
if (<conditional expression>)
<statement action>
Below is an example that demonstrates conditional execution based on if statement condition.

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public class IfStatementDemo {
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b)
System.out.println("a > b");
if (a < b)
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}
Output
b > a
The If-else Statement
The if/else statement is an extension of the if statement. If the statements in the if statement fails, the
statements in the else block are executed. You can either have a single statement or a block of code within if-
else blocks. Note that the conditional expression must be a Boolean expression.
The if-else statement has the following syntax:
if (<conditional expression>)
<statement action>
else
<statement action>
Below is an example that demonstrates conditional execution based on if else statement condition.
public class IfElseStatementDemo {
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b) {
System.out.println("a > b");
} else {
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}
}
Output
b > a
Switch Case Statement
The switch case statement, also called a case statement is a multi-way branch with several choices. A switch is
easier to implement than a series of if/else statements. The switch statement begins with a keyword, followed
by an expression that equates to a no long integral value. Following the controlling expression is a code block
that contains zero or more labeled cases. Each label must equate to an integer constant and each must be
unique. When the switch statement executes, it compares the value of the controlling expression to the values

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of each case label. The program will select the value of the case label that equals the value of the controlling
expression and branch down that path to the end of the code block. If none of the case label values match,
then none of the codes within the switch statement code block will be executed. Java includes a default label
to use in cases where there are no matches. We can have a nested switch within a case block of an outer
switch.
Its general form is as follows:
switch (<non-long integral expression>) {
case label1: <statement1>
case label2: <statement2>
…
case labeln: <statementn>
default: <statement>
} // end switch
When executing a switch statement, the program falls through to the next case. Therefore, if you want to exit
in the middle of the switch statement code block, you must insert a break statement, which causes the
program to continue executing after the current code block.
Below is a java example that demonstrates conditional execution based on nested if else statement condition
to find the greatest of 3 numbers.
public class SwitchCaseStatementDemo {
int a = 10, b = 20, c = 30;
int status = -1;
if (a > b && a > c) {
status = 1;
} else if (b > c) {
status = 2;
} else {
status = 3;
}
switch (status) {
case 1:
System.out.println("a is the greatest");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("b is the greatest");
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("c is the greatest");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Cannot be determined");
}
}
}
Output
c is the greatest

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Iteration Statements - While Statement
The while statement is a looping construct control statement that executes a block of code while a condition is
true. You can either have a single statement or a block of code within the while loop. The loop will never be
executed if the testing expression evaluates to false. The loop condition must be a boolean expression.
The syntax of the while loop is
while (<loop condition>)
<statements>
Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely while loop used to print numbers from 1
to 10.
public class WhileLoopDemo {
int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
while (count <= 10) {
System.out.println(count++);
}
}
}
Output
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Do-while Loop Statement
The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, except that the test is performed at the end of the loop instead
of at the beginning. This ensures that the loop will be executed at least once. A do-while loop begins with the
keyword do, followed by the statements that make up the body of the loop. Finally, the keyword while and
the test expression completes the do-while loop. When the loop condition becomes false, the loop is
terminated and execution continues with the statement immediately following the loop. You can either have a
single statement or a block of code within the do-while loop.
The syntax of the do-while loop is

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do
<loop body>
while (<loop condition>);
Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely do-while loop used to print numbers
from 1 to 10.
public class DoWhileLoopDemo {
int count = 1;
do {
System.out.println(count++);
} while (count <= 10);
}
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Below is an example that creates A Fibonacci sequence controlled by a do-while loop
public class Fibonacci {
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("Printing Limited set of Fibonacci Sequence");
double fib1 = 0;
double fib2 = 1;
double temp = 0;
System.out.println(fib1);
System.out.println(fib2);
do {
temp = fib1 + fib2;
System.out.println(temp);
fib1 = fib2; //Replace 2nd with first number
fib2 = temp; //Replace temp number with 2nd number
} while (fib2 < 5000);
}
}
Output
Printing Limited set of Fibonacci Sequence

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0.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
5.0
8.0
13.0
21.0
34.0
55.0
89.0
144.0
233.0
377.0
610.0
987.0
1597.0
2584.0
4181.0
6765.0
For Loops
The for loop is a looping construct which can execute a set of instructions a specified number of times. It’s a
counter controlled loop.
The syntax of the loop is as follows:
for (<initialization>; <loop condition>; <increment expression>)
<loop body>
The first part of a for statement is a starting initialization, which executes once before the loop begins. The
<initialization> section can also be a comma-separated list of expression statements. The second part of a for
statement is a test expression. As long as the expression is true, the loop will continue. If this expression is
evaluated as false the first time, the loop will never be executed. The third part of the for statement is the
body of the loop. These are the instructions that are repeated each time the program executes the loop. The
final part of the for statement is an increment expression that automatically executes after each repetition of
the loop body. Typically, this statement changes the value of the counter, which is then tested to see if the
loop should continue. All the sections in the for-header are optional. Any one of them can be left empty, but
the two semicolons are mandatory. In particular, leaving out the <loop condition> signifies that the loop
condition is true. The (;;) form of for loop is commonly used to construct an infinite loop.
Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely for loop used to print numbers from 1 to
10.
public class ForLoopDemo {

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for (int count = 1; count <= 10; count++) {
System.out.println(count);
}
}
}
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Transfer Statements - Continue Statement
A continue statement stops the iteration of a loop (while, do or for) and causes execution to resume at the top
of the nearest enclosing loop. You use a continue statement when you do not want to execute the remaining
statements in the loop, but you do not want to exit the loop itself.
The syntax of the continue statement is
continue; // the unlabeled form
continue <label>; // the labeled form
You can also provide a loop with a label and then use the label in your continue statement. The label name is
optional, and is usually only used when you wish to return to the outermost loop in a series of nested loops.
Below is a program to demonstrate the use of continue statement to print Odd Numbers between 1 to 10.
public class ContinueExample {
System.out.println("Odd Numbers");
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; ++i) {
if (i % 2 == 0)
continue;
// Rest of loop body skipped when i is even
System.out.println(i + "t");
}
}
}
Output
Odd Numbers
1

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3
5
7
9
Break Statement
The break statement transfers control out of the enclosing loop ( for, while, do or switch statement). You use a
break statement when you want to jump immediately to the statement following the enclosing control
structure. You can also provide a loop with a label, and then use the label in your break statement. The label
name is optional, and is usually only used when you wish to terminate the outermost loop in a series of nested
loops.
The Syntax for break statement is as shown below;
break; // the unlabeled form
break <label>; // the labeled form
Below is a program to demonstrate the use of break statement to print numbers Numbers 1 to 10.
public class BreakExample {
System.out.println("Numbers 1 - 10");
for (int i = 1;; ++i) {
if (i == 11)
break;
// Rest of loop body skipped when i is even
System.out.println(i + "t");
}
}
}
Output
Numbers 1 – 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
finalize method
finalize method in java is a special method much like main method in java. finalize() is called before Garbage
collector reclaim the Object, its last chance for any object to perform cleanup activity i.e. releasing any system
resources held, closing connection if open etc. Main issue with finalize method in java is its not guaranteed by

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JLS that it will be called by Garbage collector or exactly when it will be called, for example an object may wait
indefinitely after becoming eligible for garbage collection and before its finalize() method gets called. similarly
even after finalize gets called its not guaranteed it will be immediately collected. Because of above reason it
make no sense to use finalize method for releasing critical resources or perform any time critical activity inside
finalize. It may work in development in one JVM but may not work in other JVM. In this java tutorial we will
see some important points about finalize method in Java, How to use finalize method, what to do and what
not to do inside finalize in Java.
Garbage Collection
The Java virtual machine's heap stores all objects created by a running Java application. Objects are created by
the new, newarray, anewarray, and multianewarray instructions, but never freed explicitly by the code.
Garbage collection is the process of automatically freeing objects that are no longer referenced by the
program.
This chapter does not describe an official Java garbage-collected heap, because none exists. As mentioned in
earlier chapters, the Java virtual machine specification does not require any particular garbage collection
technique. It doesn't even require garbage collection at all. But until infinite memory is invented, most Java
virtual machine implementations will likely come with garbage-collected heaps. This chapter describes various
garbage collection techniques and explains how garbage collection works in Java virtual machines.
Accompanying this chapter on the CD-ROM is an applet that interactively illustrates the material presented in
the chapter. The applet, named Heap of Fish, simulates a garbage-collected heap in a Java virtual machine.
The simulation--which demonstrates a compacting, mark-and-sweep collector--allows you to interact with the
heap as if you were a Java program: you can allocate objects and assign references to variables. The simulation
also allows you to interact with the heap as if you were the Java virtual machine: you can drive the processes
of garbage collection and heap compaction. At the end of this chapter, you will find a description of this applet
and instructions on how to use it.
Why Garbage Collection?
The name "garbage collection" implies that objects no longer needed by the program are "garbage" and can
be thrown away. A more accurate and up-to-date metaphor might be "memory recycling." When an object is
no longer referenced by the program, the heap space it occupies can be recycled so that the space is made
available for subsequent new objects. The garbage collector must somehow determine which objects are no
longer referenced by the program and make available the heap space occupied by such unreferenced objects.
In the process of freeing unreferenced objects, the garbage collector must run any finalizers of objects being
freed.
In addition to freeing unreferenced objects, a garbage collector may also combat heap fragmentation. Heap
fragmentation occurs through the course of normal program execution. New objects are allocated, and
unreferenced objects are freed such that free portions of heap memory are left in between portions occupied
by live objects. Requests to allocate new objects may have to be filled by extending the size of the heap even
though there is enough total unused space in the existing heap. This will happen if there is not enough
contiguous free heap space available into which the new object will fit. On a virtual memory system, the extra
paging (or swapping) required to service an ever growing heap can degrade the performance of the executing
program. On an embedded system with low memory, fragmentation could cause the virtual machine to "run
out of memory" unnecessarily.

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Garbage collection relieves you from the burden of freeing allocated memory. Knowing when to explicitly free
allocated memory can be very tricky. Giving this job to the Java virtual machine has several advantages. First,
it can make you more productive. When programming in non-garbage-collected languages you can spend
many late hours (or days or weeks) chasing down an elusive memory problem. When programming in Java you
can use that time more advantageously by getting ahead of schedule or simply going home to have a life.
A second advantage of garbage collection is that it helps ensure program integrity. Garbage collection is an
important part of Java's security strategy. Java programmers are unable to accidentally (or purposely) crash
the Java virtual machine by incorrectly freeing memory.
A potential disadvantage of a garbage-collected heap is that it adds an overhead that can affect program
performance. The Java virtual machine has to keep track of which objects are being referenced by the
executing program, and finalize and free unreferenced objects on the fly. This activity will likely require more
CPU time than would have been required if the program explicitly freed unnecessary memory. In addition,
programmers in a garbage-collected environment have less control over the scheduling of CPU time devoted
to freeing objects that are no longer needed.
this keyword
Sometimes a method will need to refer to the object that invoked it. To allow this, Java defines the this
keyword. this can be used inside any method to refer to the current object. That is, this is always a reference
to the object on which the method was invoked. You can use this anywhere a reference to an object of the
current class' type is permitted.
To better understand what this refers to, consider the following version of Box( ):
// A redundant use of this.
Box(double w, double h, double d) {
this.width = w;
this.height = h;
this.depth = d;
}
The use of this is redundant, but perfectly correct. Inside Box( ), this will always refer to the invoking
object. While it is redundant in this case, this is useful in other contexts, one of which is explained in the next
section.
Instance Variable Hiding
As you know, it is illegal in Java to declare two local variables with the same name inside the same or enclosing
scopes. Interestingly, you can have local variables, including formal parameters to methods, which overlap with
the names of the class' instance variables. However, when a local variable has the same name as an instance
variable, the local variable hides the instance variable.
This is why width, height, and depth were not used as the names of the parameters to the Box( ) constructor
inside the Box class. If they had been, then width would have referred to the formal parameter, hiding the
instance variable width. While it is usually easier to simply use different names, there is another way around
this situation. Because this lets you refer directly to the object, you can use it to resolve any name space
collisions that might occur between instance variables and local variables. For example, here is another version
of Box( ), which uses width, height, and depth for parameter names and then uses this to access the instance
variables by the same name:

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// Use this to resolve name-space collisions.
Box(double width, double height, double depth) {
this.width = width;
this.height = height;
this.depth = depth;
}
A word of caution: The use of this in such a context can sometimes be confusing, and some programmers are
careful not to use local variables and formal parameter names that hide instance variables. Of course, other
programmers believe the contrary—that it is a good convention to use the same names for clarity, and use
this to overcome the instance variable hiding. It is a matter of taste which approach you adopt.
Although this is of no significant value in the examples just shown, it is very useful in certain situations.
This is an extract from the book: Java 2 - The Complete Reference by Herbert Schildt.
Using Objects as Parameters
So far we have only been using simple types as parameters to methods. However, it is both correct and
common to pass objects to methods. For example, consider the following short program:
// Objects may be passed to methods.
class Test {
int a, b;
Test(int i, int j) {
a = i;
b = j;
}
// return true if o is equal to the invoking object
boolean equals(Test o) {
if(o.a == a && o.b == b) return true;
else return false;
}
}
class PassOb {
Test ob1 = new Test(100, 22);
Test ob2 = new Test(100, 22);
Test ob3 = new Test(-1, -1);
System.out.println("ob1 == ob2: " + ob1.equals(ob2));
System.out.println("ob1 == ob3: " + ob1.equals(ob3));
}
}
This program generates the following output:
ob1 == ob2: true
ob1 == ob3: false
As you can see, the equals( ) method inside Test compares two objects for equality and returns the result. That
is, it compares the invoking object with the one that it is passed. If they contain the same values, then the
method returns true. Otherwise, it returns false. Notice that the parameter o in equals( ) specifies Test as its

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type. Although Test is a class type created by the program, it is used in just the same way as Java’s built-in
types. One of the most common uses of object parameters involves constructors. Frequently you will want to
construct a new object so that it is initially the same as some existing object. To do this, you must define a
constructor that takes an object of its class as a parameter. For example, the following version of Box allows
one object to initialize another:
// Here, Box allows one object to initialize another.
class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;
// construct clone of an object
Box(Box ob) { // pass object to constructor
width = ob.width;
height = ob.height;
depth = ob.depth;
}
// constructor used when all dimensions specified
Box(double w, double h, double d) {
width = w;
height = h;
depth = d;
}
// constructor used when no dimensions specified
Box() {
width = -1; // use -1 to indicate
height = -1; // an uninitialized
depth = -1; // box
}
// constructor used when cube is created
Box(double len) {
width = height = depth = len;
}
// compute and return volume
double volume() {
return width * height * depth;
}
}
class OverloadCons2 {
// create boxes using the various constructors
Box mybox1 = new Box(10, 20, 15);
Box mybox2 = new Box();
Box mycube = new Box(7);
Box myclone = new Box(mybox1);
double vol;
// get volume of first box
vol = mybox1.volume();
System.out.println("Volume of mybox1 is " + vol);
// get volume of second box
vol = mybox2.volume();
System.out.println("Volume of mybox2 is " + vol);
// get volume of cube

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vol = mycube.volume();
System.out.println("Volume of cube is " + vol);
// get volume of clone
vol = myclone.volume();
System.out.println("Volume of clone is " + vol);
}
}
As you will see when you begin to create your own classes, providing many forms of constructor methods is
usually required to allow objects to be constructed in a convenient and efficient manner.
Can a java method return an object? Why constructors don’t have a return type?
Absolutely. Make sure the method is labeled as returning an object
i.e
public Object objectMethod(...){
...
return (theObject);
}
Constructors don't have a return type because they simply "construct" an object. In that sense, they are
already returning an object. Constructors implicitly returns an object, they don’t have any return type not
even void.
Call by Value and Call by Reference in Java
There is only call by value in java, not call by reference. If we call a method passing a value, it is known as call
by value. The changes being done in the called method, is not affected in the calling method.
In case of call by value original value is not changed. Let's take a simple example:
1. class Operation{
2. int data=50;
3.
4. void change(int data){
5. data=data+100;//changes will be in the local variable only
6. }
7.
8.
9. public static void main(String args[]){
10. Operation op=new Operation();
11.
12. System.out.println("before change "+op.data);
13. op.change(500);
14. System.out.println("after change "+op.data);
15.
16. }
17. }
Output:before change 50
after change 50

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Another Example of call by value in java
In case of call by reference original value is changed if we made changes in the called method. If we pass
object in place of any primitive value, original value will be changed. In this example we are passing
object as a value. Let's take a simple example:
1. class Operation2{
2. int data=50;
3.
4. void change(Operation op){
5. op.data=op.data+100;//changes will be in the instance variable
6. }
7.
8.
9. public static void main(String args[]){
10. Operation2 op=new Operation2();
11.
12. System.out.println("before change "+op.data);
13. op.change(op);//passing object
14. System.out.println("after change "+op.data);
15.
16. }
17. }
Output:before change 50
after change 150
Modifiers: final and static
A number of modifier keywords can be placed in declarations of methods and variables, and sometimes in
declarations of classes, to provide extra information or restriction on the methods or variables. Here we shall
only discuss the final and static keywords.
 The final Modifier
 The static Modifier
 The Geometrical Shapes Example
The final Modifier
The final modifier keyword makes that the programmer cannot change the value anymore. The actual
meaning depends on whether it is applied to a class, a variable, or a method. We look at these three cases in
more detail.
final Classes
A final class cannot have subclasses. An example:
public final class MathConstants {
...
}
This skeleton defines a class called MathConstants that is publicly accessible but cannot be subclassed.
final Variables
A final variable cannot be changed once it is initialized, In the above class of mathematical constants you can
for example define a numerical approximation of pi by
public final static double PI = 3.141592654;

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It is a convention, but not obligatory, to capitalize the name of a final object.
final Methods
A final method cannot be overridden by subclasses. There are two reasons for introducing such a method:
1. Disallowing subclasses to change the meaning of the method;
2. Increasing efficiency by allowing the compiler to turn calls to the method into inline Java code.
In the class of mathematical constants you could define a final method to generate a random constant.
public final static randomNumber() {
...
}
The static Modifier
A variable or method that is shared by all instances of a class is called a class variable or class method. You
recognize such a variable in Java by the static keyword in the declaration. A class variable will instantiate only
one copy of the variable for the whole class instead of a separate copy for each instance of a class. A class
variable belongs to a class, not to an instance of the class.
You can refer to a class variable either through an instance of the class (like a normal instance variable) or
through the full class name of the form classname.variable.
A class method can be referred to through an instance of the class (like a normal method) or through the full
class name of the form classname.method. In fact, a class is an object of the special class Class, so this naming
system is consistent.
You can look at the examples above for how to use class variables and class methods. You can also look at the
example worked out below.
The Geometrical Shapes Example
We shall give an example of the Shape class with the subclasses Circle and Square. In this example you can
practice your knowledge of modifiers and access specifiers.
MathConstants.java
A class for mathematical constants that cannot be subclassed and contains the mathematical constant pi.
public final class MathConstants {
public final static double PI = 3.141592654; // constant pi
}
ShapeCounter.java
A class for counting the number of geometrical objects that cannot be subclassed and does not allow direct
access to the variable that holds in fact the number of shapes; instead, accessor methods are provided to
classes in the same package to which this class belongs.

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public final class ShapesCounter {
private static int shapesCount = 0; // total number of geometrical objects
private static final int maxCounter = 1000; // maximum number of objects
protected static int shapesCount() {
return shapesCount;
}
protected static void incrementShapesCount() {
shapesCount++;
}
protected static void decrementShapesCount() {
shapesCount--;
}
}
Shape.java
A class defining common aspects of shapes such as the coordinates of the distinguished point of the shape.
public class Shape {
protected double x, y; // position of geometrical object
}
Circle.java
A class for a circular shape with limited radius, a method to rest the maximal size, and methods to compute
the area and the circumference of the circle.
public class Circle extends Shape {
protected double r; // radius
private static double maxSize = 100; // maximal radius
Circle(double x, double y, double r) {
super.x = x;
super.y = y;
this.r = r;
ShapesCounter.incrementShapesCount();
}
public static void setMaxSize(double size) {
maxSize = size;
}
public double area() {
return MathConstants.PI * r * r;
}
public double circumference() {
return 2 * MathConstants.PI * r;
}
}
Square.java
A class for a square shape with methods to compute the area and the circumference of the square.
public class Square extends Shape {
protected double size; // radius
private static double maxSize = 100; // maximal size
Square(double x, double y, double size) {

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super.x = x;
super.y = y;
this.size = size;
ShapesCounter.incrementShapesCount();
}
public static void setMaxSize(double size) {
maxSize = size;
}
public double area() {
return size * size;
}
public double circumference() {
return 4 * size;
}
}
Nested Classes
The Java programming language allows you to define a class within another class. Such a class is called a
nested class and is illustrated here:
class OuterClass {
...
class NestedClass {
...
}
}
Terminology: Nested classes are divided into two categories: static and non-static. Nested classes that are declared
static are simply called static nested classes. Non-static nested classes are called inner classes.
class OuterClass {
...
static class StaticNestedClass {
...
}
class InnerClass {
...
}
}
A nested class is a member of its enclosing class. Non-static nested classes (inner classes) have access to other
members of the enclosing class, even if they are declared private. Static nested classes do not have access to
other members of the enclosing class. As a member of the OuterClass, a nested class can be declared private,
public, protected, or package private. (Recall that outer classes can only be declared public or package private.)
Why Use Nested Classes?
There are several compelling reasons for using nested classes, among them:

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 It is a way of logically grouping classes that are only used in one place.
 It increases encapsulation.
 Nested classes can lead to more readable and maintainable code.
Logical grouping of classes—If a class is useful to only one other class, then it is logical to embed it in that class
and keep the two together. Nesting such "helper classes" makes their package more streamlined.
Increased encapsulation—Consider two top-level classes, A and B, where B needs access to members of A
that would otherwise be declared private. By hiding class B within class A, A's members can be declared private
and B can access them. In addition, B itself can be hidden from the outside world.
More readable, maintainable code—Nesting small classes within top-level classes places the code closer to
where it is used.
Static Nested Classes
As with class methods and variables, a static nested class is associated with its outer class. And like static class
methods, a static nested class cannot refer directly to instance variables or methods defined in its enclosing
class — it can use them only through an object reference.
Note: A static nested class interacts with the instance members of its outer class (and other classes) just like any other
top-level class. In effect, a static nested class is behaviorally a top-level class that has been nested in another top-level
class for packaging convenience.
Static nested classes are accessed using the enclosing class name:
OuterClass.StaticNestedClass
For example, to create an object for the static nested class, use this syntax:
OuterClass.StaticNestedClass nestedObject =
new OuterClass.StaticNestedClass();
Inner Classes
As with instance methods and variables, an inner class is associated with an instance of its enclosing class and
has direct access to that object's methods and fields. Also, because an inner class is associated with an
instance, it cannot define any static members itself.
Objects that are instances of an inner class exist within an instance of the outer class. Consider the following
classes:
class OuterClass {
...
class InnerClass {
...
}
}

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An instance of InnerClass can exist only within an instance of OuterClass and has direct access to the methods
and fields of its enclosing instance. The next figure illustrates this idea.
An Instance of InnerClass Exists Within an Instance of OuterClass
To instantiate an inner class, you must first instantiate the outer class. Then, create the inner object within the
outer object with this syntax:
OuterClass.InnerClass innerObject = outerObject.new InnerClass();
Additionally, there are two special kinds of inner classes: local classes and anonymous classes (also called
anonymous inner classes). Both of these will be discussed briefly in the next section.
Inner Class Example
To see an inner class in use, let's first consider an array. In the following example, we will create an array, fill it
with integer values and then output only values of even indices of the array in ascending order.
The DataStructure class below consists of:
 The DataStructure outer class, which includes methods to add an integer onto the array and print out values of
even indices of the array.
 The InnerEvenIterator inner class, which is similar to a standard Java iterator. Iterators are used to step through a
data structure and typically have methods to test for the last element, retrieve the current element, and move
to the next element.
 A main method that instantiates a DataStructure object (ds) and uses it to fill the arrayOfInts array with integer
values (0, 1, 2, 3, etc.), then calls a printEven method to print out values of even indices of arrayOfInts.
public class DataStructure {
// create an array
private final static int SIZE = 15;
private int[] arrayOfInts = new int[SIZE];
public DataStructure() {
// fill the array with ascending integer values
for (int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++) {
arrayOfInts[i] = i;
}
}
public void printEven() {
// print out values of even indices of the array
InnerEvenIterator iterator = this.new InnerEvenIterator();

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while (iterator.hasNext()) {
System.out.println(iterator.getNext() + " ");
}
}
// inner class implements the Iterator pattern
private class InnerEvenIterator {
// start stepping through the array from the beginning
private int next = 0;
public boolean hasNext() {
// check if a current element is the last in the array
return (next <= SIZE - 1);
}
public int getNext() {
// record a value of an even index of the array
int retValue = arrayOfInts[next];
//get the next even element
next += 2;
return retValue;
}
}
public static void main(String s[]) {
// fill the array with integer values and print out only
// values of even indices
DataStructure ds = new DataStructure();
ds.printEven();
}
}
The output is:
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Note that the InnerEvenIterator class refers directly to the arrayOfInts instance variable of the DataStructure object.
Inner classes can be used to implement helper classes like the one shown in the example above. If you plan on
handling user-interface events, you will need to know how to use inner classes because the event-handling
mechanism makes extensive use of them.
Local and Anonymous Inner Classes
There are two additional types of inner classes. You can declare an inner class within the body of a method.
Such a class is known as a local inner class. You can also declare an inner class within the body of a method
without naming it. These classes are known as anonymous inner classes. You will encounter such classes in
advanced Java programming.
Modifiers
You can use the same modifiers for inner classes that you use for other members of the outer class. For
example, you can use the access specifiers — private, public, and protected — to restrict access to inner
classes, just as you do to other class members.
Summary of Nested Classes

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A class defined within another class is called a nested class. Like other members of a class, a nested class can
be declared static or not. A nonstatic nested class is called an inner class. An instance of an inner class can
exist only within an instance of its enclosing class and has access to its enclosing class's members even if they
are declared private.
The following table shows the types of nested classes:
Types of Nested Classes
Type Scope Inner
static nested class member no
inner [non-static] class member yes
local class local yes
anonymous class only the point where it is defined yes

Class notes(week 3) on class objects and methods

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