Cross-National Coverage of GMOs Final copy

Comparing Coverage of Genetically Modified Organisms:
A Cross-national Community Structure Approach
Krysti Peitz
Elizabeth Watson
John C. Pollock
Cara Esposito
Phil Nichilo
James Etheridge
Department of Communication Studies
Undergraduate
The College of New Jersey
2000 Pennington Road, Ewing, New Jersey 08618
Key words: genetically modified organisms, cross-national coverage, newspapers, Media Vector,
vulnerability

2
Abstract
Using a community structure approach to compare cross-national coverage of genetically
modified organisms with variations in national-level demographics, all relevant articles of 250+
words were collected from an approximately ten-year period – January 1, 2004 through
November 1, 2014 – in nineteen newspapers worldwide, one per nation, including leading or
database accessible papers in Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, Germany,
India, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, South Africa, Thailand, United
Kingdom, United States, and Uganda.
The resulting 274 articles were coded for editorial “prominence” and “direction”
(“favorable,” “unfavorable,” or “balanced/neutral”) and then combined to yield a composite
“Media Vector” score for each newspaper ranging from .7382 to -.3994 (range = 1.1376). A
majority of eleven of 19 (58%) of Media Vectors reflected unfavorable coverage of genetically
modified organisms, with the minority (eight of 19, or 42%) registering favorable coverage.
Hypotheses were clustered in three major umbrella categories:
Violated Buffer Hypothesis. The “buffer hypothesis” expects that the greater the
proportion of privileged residents in a country, the more likely major media will report favorably
on several human rights claims (Pollock, 2007, p. 52). By contrast, the “violated buffer
hypothesis” suggests that “issues viewed as imperiling either privileged groups or a relatively
stable, secure way of life will be regarded as threatening by privileged sectors and will be
associated with relatively ‘resistant, unfavorable reporting” (Pollock, 2007, p. 53). Privilege as
mentioned in this context can be measured cross-nationally through various indicators, including
gross domestic product (GDP), literacy rate, life expectancy, and healthcare access. It can be
assumed that among populations of more privileged countries, GMO usage in foods will be seen
as a threat to “a cherished way of life”, consistent with the violated buffer hypothesis.
Vulnerability Hypothesis. The vulnerability hypothesis proposes that, contrary to
assumptions that media often reinforce the interests of political and economic elites (the “guard
dog” hypothesis), newspapers can reflect the interests of vulnerable populations including the
poor, the unemployed (Pollock, 2007, p. 137), the undernourished, and areas with high fertility
rates, high population proportions under 14, limited access to uncontaminated water, and high
levels of agricultural dependency. It can be assumed that countries with high vulnerability
characteristics will manifest more favorable media coverage towards GMO usage in foods, as
genetically modified foods contain fundamental vitamins and minerals at more affordable prices
and year round availability. These benefits of GMOs are valuable in countries that have
difficulty producing or obtaining enough food to feed their populations.
Stakeholder Hypothesis. The higher the percentage of issue stakeholders in a community,
the more likely newspaper coverage will report favorably on their interests (Pollock, 2007, p.
172). For example, an examination of sub-Saharan Anglophone African newspaper coverage of
AIDS found that the higher the prevalence of AIDs victims within a nation paralleled greater
media support for government intervention to fight the crisis (Pollock, D’Angelo, et al., 2010).

3
Regarding GMO stakeholders, indicators of female empowerment, energy
production/consumption and infrastructure, and media access and penetration were tested.
Pearson correlations revealed the strength of four significant indicators, all associated
with favorable coverage of GMOs, all linked to measures of national “vulnerability”: “poverty
level,” (r = .492, p = .019) “percentage of population without access to improved water sources,”
(r = .466, p = .022) “percent of agricultural land,” (r = .441, p = .029) and “fertility rate,” (r =
.404, p = .043). All four indicators are linked to favorable coverage of GMOs. A regression
analysis revealed the strong impact of a nation’s poverty level on the coverage of genetically
modified foods (24.2% of variance). A nation’s percentage of agricultural land followed,
accounting for 4.7% of the variance, also connected to a favorable coverage by newspapers,
collectively accounting for 28.9% of the variance. Findings demonstrated that vulnerability
indicators are prominent demographics associated with favorable media coverage of GMOs. The
significance of vulnerability indicators is consistent with previous research on multi-city US
coverage of GMOs by Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin and Fascanella (2010). Contrary to
conventional assumptions that media typically act as “guard dogs” reinforcing the interests of
political and economic elites, systematic research on national demographics linked to cross-
national variations in GMO coverage reveals that media can “mirror” the interests of a society’s
most “vulnerable” inhabitants.
References
Pollock, J.C., (2007). Titled Mirrors: Media alignment with political and social change- A
community structure approach. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Pollock, J.C., D’Angelo, P., Kiernicki, K., Burd, A., & Raudenbush, J. (2010, June). African
newspaper coverage of AIDS: Comparing new models of press-state relations and
structural factors in sub-Saharan Anglophone Africa. Paper presented at the annual
conference of the International Communication Association, Singapore.
Pollock, J.C., Maltese-Nehrbass, M., Corbin, P., & Fascanella, P.B. (2010, octubre). Nationwide
newspaper coverage of genetically-modified food in the United States: A community
structure approach. Ecos de la Comunicación, 3(3), 51-75.

4
Introduction
With the world population increasing exponentially every year, an equally growing
concern has emerged regarding the ability to produce a sustainable food supply. Consequentially,
scientists have developed genetically modified organisms (GMOs), or crops engineered to
contain superior characteristics in an effort to improve yield. The agricultural world initially
embraced the new seeds, which were designed with resistance to insects, disease, cold, and even
droughts. By 1999, over 100 million acres worldwide were planted with genetically engineered
seeds, and biotechnological companies such as Monsanto have expanded into worldwide
monopolies (Woosley, 2012).
Yet, not all are in agreement regarding the benefits of GMOs, as many have speculated
about the health-risks involved. A study in 2011 found that toxins implanted in GM food crops
were found in the bloodstreams of pregnant women, as well as in 93% of the women’s fetuses
(Poulter, 2011). Still, there is limited evidence of long-term health implications of GMO foods.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) noted,
“very little is known about the potential long-term effects of any foods, and identification of such
effects may be very difficult, if not impossible” (Kuiper, Kleter, Noteborn & Kok, 2001, p. 505).
Though some gray area remains regarding the effects of GMOs, a stark contrast is
apparent in ways journalists have “framed” this global debate using newspaper media. The first
frame favors the production of GMOs as part of the effort to end world hunger by producing
larger quantities of food, which can be modified to contain vital nutrients to promote health.
These crops can also be grown and maintained with easier farming practices, rendering planting
and growing such organisms and foods in developing countries more practical. The contrary
side of this debate is a frame arguing that the production of genetically modified foods is

5
unacceptable as major health risks may be involved in the consumption of the chemicals found
within these foods. Not only do GMOs pose a potential health threat to those who consume
them, they are extremely expensive to produce. Nearly 15 billion dollars are put into the
production of GMO crops each year (Turow, 2014).
As this debate has risen to the forefront of international controversy, newspapers continue
to play a vital role in the coverage of GMOs for multiple reasons. Primarily, newspapers are
read by the well educated and by political and economic leaders who seek insight and
information on current global events. These papers are also known to be inter-media agenda
setters for other media channels such as television, radio, and the Internet. In addition,
newspapers serve as community forums to facilitate discussion on critical issues on a regional,
nationwide, and global scale.
Typically, scholars have theorized that media are a vehicle for shaping public opinion
based on the perspective in which the news content is portrayed. Conversely, this study analyses
how society affects media coverage through use of the community structure approach, in which
variations in media prominence and framing reflect different cross-national demographics and
characteristics (Pollock, 2007). The community structure model was initiated in 1922 by Robert
Park, who urged scholars to study a “reverse” perspective of society’s own influence on media.
This approach prompted Tichener, Donohue and Olien (1973, 1980) to expand upon Park’s
previous findings through “structured pluralism,” a research viewpoint finding that newspapers
in large, culturally diverse metropolitan areas are more receptive to radical ideas for development
compared to papers in smaller, homogeneous communities. These communication theorists later
developed the guard dog hypothesis, in which local media often function less as watchdogs and
more as guard dogs protecting the interest of elites (Olien, Donohue & Tichenor, 1995).

6
However, Hindman (1999) continued to build upon the ongoing relationship between
mass media variations and structural characteristics through his research, which found that larger
proportions of ethnic groups in a community were linked to coverage favoring their interests.
Furthermore, McLeod and Hertog (1999) found that the size of protest groups was directly
proportional to favorable coverage of their concerns. Demers and Viswanath (1999) enhanced
these previous findings by exploring the role of the media as agent of both social control and
social change. The current accessibility of information through use of Internet databases has
further solidified the foundation of the community structure model by expanding the scope of
research, and consequentially providing the gateway to study systematic news reports of critical
events in communities across the nation (Pollock and colleagues, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1994-2002,
2005, 2007, 2008).
Recognizing newspapers’ prominence in discussing critical cross-national issues, Pollock
et. al. utilized this powerful communication channel in the first nationwide studies across various
cities. These studies not only included article content, but also incorporated editorial evaluation
of article prominence within their respective publications by combining both into a cohesive,
single score. The conclusions sometimes challenge the “guard dog” hypothesis by reflecting the
interests of marginal and vulnerable stakeholders (Pollock, 2007, p. 24). Through use of the
community structure approach, this study will examine cross-national media framing of the
usage of GMOs in newspaper coverage. This theory will be used to address two main research
questions to investigate connections between international characteristics and newspaper
coverage of GMO usage.
RQ1: How much variation exists in cross-national coverage of GMO usage?

7
RQ2: How closely linked is that coverage variation to differences in national
characteristics?
Various community characteristics, such as wealth and infant mortality, can affect the
media coverage of GMO usage. For example, it is expected that in countries with a higher GDP,
coverage of GMO usage will be more unfavorable. This prediction can be made, as wealthy
countries will be more concerned with the health risks associated with the foods they eat than is
the case in developing countries. Wealthier countries are also more likely to contain more well
educated populations and to have a better understanding of GMOs and its potential
risks. Conversely, the higher the infant mortality rate in a country, the more favorable the
expected coverage of GMOs. The populations of developing countries do not have access to a
reliable food supply, resulting in less concern with the chemicals that may be in the food.
Newspaper coverage of GMO usage may be linked to other cross-national demographic
characteristics as well. This study will analyze the relationship between cross-national
demographic characteristics and GMO coverage in newspapers.
Literature Review
GMO usage has become a prevalent debate topic over the past two decades and is a
growing topic of interest in many fields of study. While media coverage of GMO usage would
appear relevant for communication studies research, the field has essentially neglected to
investigate this topic. Conversely, many other fields, including political science, biology,
business, and physical sciences have examined the controversy of GMOs and have given it
considerable attention. This study is intended to fill the gap in the communication field with an
understanding of the GMO controversy and its coverage throughout various countries.

8
Searches of multiple terms in the Communication and Mass Media Complete database
included “genetically modified organism AND media coverage” and “genetically modified
organism AND newspapers”. “Genetically modified organism AND media coverage” yielded
122 hits through EBSCO, however, very little relevant information was found. Most of the
articles found focused more on the labeling and potential health risk of GMO foods rather than
on media coverage of GMO usage.
One relevant article was found using the search term “genetically modified organism
AND media coverage”, which was “Words of Mass Destruction: British Newspaper Coverage of
the Genetically Modified Food Debate, Expert and Non-expert Reactions.” This article reported
the results of a study conducted in 2003 regarding press coverage of the GMO debate in Great
Britain, as well as expert and non-expert reaction to these findings (Cook, Robbins & Pieri,
2006). While this study was specifically relevant to the current study, it was one of only two
articles on this subject in the communication field. “Nationwide Newspaper Coverage of
Genetically Modified Foods: A Community Structure Approach” was the second relevant article
found under this search term. Researchers in this study examined the US national coverage of
GMO usage in 20 major U.S. newspapers by using a “community structure approach,” finding
that higher levels of poverty and unemployment corresponded with more favorable coverage of
GMOs (Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin, & Fascanella, 2010).
Unlike the paucity of coverage of communication studies, the field of political science
showed advances in the debate of GMO usage cross-nationally. Research completed within the
PAIS International database yielded 185+ hits of the issue, a significantly higher number than
that of communication databases averaging 20 hits. The focal point of these political science
articles for GMO coverage centered on the legitimization of governance and the effect on policy

9
of international organizations for GMOs. “Labeling of Genetically Modified Products: Strategic
Trade Policy Considerations for Canada” discussed in detail World Trade Organization rules
relevant to labeling (Chaitoo & Hart, 2000). In addition, “Policing Purity: Testing, Traceability,
and the Governance of Genetically Modified Organisms” studied a multitude of points for debate
putting emphasis on the need for a new authority to handle the distinctions between non-GMO
and GMO products through labeling while ensuring the stability of cross-national agriculture
production (Lezuan, 2004). Evidently, media coverage of GMO conflicts was staggeringly
higher within the area of political science than in communication studies.
Like political science, the field of biology yielded far more articles than communication
studies. The biology database EBSCO Biological & Agricultural Index Plus (H. W. Wilson)
yielded 440 results using the search term “GMO OR genetically modified organism.” Strikingly,
many of the articles for GMO coverage in the biology and agricultural field focused on ethical
issues associated with the production of GMOs. “Legal and Ethical Apprehensions Regarding
Relational Object: The Case of Genetically Modified Fish” outlined legal and ethical
considerations, specifically environmental ethics, prompted by the production of genetically
modified fish (Coutellec & Doussan, 2012). Additionally, “Genetically Modified Organisms: An
Indian Ethical Dilemma” discussed actions taken against the production of GMOs in India and
societies that condone such measures. The article emphasized the ethical argument against
production of GMOs (Kaur, Kohli, & Jaswal, 2012).
Even more than the disciplines of political science and biology, the field of business has
done more than communication studies to investigate the prevalence of GMOs in the worldwide
economy. Using the search engine Business Source Premier and the search term “GMO,” 1,477
results were yielded regarding genetically modified foods. The article “GMO Products Lower

10
Prices, Raise Yields and Concerns” (GMO products lower prices…, 2014) explored the balance
of producing an affordable product that did not contain genetically modified crops. Though
many consumers prefer safe, quality foods that are GMO-free, the biotechnology responsible for
these foods has helped keep the prices of staple crops from 15% to 30% lower. Additionally, an
article by Gasparro (2014) discussed challenges corporations face when working to
accommodate customers in removing GM crops from food chains. Companies such as Ben &
Jerry’s, Cheerios, and Chipotle Mexican Grill have been gravitating towards the fast-growing
“Non-GMO” labeling trend to appease their customers. Though 64 countries have already
adopted GMO labeling, the transition is especially difficult for these corporations because
biotech companies are deeply ingrained in the American food chain (Gasparro, 2014). This
collection of research confirms that the fate of GMO foods has large implications for business
profitability.
Perhaps the research field yielding the most information is that of the physical
sciences. Using the Science Direct database, the search term “genetically modified organisms”
yielded over 20,000 results. To narrow this search the term “global” was added and the search
results decreased to just over 9,000. This yield strongly surpassed any research done in the
communication field pertaining to GMOs. Much of the information from these results focused
on production of these organisms as well as their regulation and distribution. “Detecting Un-
Authorized Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) and Derived Materials” discussed different
actions jurisdictions take regarding GMOs. The European Union, specifically, has a legal
distinction between authorized (legal) and unauthorized (non-legal) GMOs (Holst-Jensen, et. al.,
2012). Similarly, “International Trade in Genetically Modified Product” examined the sales of
two types of organisms, traditional organisms and those genetically modified. The article found

11
that import bans would benefit only those landowners growing GMO-free products (Choi,
2010). Coverage by scientific journals on genetically modified organisms was much stronger
than in communication studies.
It is evident that the communication studies field, unlike political science, biology,
business, and physical science, has not devoted significant scholarly attention to genetically
modified foods, particularly its media coverage. As a result, this study attempts to help bridge
this gap in the communication studies literature.
Hypotheses
A review of a variety of literature and previous findings in the community structure
approach yielded several hypotheses. These hypotheses were assembled into three umbrella
categories: violated buffer, vulnerability, and stakeholder.
Violated Buffer Hypothesis
Privilege. The buffer hypothesis indicates that with a greater proportion of privileged city
residents, it becomes more likely that a city’s major newspaper will report favorably on several
human rights claims (Pollock, 2007, p. 52). By contrast, the violated buffer hypothesis suggests
that “issues viewed as imperiling either privileged groups or a relatively stable, secure way of
life will be regarded as threatening by privileged sectors and will be associated with relatively
‘resistant, unfavorable reporting” (Pollock, 2007, p. 53). Privilege as mentioned in this context
can be measured cross-nationally through various indicators, including but not limited to gross
domestic product (GDP), literacy rate, and life expectancy. It can be assumed that GMO usage in
foods will be seen as a threat to “a cherished way of life” among populations of more privileged
countries, therefore complying with the violated buffer hypothesis.

12
Previous community structure studies have confirmed the validity of the violated buffer
hypothesis. For example, Pollock, O’Grady, Hiller, Pannia, and Lutkenhouse found in a 2004
study that the violated buffer hypothesis was confirmed in relation to newspaper coverage of the
usage of GMOs in foods. Pearson correlations and regression analysis found that the “greater the
proportion of privileged groups ‘buffered’ from economic uncertainty, the less favorable the
coverage of GM foods (Pollock, O’Grady, Hiller, Pannia, & Lutkenhouse, 2004). In further
support, Pollock (2007) validated the significance of the violated buffer hypothesis, finding that
the higher the level of privilege in a city, the more unfavorable the newspaper coverage of
drilling in the arctic national wildlife refuge (p. 184-194).
Additionally, Pollock and Kohn found in a 2014 study that a country’s GDP per capita
attributed to a variance in media coverage of child labor, finding that the higher a country’s GDP
per capita, the less media emphasis on government responsibility in regards to eliminating child
labor. Also, a study discovered that the higher a nation’s literacy rate, the more newspaper
favored societal responsibility in regards to water handling (Wissel et. al., 2014). In accordance
with these previous findings, is likely that the coverage of GMO usage will align with the
violated buffer hypothesis, as privileged and well-educated individuals will be less trusting and
more concerned with the long term health effects of GMO consumption. Therefore, the
following hypotheses apply to coverage of GMO usage in foods:
H1: The higher a nation’s GDP, the less favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods
(Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2011).
H2: The higher a nation’s GDP per capita, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
modified foods (CIA, 2011).

13
H3: The higher the literacy rate in a country, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
H4: The higher a nation’s male life expectancy at birth, the less favorable the coverage of
genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).
H5: The higher a nation’s female life expectancy at birth, the less favorable the coverage of
Healthcare access. Healthcare access can be measured by calculating the number of
hospital beds per 10,000 citizens and the number of physicians per 100,000 citizens. Individuals
living in communities with greater health care access will likely be more supportive of the use of
GMOs in food production as it does have health benefits, specifically by eliminating the need for
pesticides. A past study utilizing the community structure approach confirmed that health care
access had a definitive correlation with the coverage of GMO usage in newspapers, concluding
that the greater the amount of healthcare access in a city, the more favorable the coverage toward
GMO usage (Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin & Fascanella, 2010). As a result, it is
reasonable to assume that coverage of GM foods will be more favorable in countries with higher
health care access.
H6: The larger the number of physicians per 100,000, the more favorable the coverage of
genetically modified foods (United Nations Development Programme, 2011).
H7: The larger the number of hospital beds per 10,000, the more favorable the coverage of
genetically modified foods (United Nations Development Programme, 2011).
The Vulnerability Hypothesis
Though newspapers have the tendency to echo the opinions of privileged groups, the
vulnerability hypothesis foresees “media coverage that might reflect the interests of a wide range

14
of groups and concerns, including the least economically advantaged” (Pollock, 2007, p.
54). The vulnerability hypothesis proposes that newspapers reflect the interests of vulnerable
populations including the poor, the unemployed, those that live in high-crime areas, and minority
communities (Pollock, 2007, p. 137). It can be assumed that countries with high vulnerability
characteristics will be more accepting and will have more favorable media coverage towards
GMO usage in foods, as genetically modified foods contain fundamental vitamins and minerals
at a more affordable price with the added benefit of year round availability. These benefits of
GMOs provide a large benefit to countries that have a difficult time producing or obtaining
enough food to feed the country’s population.
Countries with a higher poverty level and unemployment rate may seek food that is
affordable and easily accessible. Research conducted after the Roe v. Wade decision confirms
the expectation of wide-ranging media coverage. The Roe v. Wade decision found that coverage
favored legalization of abortion in cities with higher poverty levels (Pollock & Robinson, 1977;
Pollock, Robinson, & Murray, 1978). Likewise, a study on the national coverage of the Patients’
Bill of Rights found higher poverty levels corresponding to more favorable coverage (Pollock,
2007, p. 146–156). An additional study found higher unemployment levels associated with more
favorable media support for genetically modified food (Pollock, Maltese-Nehrbass, Corbin, &
Fascanella, 2010).
Nations with larger populations and higher fertility rates require a greater production of
food. GMOs allow nations to meet these needs by providing an abundance of food, both
affordable and accessible all year. A study by Mayer (2007) examined deficiency-related
diseases and mortality in children. These deficiencies lead to malnutrition, poverty, and
economic dependency (Mayer, 2007). “Golden rice” was synthetically made to address these

15
problems. This type of rice is modified to contain a higher amount of vitamin A to help combat
the vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. An additional study regarding child labor
found that the higher the percentage of a nation’s population younger than 14, the greater the
media emphasis on government responsibility to reduce child labor (Kohn & Pollock,
2014). Therefore, the following can be expected:
H8: The higher a nation’s poverty level, the more favorable the coverage of genetically
modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).
H9: The higher the unemployment level in a country, the more favorable the coverage of
genetically modified foods (County and City Extra, 2004).
H10: The greater the percentage of undernourished, the more favorable the coverage of
genetically modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).
H11: The higher a nation’s fertility rate, the more favorable the coverage of genetically
modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).
H12: The higher the percentage of a nation’s population younger than 14, the more favorable
the coverage of genetically modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).
H13: The higher a nation’s happiness score, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
Access to health resources. Areas throughout the world lack access to clean and healthy
resources, particularly water, which is essential in living a healthy life. It has been found that
with higher percentages of lower income groups, there is greater media support for the
production of genetically modified organisms (Pollock et. al., 2010). An additional study found
that the percent of a country’s population that is satisfied with the water services attributed to a
variance in media coverage regarding responsibility for child labor, validating the significance of

16
these variables (Kohn & Pollock, 2014). Because there is a strong correlation between the
income of groups and the access to clean resources, the following can be hypothesized:
H14: The greater percentage of a nation’s population without access to improved water
services, the more favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).
H15: The higher the percentage satisfied with water services, the less favorable the coverage
of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).
Agricultural dependence. Agricultural dependence refers to the amount of a country’s
land and other resources that are used for agricultural purposes. It can be assumed that the more a
country focuses on agriculture, the less developed and industrialized the country will be, leading
to increased vulnerability. By contrast, it can also be assumed that the countries that depend
heavily on agriculture will view agricultural advancements, such as GMOs, positively.
Therefore, the following apply:
H16: The higher a nation’s percentage of agricultural land, the more favorable the media
coverage of genetically modified foods (World Bank, 2011).
H17: The greater the value added to a nation’s GDP from agriculture, the more favorable the
media coverage of genetically modified foods (World Bank, 2011).
H18: The greater the crop production index score in a nation, the more favorable the media
H19: The greater the food production index in a nation, the more favorable the media coverage
of genetically modified foods (World Bank, 2011).
H20: The higher a nation’s percentage of permanent cropland, the more favorable the media

17
H21: The higher a nation’s percentage of rural population, the more favorable the media
H22: The higher a nation’s percentage of total deforestation, the more favorable the media
coverage of genetically modified foods (Mongabay, 2013).
H23: The greater the deforestation due to insect disturbances in a nation, the more favorable
the media coverage of genetically modified foods (Mongabay, 2013).
Stakeholder Hypothesis
A great number of stakeholders can be linked to favorable content regarding issues of
their concern within media. Previous research tells us that the higher the percentage of these
stakeholders in a community, the more likely newspaper coverage will report favorably on their
interests (McLeod & Hertog, 1999; Pollock, 2007, p. 172). For example, an examination of sub-
Saharan Anglophone African newspaper coverage of AIDS found that the higher the level of
AIDs victims within a nation paralleled a greater media support for government intervention to
fight the crisis (Pollock, D’Angelo, et. al., 2010).
Female empowerment. As women’s rights have become a larger point of focus on the
global scale, populations with higher levels of gender equality have become more outspoken and
involved in controversial issues. In this respect, research by Wissel et. al. (2014) noted that
women are critical stakeholders in the success of water sanitation improvements; when a nation’s
female population was empowered, media coverage demonstrated less emphasis on government
responsibility for water handling. In addition, another cross-national study found that the higher
the percent of females in the workforce, the media emphasis on government responsibility for the
fight against HIV/AIDS (Etheridge, et. al., 2014). These studies validate the importance of
female empowerment variables, and it can be assumed that these will prove significant in the

18
case of GMO coverage as well. When discussing the significance of media coverage regarding
GMOs in a country, the following are offered:
H24: The higher a nation’s female literacy rate, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
H25: The greater the female school life expectancy, the less favorable the coverage of
H26: The higher a nation’s percentage of women in the workforce, the less favorable the
coverage of genetically modified foods (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).
H27: The higher a nation’s percentage of females who are satisfied with their freedom of
choice, the less favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (United Nations
Development Programme, 2008).
Energy production/consumption and infrastructure. The amount of energy that countries
expend tends to be highly correlated with their status as a world power. In such studies English,
O’Conner, Smith, and Pollock (2012) found that the higher the rate of coal production in a
country, the greater the cross-national newspaper support for intervention in Libya. Furthermore
in a case study on climate change Pollock, Reda et. al. (2010), concluded that the greater oil
production, natural gas production, and natural gas consumption in a nation, the greater the
media support for government responsibility to address climate change. Additionally, Wright et.
al. (2008), in a cross-national study, established that the greater terawatt hours of electricity
production in a country, the less favorable the coverage of Muslim immigration. Lastly, Kohn
and Pollock found in their 2014 study a correlation between a country’s industrial growth rate
and the variance of media coverage regarding child labor. With the aforementioned findings, the
following assumptions are sensible:

19
H28: The higher a nation’s natural gas consumption, the less favorable the coverage of
H29: The higher a nation’s natural gas production, the less favorable the coverage of
H30: The higher a nation’s electricity consumption, the less favorable the coverage of
H31: The higher a nation’s electricity production, the less favorable the coverage of
H32: The higher a nation’s coal consumption, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
H33: The higher a nation’s coal production, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
H34: The higher a nation’s oil consumption, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
H35: The higher a nation’s oil production, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
H36: The higher the total length of a nation’s road network, the less favorable the coverage of
H37: The higher a nation’s industrial production growth rate, the less favorable the coverage
of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).
H38: The higher a nation’s biofuel consumption, the less favorable the coverage of genetically
modified foods (U.S. Energy Information Association, 2012).

20
Media access and penetration. Media access is also a prominent stakeholder when
discussing core societal issues. Research by Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1980) confirmed that
cities and towns with larger populations, and therefore a larger variety of social groups, tend to
have a greater range of interests and perspective than small communities, which have less
demographic diversity. Furthermore, Kohn and Pollock (2014) found that the greater the number
of broadband subscriptions per 100 citizens in a nation, the greater the media emphasis on
government responsibility to reduce child labor. Wissel (2014) additionally found that the more
freedom of the press and the higher percentage of population covered by a mobile phone
network, the more media emphasis on government responsibility for clean water access. These
correlations between media access and the variance in media coverage of these topics should
have a similar correlation in regards to GMO coverage in media. Accordingly, the following are
hypothesized:
H39: The higher the Freedom of the Press Report score, the less favorable the coverage of
genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development,
2011).
H40: The higher the number of daily newspapers per 1,000 citizens, the less favorable the
coverage of genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development, 2011).
H41: The higher the percent of population covered by a mobile phone network, the less
favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development, 2011).

21
H42: The higher the number of broadband subscriptions per 100 citizens in a nation, the less
favorable the coverage of genetically modified foods (Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development, 2011).
Stock of foreign investment at home. Stock of direct foreign investment at home is the
monetary contributions of all ventures in the home country, made by nonresidents. This is
especially relevant to countries that depend on foreign aid for resources, especially through
companies in other countries. Previous research has validated foreign investment’s influence on
media coverage, finding that the greater a nation’s stock of direct foreign investment at home,
the more coverage emphasized government responsibility to end human trafficking (Alexandre
et. al., 2014). Therefore, the following can be hypothesized:
H43: The greater a nation’s stock of direct investment at home, the more favorable the
coverage of genetically modified foods (CIA, 2011).
Methodology
To investigate the topic of GMO coverage, a cross-national sample of 19 major
newspapers was selected from the NewsBank and All Africa databases, including all topic-
relevant articles with 250 words or more in the same established time frame, yielding a total of
274 articles. The compilation of publications included articles from the following: China Daily,
Daily Nation, Daily News Egypt, Die Welt, El Mercurio, The Japan Times, La Nación, The
Namibian, The Nation (Pakistan), The Nation (Thailand), New Strait Times, New Vision, The
New York Times, The Star, The Sydney Morning Herald, This Day, The Times (UK), The Times
of India, and The Toronto Star.
The sample period ranged from January 1st, 2004 to November 1st, 2014, a period of
almost 11 years. In 2004 the Food and Drug Administration issued press releases dealing with

22
food safety evaluation and information regarding genetically engineered foods, which raised
public awareness about the potential risks of GMOs, including unexpected allergies and
unknown long-term health effects. The sample end date of November 1st, 2014 is significant for
GMOs as Monsanto’s patent on its Roundup Ready products, some of the most significant GMO
products in the market including soy and animal feed, will expire late within the year 2014. This
patent’s expiration will increase genetically modified soybean seeds exposure in the
market: “Because farmers and seed companies would no longer have to pay royalties to
Monsanto on the gene after 2014, Roundup Ready soybeans would become agricultural
biotechnology’s equivalent of a generic drug” (Pollack, A., 2009, p. B3).
Article Prominence
Articles were assessed by two scores. The first determined “prominence,” portraying editors’
judgments on the importance of each article. A score ranging from 3 to 16 was assigned based
on four factors: placement (front page, first section, etc.), headline size (number of words),
article length (number of words), and any accompanying photographs and/or graphics. Articles
that received a higher number of points were thought to obtain a higher attention score. The
prominence score is detailed below in Table 1.
Table 1.
Prominence Score for Coding Database
Dimension 4 3 2 1
Placement Front page of first
section
Front page of inside
section
Inside of first
section
Other
Headline Size
(# of words)
10+ 8-9 6-7 5 or
fewer
Article Length
(# of words)
1000+ 750-999 500-749 250-499
Photos/Graphics 2 or more 1
*Prominence table copyright John C. Pollock (2000–2014)

23
Article Direction
Upon receiving a prominence score, an article was assigned a “direction” category based
on the content of the frames it used. “Direction” indicated whether an article was primarily
“favorable” towards GMOs, “unfavorable” towards GMOs, or “balanced/neutral.” The articles
were coded for these directions based on the following criteria:
Favorable coverage. Articles that portrayed the use of GMOs as beneficial to their
respective country were coded as “favorable.” Coverage that was “favorable” included articles
suggesting that GMO usage helped increase agricultural yield in countries struggling to meet the
food demands of growing populations. An article in Argentina’s La Nación stated that The Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) announced the National Advisory Commission on
Agricultural Biotechnology as “Reference Center” for the Biosafety of GMOs, creating a space
for Argentina "to strengthen [the] actions and international cooperation in biotechnology, a key
sector in the fight against food insecurity” (“Reconoció la FAO el trabajo de la biotecnología en
la Argentina,” 2014, para. 1). An additional article from China Daily stated that Huang Dafang,
a member of the Biosafety Committee at the Ministry of Agriculture, said that they would turn to
genetically modified organism technology to ensure grain security for the increasing population
(“GM rice set for shelves,” 2010, para. 2).
Unfavorable coverage. Articles that portrayed the usage of GMOs as detrimental to the
well being of their country were coded as “unfavorable.” Coverage that was “unfavorable”
included articles that suggested that consumption of GM foods could result in unknown long-
term health effects including allergies, toxins, antibiotic resistant diseases, and nutritional
problems (Smith, 2004). An article in Daily News Egypt by Luiz Sanchez stated that Egyptians
took part in a global protest against Monsanto, raising awareness about Monsanto and the

24
concerns associated with the potential side effects GM crops have on humans (2013, para.
2). Additionally, a consumer backlash against genetically modified food has prompted the three
largest Australian poultry companies, which produced 80% of the chicken sold in the country, to
stop using genetically modified feed as stated in an article by Kirsty Needham in The Sydney
Morning Herald (2005, para. 1).
Balanced/neutral. Articles perceived to be unbiased towards GMO usage, or covered
both sides of this issue in approximately equal measure, were classified as
“balanced/neutral.” Additionally, any article that tried to provide the reader with current events
regarding the controversy was coded in this category. An article in Die Welt outlined an
experiment conducted on rats utilizing untreated GM corn, GM Roundup corn, and conventional
corn as well as the results (“Prüfern fehlen Belege in Studie zu giftigem Genmais,” 2012, para.
4). In addition, an article in Malaysia’s New Strait Times discussed labeling GM foods and
products, allowing the consumer to choose whether to consume these foods and products
(Mohamed Idris, 2007, para. 4).
One hundred fifty of 274 articles collected were double-coded for content direction,
yielding a Scott’s Pi coefficient of intercoder reliability of 0.772. Researchers applied the
prominence and direction scores for each coded article to calculate a Media Vector for each
newspaper. Pearson correlations and regression analyses were performed to evaluate the
correlations between national characteristics and the Media Vectors. When utilizing both
Pearson correlations and regression analyses, significant associations were found between certain
national characteristics and the coverage of genetically modified foods.

25
Calculating a Media Vector
After analyzing 19 newspapers from cities nationwide, the Janis-Fadner Coefficient of
Imbalance was applied to calculate a “Media Vector.” For newspaper articles within this study,
the combined impact of the strength or “prominence” of an article and its “direction” formed a
composite Media Vector measure of media “projection” (Pollock, 2007, p. 49). Media Vector
scores range from +1.00 and -1.00. Coverage that emphasized favorable coverage of genetically
modified organisms had scores between +1.00 and 0. In contrast, that emphasized unfavorable
coverage of genetically modified organisms had scores between 0 and -1.00. The Media Vector
formula is depicted in Table 2.
Table 2.
Calculating a Media Vector (Favorable/Unfavorable)
f= sum of the prominence scores coded “favorable”
u= sum of the prominence scores coded “unfavorable”
n = sum of the prominence scores coded “balanced/neutral”
r = f + u + n
If f > u (the sum of the favorable prominence scores is greater than the sum of the unfavorable
prominence scores), the following formula is used:
Favorable Media Vector: (Answer lies between 0 and +1.00)
FMV = (f2
- fu)
r2
If f < u (the sum of the unfavorable prominence scores is greater than the sum of the favorable
prominence scores), the following formula is used:
Unfavorable Media Vector: (Answer lies between 0 and -1.00)
UMV = (fu - u2
)
r2
* Media Vector copyright John C. Pollock (2000–2014)
Procedures
In order to examine connections between cross-national characteristics and Media
Vectors, Pearson correlations and regression analysis were used. Pearson correlations
determined which country characteristics were most strongly linked with variation in coverage in
GMOs. Regression analysis compared the strength and significance of each independent

26
variable. When these two statistical procedures were applied, connections were discovered
between national characteristics and newspaper coverage of GMOs.
Results
This study examined cross-national newspaper coverage of GMO usage in 19 newspapers
from January 1, 2004, through November 1, 2014. La Nacion from Argentina had the highest
Media Vector, at .7382. Conversely, The Japan Times had the lowest Media Vector at -.3994.
The range of Media Vector results was 1.1376, which represents significant variation in coverage
of GMO usage. Of the 19 newspapers, less than half, 8 (42%) reflected positive Media Vectors
(demonstrating favorable coverage of GMOs), and the other 11 showed negative Media Vectors
(demonstrating unfavorable coverage of GMOs). Table 3 provides a complete list of the
newspapers used and their Media Vectors.
Table 3. Media Vector by Country
Country Newspaper Media Vector
Argentina La Nacion 0.7382
Nigeria This Day 0.5715
United Kingdom The Times 0.4409
Kenya Daily Nation 0.4297
Chile El Mercurio 0.3265
Uganda New Vision 0.216
China China Daily 0.1371
Australia The Sydney Morning Herald 0.0234
India The Times of India -0.0114
Namibia The Namibian -0.1162
Thailand The Nation -0.2006
Egypt Daily News Egypt -0.201

27
Malaysia New Strait Times -0.248
Canada The Toronto Star -0.2504
Germany Die Welt -0.2567
United States The New York Times -0.2906
Pakistan The Nation -0.332
South Africa The Star -0.3825
Japan The Japan Times -0.3994
Discussion of Significant Findings
Vulnerability Significant
Poverty Level (confirmed). Under the vulnerability hypotheses, it was expected that
vulnerability would be associated with favorable coverage toward GMO usage. Therefore, it
was predicted that the higher the poverty level of a nation, the more favorable the coverage
towards GMO usage would be. This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .492, p = .019). It was
expected that when a higher percentage of a nation’s population live in poverty, they would be
more accepting towards GMO foods regardless of the potential health risks and negative
assumptions because of the strict need for affordable, available food.
Fertility Rate (confirmed). It was predicted that the higher the fertility rate of a nation,
the more favorable the coverage toward GMO usage. This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .404, p
= .043). It was expected that when more children born into a single family, the need for
affordable, available food would increase, leading to more favorable coverage of GMO foods.
Little Access to Improved Water Services (confirmed). It was predicted that the greater
the percentage of a nation’s population without access to improved water services, the more
favorable the coverage of GMO usage. This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .466, p = .022). It
was expected that when a greater percentage of the public has issues with accessing clean water,

28
they will be more accepting of healthy, inexpensive foods, regardless of the methods used to
produce them.
Percentage of Agricultural Land (confirmed). It was predicted that the greater the
percentage of agricultural land in a country, the more favorable the coverage of GMO usage.
This hypothesis was confirmed (r = .441, p = .029). It was expected that the higher the
percentage of a nation’s land used for agricultural purposes, the more favorable the opinion
toward agricultural advancements such as GMOs.
Table 4. Pearson Correlation Results
National Characteristics Pearson Correlation Significance
Poverty Level 0.492 0.019*
Percent w/o Improved Water 0.466 0.022*
Percent Agricultural Land 0.441 0.029*
Fertility Rate 0.404 0.043*
DD Incidence 0.369 0.066
Pop Covered by Phone Network -0.337 0.079
Phone Network -0.337 0.079
Percent population <14 0.336 0.08
Value Added to GDP from Agric. 0.295 0.11
Hospital Beds per 1000 -0.291 0.114
Natural Gas Consumption -0.267 0.135
Females Satisfied with Freedom -0.264 0.138
GDP per capita -0.25 0.151
Coal Production 0.339 0.154
Females in Workforce 0.24 0.162
% Satisfied with Water -0.234 0.175
Natural Gas Production -0.223 0.179
GDP -0.222 0.18
Biofuel Consumption -0.204 0.208

29
Length Road Network -0.19 0.218
Newspapers per 1000 -0.226 0.219
Infant Mortality Rate 0.174 0.238
Freedom Press 0.172 0.24
Crop Production Index 0.167 0.247
Industrial Production 0.166 0.248
Percent Undernourished 0.146 0.276
Broadband Subscriptions -0.144 0.278
Oil Production -0.143 0.285
Oil Consumption -0.154 0.292
Stock FDI at Home -0.14 0.295
Electricity Production -0.126 0.304
Male Life Expectancy -0.119 0.314
Electricity Consumption -0.119 0.314
Direct Investment at Home -0.116 0.324
Total Deforestation 0.1 0.341
Female Life Expectancy -0.088 0.36
Coal Consumption 0.094 0.369
Female School Expectancy 0.074 0.388
DD Prevalence -0.119 0.389
Happiness Score -0.065 0.399
Literacy Rate -0.057 0.409
Female Literacy Rate -0.054 0.413
Food Production Index 0.051 0.417
Rural Population 0.048 0.423
Citizens Satisfied w/ Freedom 0.037 0.44
Permanent Crop Land -0.022 0.465
Physicians Per 1000 0.016 0.473
Gini Score 0.003 0.496

30
Regression Analysis: Vulnerability Significant
A regression analysis identified specific variables influencing Media Vector scores,
indicating that Poverty Level accounted for 24.2% of the variance and “Percentage of
Agricultural Land” accounted for 4.7% of the variance, for a combined total of 28.9%. This
analysis strongly confirmed the vulnerability hypothesis, as poverty level is an important
indicator of vulnerability and contributed to the greatest variance in the results.
In addition, the “Agricultural Vulnerability” hypotheses, a set of hypotheses introduced
for this particular study, was confirmed as well, as “Percent of Agricultural Land” was the
second leading contributing variable to the variance of the results. In broad terms, percent of
agricultural land is linked to less industrialization and less access to a full range of options in a
global economy. Therefore, on a global level, “Percent of Agricultural Land” leads to
international vulnerability, further confirming the vulnerability hypotheses in the case of GMOs.
Table 5 below illustrates the findings of the regression analysis.
Table 5. Regression Analysis
Model R
(equation)
R²
(cumulative)
R²
Change
F
Change
Significance of F
Change
Poverty Level 0.492 0.242 0.242 5.119 0.038
Poverty Level, Percent
Agricultural Land
0.538 0.289 0.047 0.992 0.335
Conclusions and Implications for Further Research
The use of GMOs in agriculture is growing exponentially into a critical international
debate with the advent of technology and growth of the global population. Accordingly, the topic
has warranted substantial cross-national discussion, reflected in variations in cross-national
media coverage. Several important correlations were discovered, all related to “vulnerability.”

31
Four contextual variables were confirmed significant: poverty level, percent of a population
without access to improved water services, fertility rate, and percent of agricultural land.
One of the most interesting aspects of our findings was the confirmation of the
Agricultural Dependence hypotheses. Since this was the first time that this section was utilized in
a community structure approach study, the significance of these findings sets a precedent for
future studies within the communication studies field. In this regard, percent of agricultural land
was validated through a significant Pearson correlation of (r = .441, p = .029). Additionally, this
variable also accounted for 4.7% of the regression variance in coverage. A higher percentage of
agricultural land in a given country, therefore, is one indicator of more favorable media coverage
toward GMO usage.
Furthermore, the statistical significance of these findings confirms that media coverage is
relevant to vulnerability, which is contrary to the guard dog hypothesis. The positive correlation
of poverty level, percent of a population without access to improved water services, and fertility
rate with favorable coverage of GMOs cross-nationally is consistent with similar connections of
“vulnerability” and favorable coverage of GMOs throughout the United States (Pollock, Maltese-
Nehrbass, Corbin and Fascanella, 2010). Related research found links between vulnerability
indicators and cross-national coverage of water handling and child labor, in both cases
emphasizing government responsibility in addressing each issue (Wissel, et. al., 2014; Kohn &
Pollock, 2014).
In regard to future research, studies can specifically examine whether leading media
favor or oppose regulation of GMOs by government or society. Since 11 of the 19 country
newspapers demonstrated unfavorable coverage of GMO usage, it can be expected that
significant media may support regulation of GMO foods. It would be beneficial to examine

32
cross-national newspaper coverage of these nations to examine responsibility assignment, and to
uncover which variables contribute to a potential variance in these results. In addition, there is
potential for the Agricultural Dependence hypotheses to be expanded and included in future
studies utilizing the community structure approach. Therefore, using agricultural characteristic
hypotheses in future studies will provide more depth in the results and will potentially create
additional findings, as these variables can contribute to the variance of future GMO studies as
well as other topics.

33
References
Alexandre, K., Sha, C., Pollock, J.C., Baier, K., & Johnson, J. (2014, July). Cross- national
coverage of human trafficking: A community structure approach. Atlantic Journal of
Communication, 22(3/4), 160 - 174.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). (2011). The world factbook. Retrieved from
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
Chaitoo, R., & Hart, M. (2000). Labeling of genetically modified products: Strategic trade policy
considerations for Canada Centre for Trade Policy and Law, Carleton University.
Choi, E. (2010). International trade in genetically modified products. International Review of
Economics & Finance, 19(3), 383-391.
Cook, G., Robbins, P.T., Pieri, E. (2006). “Words of mass destruction”: British newspaper
coverage of the genetically modified food debate, expert and non-expert reactions. Public
Understanding of Science, 14(1):1-25.
Coutellec, L., & Doussan, I. (2011). Legal and ethical apprehensions regarding relational object.
The case of genetically modified fish. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics,
25, 861-875. Retrieved September 12th, 2014.
Demers, D.P., & Viswanath, K. (Eds.) (1999). Mass media, social control, and social change: A
macrosocial perspective. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
English, C., O’Conner, B., Smith, K., & Pollock, J. C. (2012, November). Cross-national
newspaper coverage of revolution in Libya: A community structure approach. Paper
presented at the annual conference of the National Communication Association, Orlando,
FL.
Etheridge, J., Zinck, K., Pollock, J.C., Santiago, C., Halicki, K., & Badalamenti, A. (2014, July).
Cross-national coverage of HIV/AIDS: A community structure approach. Atlantic
Journal of Communication, 22(3/4), 175-192.

34
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Global forest resources assessment 2010. Retrieved
from http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e.pdf
Gasparro, A. (2014, Aug 07). The GMO fight ripples down the food chain; facing consumer
pressure, more firms are jettisoning GMOs from their foods. Wall Street Journal.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1551771962?accountid=10216
GM rice set for shelves. (2010, February 4). China Daily (Beijing, China) n.pag. Retrieved
November 30, 2014, from NewsBank on-line database (Access World News).
GMO products lower prices, raise yields and concerns. (2014, Aug 18). Wall Street Journal.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1553770838?accountid=10216
Hansen, M. et al. (2013, November). High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover
change. Mongabay, 324(15).
Hindman, D.B. (1999). Social control, social change and local mass media. In D. Demers and K.
Viswanath (Eds.), Mass media, social control, and social change: A macrosocial
perspective (pp.99-116). Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Holst-Jensen, A., Bertheau, Y., Loose, M., Grohmann, L., Hamels, S., Hougs, L., Wulff, D.
(2012). Detecting un-authorized genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and derived
materials. Biotechnology Advances, 30(6), 1318-1335. (2012, December 1). Retrieved
September 15, 2014.
Kaur, A., Kohli, R., & Jaswal, P. (2012). Genetically modified organisms: An Indian ethical
dilemma. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 26, 621-628. Retrieved
September 11th, 2014.
Kohn, J.G., & Pollock, J.C. (2014, July). Cross-national coverage of child labor: A community
structure approach. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 22(3/4), 211-228.

35
Kuiper, H. A., Kleter, G. A., Noteborn, H. P., & Kok, E. J. (2001). Assessment of the food safety
issues related to genetically modified foods. The Plant Journal, 27(6), 503-528. doi:
10.1046/j.1365-313X.2001.01119.x
Lezuan, J. (2004). Policing purity: Testing, traceability, and the governance of genetically
modified organisms. Cornell University. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The
Humanities and Social Sciences, 64(12), 334-349.
Mayer, J. (2007). Delivering golden rice to developing countries. Journal of AOAC
International, 90(5), 1445-1449.
Mohamed Idris, S. (2007, May 30). Sound reasons for the label. New Straits Times (Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia) n.pag. Retrieved November 30, 2014, from NewsBank on-line
database (Access World News).
Needham, K. (2005, February 11). Poultry giants quail at gene food protests. Sydney Morning
Herald, The (Australia) (Second ed.), 4. Retrieved November 30, 2014, from NewsBank
on-line database (Access World News).
Olien, C. N., Donohue, G. A., & Tichenor, P. J. (1995). Conflict, consensus and public opinion.
In T. L. Glasser & C. T. Salmon (Eds.), Public opinion and the communication of consent
(pp. 301-322). New York: The Guildford Press.
Park, R. (1922). The immigrant press and its control. New York, NY: Harcourt.
Pollack, A. (2009, December 17). As Patent Ends, a Seed’s Use Will Survive. The New York
Times. Retrieved September 4, 2014, from
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/18/business/18seed.html?_r=0
Pollock, J.C. (2014, July). Overview - Illuminating human rights: How demographics drive
media coverage. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 22(3/4), 141-159.
Pollock, J. C. (Ed.). (2013). Media and social inequality: Innovations in community structure
research. New York, NY: Routledge.

36
Pollock, J.C., (2007). Titled Mirrors: Media alignment with political and social change- A
community structure approach. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Pollock, J.C., Maltese-Nehrbass, M., Corbin, P., & Fascanella, P.B. (2010, octubre). Nationwide
newspaper coverage of genetically-modified food in the United States: A community
structure approach. Ecos de la Comunicación, 3(3), 51-75.
Pollock, J. C., Reda, E., Bosland, A., Hindi, M., & Zhu, D. (2010, June). Cross-national
coverage of climate change: A community structure approach. Paper presented at the
annual conference of the International Communication Association, Singapore.
Pollock, J. C., Robinson, J. L., & Murray, M. C. (1978). Media agendas and human rights: The
Supreme court decision on abortion. Journalism Quarterly, 53(3), 545-548, 561.
Poulter, S. (2011). GM food toxins found in the blood of 93% unborn babies. Mail Online.
Retrieved September 4th, 2014 from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-
1388888/GM-food-toxins-blood-93-unborn-babies.html
Prüfern fehlen Belege in Studie zu giftigem Genmais. (2012, February 10). Die Welt. Retrieved
November 30, 2014, from http://www.welt.de/wissenschaft/article109589886/Pruefern-
fehlen-Belege-in-Studie-zu-giftigem-Genmais.html
Reconoció la FAO el trabajo de la biotecnología en la Argentina. (2014, November 1). La
Nación (Buenos Aires, Argentina) n.pag. Retrieved November 30, 2014, from NewsBank
on-line database (Access World News).
Sanchez, L. (2013, May 25). Cairo participates in global protests against Monsanto. Daily News
Egypt (Cairo, Egypt) n.pag. Retrieved November 30, 2014, from NewsBank on-line
database (Access World News).
Tichenor, P.J., Donohue, G., & Olien, C. (1973). Mass communication research: Evolution of a
structural model. Journalism Quarterly, 50, 419-425.
Tichenor, P. J., Donohue, G., & Olien, C. (1980). Community conflict and the press. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.

37
Turow, E. (2014). You need to know: The facts and debate about GMOs. The Huffington Post.
Retrieved September 4th, 2014 from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/eve-turow/you-
need-to-know-the-fact_b_5570951.html
Wissel, D., Ward, K., Pollock, J.C., Hipper, A., Klein, L., & Gratale, S. (2014, July). Cross-
national coverage of water handling: A community structure approach. Atlantic Journal
of Communication, 22(3).
Woosley, G. L. (2012). GMO Timeline: A history of genetically modified foods. GMO Inside.
Retrieved September 3rd, 2014 from http://gmoinside.org/gmo-timeline-a-history-
genetically-motified -foods/
World Resources Institute. (2014) CAIT Country Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data. Retrieved
from
http://cait2.wri.org/wri/Country%20GHG%20Emissions?indicator%5B%5D=Total%20G
HG%20Emissions%20Excluding%20Land-
Use%20Change%20and%20Forestry&indicator%5B%5D=Total%20GHG%20Emissions
%20Including%20Land-
Use%20Change%20and%20Forestry&year%5B%5D=2011&chartType=geo

Cross-National Coverage of GMOs Final copy

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (19)

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (14)

Similar to Cross-National Coverage of GMOs Final copy

Similar to Cross-National Coverage of GMOs Final copy (20)

More from Krysti Peitz

More from Krysti Peitz (8)

Cross-National Coverage of GMOs Final copy