This document presents a framework for personal selling to organizations. It begins by reviewing existing models of personal selling and organizational buying behavior, noting their limitations for understanding selling to organizations. It then proposes a new two-dimensional model that addresses these limitations. Dimension 1 involves the sales presentation and determining the needs of the buyer(s). It outlines four phases: setting the stage, determining needs, presentation, and exit. Dimension 2 involves identifying the buying group, their influence patterns, and organizational/environmental factors. This model provides a more comprehensive approach for understanding the complex interactions between salespeople and multiple members within an organizational buying process.

1. A Framework for Personal
Selling to Organizations zyxwvutsrqponmlkj
Richard E. Plank
Salespersons selling to organizations operate in a more
complex environment than is typically portrayed in the litera-
ture. The scope of models developed in the sales process area
has been limited to simple persuasion situations. This article
goes beyond traditional sales models by taking into account
interactions by various members of the organization involved
or potentially involved in the industrial buying process. Impli-
cations for industrial sales training process are also discussed.
William A. Dempsey
is no available model that specifically connects the task
of personal selling with multiparticipant organizational
buying processes. The purpose of this article is to pro-
pose a practical model for selling to organizations. The
existing models of selling and organizational buying be-
havior will be reviewed and then a comprehensive model
for selling to organizations will then be presented.
FIVE MODELS OF SELLING
INTRODUCTION
Firms that market to organizations usually rely on
personal selling for most of their promotional effort.
Therefore, it is imperative for these firms that the selling
function be performed well. In order to discharge the
selling function best, a salesperson must understand the
nature of personal selling and how it relates to organiza-
tional buying behavior. There is a large literature avail-
able concerning the personal selling function. The or-
ganizational buying behavior literature, also referred to
as industrial buying behavior, has been developing at a
rapid pace in the last ten years [15]. However, there has
been little work done in bridging these two areas. There
Address correspondence to: Richard E. Plank, Montclair State College,
Upper Montclair, NJ 07043
There are a number of theories or models that attempt
to explain how to sell a product or service. Some of the
more common approaches include simple stimulus re-
sponse, formula selling, needs-satisfaction, grid ap-
proach, and the depth approach. These models are briefly
reviewed and the advantages and limitations as applied to
personal selling to organizations are discussed.
Simple Stimulus Response
Simple stimulus response is based on buyers respond-
ing to a stimulus in a similar manner. The “canned”
sales talk is an example of a pure stimulus response
approach to selling. A typical example in practice is the
selling of a newspaper subscription over the phone. A
salesperson will either memorize or read a sales presenta-
tion over the phone. It is assumed that the attributes
Industrial Marketing Management 9, 143-149 (1980)
@ Elsevier North Holland, Inc., 1980
52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, New York 10017
143
0019-8501/80/020143-07/$01.75

2. mentioned in the presentation will be received in a posi-
tive manner by the prospect. However, not all prospec-
tive customers perceive attributes in the same manner,
and this constitutes the major weakness of the “canned”
approach. Nonetheless, a good case can be made for the
use of this approach in certain situations [9].
Formulated Selling-AIDA
Formulated selling is usually referred to as the AIDA
technique. This theory is based on the writings of
William James [18] and is said to have been in actual
practice since 1898. In its pure form, the theory suggests
that a buyer’s mind must go through four mental states
during a successful sales presentation. The salesperson is
instrumental in securing these states. The first mental
state is that of Attention (A). The salesperson must obtain
the attention of the buyer in order to continue. Next, the
buyer must develop an interest (I) in the product or
service (D) on the part of the buyer. Once this is
achieved, the salesperson can get action (A) by asking for
and receiving an order. Formulated selling is perhaps the
most often used technique taught in sales training. Its
usefulness as a theory for organizational selling is limited
by its concentration on the presentation aspects of sell-
ing.
Needs-Satisfaction
The needs-satisfaction theory dates from the writings
of Strong, an early business psychologist [19]. The
theory concludes that the buyer must recognize a need in
order to buy, and that the salesperson must supply the
solution to the need. Thus, the salesperson must identify
needs in the mind of the buyer and then provide an
attractive solution to the buyer’s problem or react to the
stated needs of the buyer and fulfill them. Its usefulness
as a model for organizational selling is limited, again, by
a focus on one buyer (vs. a group of participants in
buying). The concept espoused is, however, an important
component of any complete model.
RICHARD E. PLANK is an Instructor of Marketing at Montclair
State College, Upper Montclair, New Jersey. He is a Doctoral
student in Marketing at Temple University and received his
MBA from Seton Hall University.
WILLIAM A. DEMPSEY is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at
Temple University, Philadelphia. He received his DBA from the
University of Maryland, and has published in a number of pro-
fessional and academic journals and association proceedings
in the marketing area.
144
Grid System
The grid system is an adaptation of the managerial grid
to the selling function [2]. The grid has two axes. One
axis involves ego drive and is labeled concern for the
sale. The other axis involves empathy and is labeled
concern for the customer. The grid concept is directed
toward developing high levels of both qualities in a
salesperson as the means for ensuring high-level sales
performances. A l-9 scale is used on both axes. A 9,9
rated salesperson is ideal because the highest levels of
both qualities have been achieved. The 9,9 rated sales-
person is solution oriented in terms of striving to find a fit
between the needs of the buyer and the products or
services marketed by the selling organization. Again, its
usefulness as an organizational model of selling is limited
by a lack of explicit recognition that more than one
participant may be involved in the organizational buying
decision process.
Depth Approach
Thompson has developed the depth approach which
emphasized the positive elements of several of the pre-
viously mentioned models [2 11. The theory is psycholog-
ically oriented with an emphasis on the elements of
communication. Buyer/seller interaction is encouraged,
and a balance between presentation structure and creativ-
ity is sought. The sales presentation is not viewed as a
series of separate and distinct steps, but rather a continu-
ous flow of thoughts and ideas which are structured as
necessary. Listening is considered as important as speak-
ing. The usefulness of the depth approach as a theory of
organizational selling is limited by its concentration on
the presentational aspects of selling.
All of the theories mentioned thus far have been used
successfully in practice. Nevertheless, these theories are
not fully adequate for an organizational buying situation.
A brief review of organization buying theory will be
useful in identifying inadequacies in the selling models.
ORGANIZATIONAL BUYING THEORY REVIEW
There are several models of the organizational buying
process. The Webster and Wind and Sheth models are the
most widely recognized models of the organizational
buying process [ 16, 221. Webster and Wind have formu-
lated a model in which buying behavior is a function of
individual, social organizational, and environment fac-
tors. These four basic categories contain variables, some

3. of which are related to the buying task and some of which
are not related to the buying task. Also central to the
decision process is the concept of a buying group or
buying center. The purchasing agent is not always the
only person in buying processes and, in fact, may not
have very much to do with certain buying decisions.
Webster and Wind also discuss the various roles of the
participants including users, influencers, buyers, decid- zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGF
ers, and gatekeepers.
The Sheth model is an information processing model
similar to the Howard-Sheth model of consumer be-
havior [8]. Sheth identifies the industrial buying process
as having two types of decisions, autonomous and joint.
Recent research has noted the existance of substantial
joint decision-making in organizational purchasing deci-
sions. When joint decision-making occurs, potential con-
flict is possible and interpersonal or interdepartmental
influences are an important part of the conflict resolution
process. Sheth uses the March and Simon paradigm of
four types of conflict resolution, problem solving, per-
suasion , bargaining, and politicking [ 121. 0 ‘Shaughnessy
has noted that this leaves out another mode of conflict
resolution, namely ajudication [ 141. Other models have
also been offered [5, 171 and recent review articles [7, 151
cite numerous studies of certain facts of organizational
buying behavior.
Models of organizational buying process and buying
behavior provide the basis for a better understanding of
the task environment and problems encountered by sales-
persons. The major problems center on the concept of the
buying center (which may include a number of different
participants) and conflict resolution in joint decision situ-
ations. A salesperson must determine whether a buying
decision will be a joint decision or an autonomous deci-
sion. The salesperson must answer a number of key
questions. If it is a joint decision, then who are the
members in the group decision process and what mode of
conflict resolution occurs? None of the selling models
mentioned earlier in this article directly address these
questions. The selling models are mainly communication-
presentation oriented, and it is presumed that the buying
decision-maker has been located and that the decision-
maker then becomes a part of buyer-seller (salesperson)
dyad. A model of organizational selling which overcomes
these shortcomings will now be presented.
AN ORGANIZATIONAL SELLING MODEL
A salesperson must deal with two task areas or dimen-
sions when planning, executing, and controlling selling
efforts. One basic task area involves sales presentations
made by salespersons to prospective customers. The
other task or dimension involves determining who the
members of the buying group are and what influences
their behavior. The dual dimensional@ of selling to
organizations is illustrated in Fig. 1.
The dimensions shown in Fig. 1 are not mutually
exclusive, i.e., they overlap. Dimension 1, which in-
volves a sales presentation, occurs in all personal selling
situations. Dimension 2 is also present in all situations,
since the salesperson must determine to whom the pre-
sentations will be made. It is this second dimension
which has not as yet received adequate attention in sell-
ing models.
DIMENSION 1
The sales presentation and those events leading up to it
usually comprise the area of most concern for the sales-
person. The selling models, discussed previously, deal
with this aspect of selling. The model developed in this
article consists of four phases, and it is assumed that the
Dimension 1 - Selling
A. Setting the stage
1. Mood, professionalism
2. Credibility
3. Communication level(s)
B Determining Buyer(s)’ needs
1. Organizational needs
2. Individual needs
3. Departmental needs zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZY
C Presentation
1. Stage 1 - develop interest
2. Stage 2 - demonstration
3. Stage 3 - dandle objections,
close or conclude
D. Exit
Buyer(s) - Seller Dyad
A. Buying group identification
B Influence pattern identification
C Organization factor identification
D Environmental factor identification
Dimension 2 - Organizational
Buying Environment
FIGURE 1. An Organizational Selling Model
145

4. standard type of prospecting, as discussed in most sales
textbooks, has been done.
First Stage of Organizational Selling
The first step in the model involves the salesperson in
developing an environment conducive to selling. Ini-
tially, this means creating an atmosphere of profes-
sionalism. However, what might be considered profes-
sional by a purchasing agent may differ from what other
members of the buying group such as engineers and
production personnel think is professional. Therefore,
the salesperson may have to develop different initial
communications approaches for each member of the buy-
ing group. Credibility as related to the salespeople, their
company, and its products and services as perceived by
the buyer is an important prerequisite to a sale. Levitt has
shown the effect of the selling company’s name on the
buyer-seller dyad [ 111. Establishing credibility is a
dynamic process, and it is influenced by some factors
outside of the control of the selling organization and its
salespersons. Salespeople must establish and/or further
develop various credibilities associated with themselves,
their company, and the company’s product line. This
process begins at first contact and continues throughout
salespeople’s interaction with the people within the cus-
tomer organization.
Establishing communication levels is an important and
sometimes little understood aspect in selling. According
to Carl Jung, an individual’s personality primarily de-
velops in one of four ways [lo]. People may be viewed as
having one of four basic styles of behavior, which can be
defined as intuitive, thinking, feeling, and sensing.
to establish credibility. In addition it increases the likeli-
hood that a sales communication will be interpreted
properly and favorably. Overall this process is similar to
the concept of rapport building often mentioned in sales
textbooks. It is well known that dyadic interactions re-
quire that these concepts be utilized to the fullest extent
[6, 13, 231.
Determining Buyer’s Needs
The next aspect of Dimension 1 is to determine the
needs of the buying organization. A salesperson must
recognize that there are not only organizational needs to
satisfy in marketing to organizations but also departmen-
tal and individual/personal needs. The experienced sales-
person may have to take all three sets of needs into
account when making sales presentations. To put this
into perspective, we can use the Sheth model [161. The
expectations of various buying center members come
from a variety of influences. The key to understanding
various needs and the attributes associated with filling
needs lies in the concept of organization orientation. If a
company is technology oriented all members of the firm
are likely to have similar backgrounds, educations, and
experiences. Individual goals, departmental goals, and
organizational goals are more likely to be highly inte-
grated and differences between groups and individuals
therefore minimized. On the other hand, companies that
are not oriented to a high degree would be more likely to
have goal conflicts. In companies with a high degree of
organizational orientation we would expect that attributes
of a product or service would be ranked very similarly
regardless of whether an engineering, quality control,
production, or purchasing group member evaluated zyxwvutsr
A purchasing agent may be interested in price and
delivery and an engineer in quality and design.
People largely process communications in one of these
four styles. Hence, it is advantageous to the salesperson
to be able to determine which style is the primary mode
of communication processing for each member of a par-
ticular buying group. The salesperson can then com-
municate to the buying group member in the appropriate
mode. This ability to communicate in different modes
has been received to as style-flexing [3]. The ability to
style-flex helps to create a mood of professionalism and
them. In companies with a low degree of organizational
orientation the distinct possibility exists that the attributes
could vary not only in degree, but also in order of
ranking. Thus, it is possible that a purchasing agent may
be interested in price and delivery and an engineer in
quality and design. Thus, the salesperson must determine
if differences in attributes exist. If so, the sales presenta-
tion emphasis may have to be changed when dealing with
different members of the buying group.
146

5. Organizational Sales Presentations
The sales presentation component of Dimension 1 con-
tains three interrelated stages. Using AIDA terminology,
the salesperson must first gain the attention and interest
of the buyer. Then the salesperson moves the buyer
toward the purchase by developing the desire for the
product through demonstrations and discussions keyed to
the buyer’s needs. Finally, the sale is consumated after
the salesperson has handled the buyer’s request for
clarification and overcome any doubts the buyer may
have had. It should be emphasized that the presentation is
not a distinct series of steps but is a fluid process in which
two-way communications will normally be utilized.
The sales presentation as described above is valid in a
conceptual sense for those instances where the purchase
decisions are made autonomously. However, the descrip-
tion of the sales presentation must be modified to ac-
commodate joint decision-making. A major point to rec-
ognize is that a close of the sale in a traditional sense is
not made with each individual in the buying group. There
is no point in asking for an order from an individual in a
buying group who cannot make an autonomous decision.
When the buying decision is a group or joint decision,
then the objective of the sales presentation to group
members is to improve each person’s relative evaluation
of the salesperson’s overall offering.
Exit
The last part of Dimension 1 is for the salesperson to
make a well-timed and graceful exit. Salespersons should
not overstay their welcome, and they should thank the
buying participant(s) for their time and any orders made.
The steps presented in Dimension 1 of the model (Fig.
1) are generalizable to most selling situations. A key
factor concerning effective sales presentations is making
them to the right people. Dimension 2 deals with this
factor and other factors that affect organization buying
decisions.
DIMENSION 2
The second dimension has four distinct but related
tasks which must be accomplished by the successful
salesperson. Dimension 2 can be considered an extension
of the prospecting work that the salesperson does prior to
the first encounter with a firm.
Identifying Buying Group Members
The first task is to identify members of the buying
group, if a group exists at all. If an autonomous buying
decision situation clearly exists, then the salesperson
need go no further in this task area. Many times the
knowledge necessary to identify joint decision-making
situations is based on the salesperson’s experience. An
experienced salesperson generally knows by the nature of
the product or services and/or the nature of the buying
organization the probability of the purchase decision
being autonomous or joint. As an example, a salesperson
with a technical item used in the customer’s product will
almost always have to deal with buying participants from
production, engineering, and purchasing. Many times,
however, it is not this clearcut. If not, the salesperson
will usually start with the purchasing department and
through questioning and observation identify other buy-
ing group members. Since the purchasing agent is often a
gatekeeper, the importance of this contact cannot be
minimized. The importance of this task should be obvi-
ous. If a salesperson misses one of the decision makers, it
reduces his or her chances for success.
Identifying Influence Patterns
The second task involves an attempt by the salesperson
to ascertain the influence patterns involved in the pur-
chase decision. Again, if an autonomous buying decision
exists the salesperson need go no further in this task area.
In joint decision-making situations the influence and
decision-making patterns will vary. This variance is de-
termined by a number of forces as indicated in the Sheth
model [ 161. From a practical standpoint, the salesperson
can use experience to predict influence patterns to some
extent. In virtually all cases, however, some degree of
observation and questioning will have to be utilized.
Influence patterns are likely to be routinized across an
individual firm’s purchasing decisions but not across
multiple firms, even in the same industry. Very little
research has been done in this area. One approach to
understanding influence patterns is through the study of
conflict resolution. Sheth [161 has utilized the March and
Simon [121 conflict resolution paradigm in the industrial
buying behavior area. While there has been no actual
research in this area, some preliminary research has been
conducted by organizational behaviorists studying
decision-making in a large organization [20]. This pre-
liminary research attempted to predict whether bargain-
ing or problem solving types of conflict resolutions
would occur in organizations with certain antecedent
conditions inherent in the decision process. Results indi-
cated it might be possible for salespeople to predict
conflict resolution patterns based on their observance of
147

6. specific conditions. These specific conditions included
communication obstacles, the degree of dependence of
group members on one another, and knowledge of another
party’s needs and problems.
Identifying Organizational Factors *
A third task is attempting to identify organizational
factors which may effect the buying function. Often a
company will develop policies which have an effect on
their purchaser. In some cases a company may strive to
develop and maintain a particular image to the general
public. A salesperson can usually pick up one of these
constraints by observation. Often office furnishings,
typewriters, or the type of building will provide infer-
ences. Better yet, is a knowledge of a firm’s products
and/or services and its marketing philosophy.
Environmental Factors
The fourth and final task is that of identifying en-
vironmental constraints facing the firm. Most basic mar-
keting texts include such factors as cultural and social
forces, political and legal forces, and economic condi-
tions. Again, these factors could have profound effect on
the purchasing function of the firm. A company having to
expend large sums of money for pollution control may
not have money for new capital equipment. A company
experiencing a slackening of demand for its products or
services will will probably tighten its buying policies.
Identifying these constraints involves developing a
rudimentary knowledge of the firm and its industry.
Often the salesperson can use questions during the rap-
port building stage of a presentation to obtain knowledge
of these constraints.
Dimension 2 operates, at least in parts, simultaneously
with Dimension 1. Both sets of tasks are equally impor-
tant to the salesperson. It must be reemphasized that
successfully completing Dimension 2 is important for
several reasons. First of all, in it the members of the
buying group are identified. Second, the degree of influ-
ence of each buying participant is recognized. This can
be especially important in situations where multiple calls
on members of the buying group are necessary. The
salesperson can concentrate on those buyers who have
the greatest impact on the decision. Third, conflict res-
olution patterns may be able to be identified to allow the
salesperson to adjust the sales presentations to the method
of conflict resolution. Finally, other factors pertinent to
the buying function can be identified and handled.
148
IMPLICATIONS FOR
SALES AND MARKETING MANAGEMENT
The model presented in this article differs from other
selling models in that it is directly geared to the problem
of selling to oiganizations, while other models are usu-
ally lacking in this respect. As Ames has suggested, it is
necessary to define and articulate the activities necessary
to do a successful selling job [I]. The model presented
identifies the various activities that are required in selling
to organizations and thus can be used by sales and mar-
keting managers, specifically in developing sales training
programs.
The model presented in this article covers the complex-
ity of exchange relationships and it identifies various
presentation skills and conditional determinants impor-
tant in successful selling. As such, the model presents the
basic structural elements necessary for a fairly complete
sales training program. As an example, one aspect of the
sales training program would involve the concept of
style-flexing. There are several consulting firms who are
involved in utilizing this concept. Salespeople could be
trained to identify communication modes and to shift to
the appropriate mode as needed. Another aspect of a
sales training program would involve teaching sales-
people how to identify organizational and environmental
constraints and then how to deal with them. Of course,
product knowledge and prospecting would be covered in
any well-designed sales training program. There are, of
course, numerous other topics suggested by the model.
CONCLUSION
A model has been developed which utilizes what is
generally known about how organizations buy and what
is known about how salespeople should sell to describe in
a normative manner how a salesperson should go about
selling to an organization. As such, it is intended as a
framework for action on the part of the salesperson. Even
though it is essentially a communication-oriented model,
it may still form the basic framework for developing a
sales training program. In addition, the model has
suggested numerous areas that require further research in
order to further understand the organizational exchange
process as a whole [4].
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