Chronic diseases like obesity and diabetes are on the rise due to sedentary lifestyles. Integrated training programs aim to address muscular imbalances and dysfunction through progressive overload. The body's nervous, muscular, and skeletal systems work together to enable human movement. The nervous system coordinates signals through neurons and sensory receptors. Skeletal muscles contract through motor unit stimulation and the sliding of actin and myosin filaments. Joints allow movement through various articulations of bones.

1. NASM Personal Fitness Training
Certified Personal Trainer Exam

2. Chapter 1
The Scientific Rationale for Integrated
Training

3. The Rise of Chronic Disease
• Chronic disease is define as an incurable illness or
health condition that persists for a year or more
• Obesity: BMI of 30 or greater, at least 30 pounds
over recommended weight for their height
– Appx 34 percent of americans are obese (72 million!)
• Chronic disease is defined as an incurable illness
or health condition that persists for a year or
more

4. The Rise of Chronic Disease
• Obesity:
– Being considerably overweight
– BMI of 30 or greater
– Is at least 30 pounds heavier than recommended weight
for their height
• Overweight:
– BMI of 25-29.9
– Between 25-30 pounds over recommended weight for
their height
• Associated with risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes,
high cholesterol, osteoarthritis, cancer, pregnancy complications,
shortened life expetency, decreased quality of life

5. The Rise of Chronic Disease
• Blood Lipids
– A.k.a. cholesterol and triglycerides
– Carried in bloodstream by protein molecules HDL
(high-density lipoproteins) or “good cholesterol
– Also carried by LDL (low-density lipoproteins)
– Total healthy cholesterol is less than 200mg/dL
– Borderline high cholesterol is between 200-239 mg/dL
– High-risk level is more than 240 mg/dL
– 50% of adults have total cholesterol values of 200
mg/dL or higher

6. The Rise of Chronic Disease
• Diabetes Mellitus affects nearly 23 million Americans
• Condition in which blood glucose is unable to enter
cells either because the pancreas is unable to produce
insulin or the cells have become insulin resistant.
• Type I, often referred to as Juvinile-onset, is a result of
the pancreas not producing insulin
• Type II, is associated obesity, particularly abdominal
obesity, and accounts for 90-95% of all diabetes
• If not properly managed, high blood sugar can lead to a
host of problems including:
– Nerve damage, vision loss kidney damage, sexual
dysfunction, and decreased immune function

7. Evidence of Muscular Dysfunction and
Increased Injury
• Low-back pain is primary cause of
musculoskeletal degeneration seen in adults
– Affects nearly 80% of all adults
– Predominant among workers in:
• Enclosed spaces
• Manual labor
• Sitting for periods longer than 3 hours
• Individuals with altered lumbar lordosis

8. Evidence of Muscular Dysfunction and
Increased Injury
• Knee Injuries
– Estimated 80,000-100,000 ACL injuries occur annually in
the general US population
– Appx 70% of these are non-contact injuries
– Most ACL injuries occur between 15 and 25 years of age
• Of work-related injuries, more than 40% are sprains
and strains
– More than 1/3 involve the trunk
• Of these, more than 60% involve the low back
• The monetary value of lost work time as a result of
injuries was estimated to be about $120 billion.

9. Current Training Programs
• A proprioceptively enriched environment is one
that challenges the internal balance and
stabilization mechanisms in the body
• Proprioception
– The cumulative sensory input to the CNS from all
mechanoreceptors that sense body position and limb
movement
• Deconditioned
– A state of lost physical fitness, which may include
muscle imbalances, decreased flexibility, and a lack of
core and joint stability

10. Integrated Training and the OPT Model
• A training program that systematically
progresses any client toward any goal
• Physiologic Benefits
– Improves cardiorespiratory efficiency
– Enhances benficial endocrine (hormone) and
serum lipid (cholesterol) adaptions
– Increases metabolic efficiency (metabolism)
– Increases bone density

11. Integrated Training and the OPT Model
• Physical Benefits
– Decreases body fat
– Increases lean body mass
– Increases tissue tensile strength
• Performance Benefits
– Strength
– Power
– Endurance
– Flexibility
– Speed and agility
– Balance

12. Phases of Training
• OPT model is divided into 3 different levels of training
– Phase I: Stabilization
• Endurance Training
• Main focus: increase muscular endurance and stability while
developing optimal neuromuscular efficiency
• Low loads, high reps
– Phase 2: Strength Endurance Training
• Phase 2: Emphasis on maintaining stabilization endurance while
increasing prime mover strength
• Moderate loads and reps (8-12)
• Phase 3: Hypertrophy training for max muscle growth
– Phase 3: Hypertrophy Training
• Goal: achieve optimal levels of muscular hypertrophy
• High volume, moderate to high loads, moderate to low reps

13. Phases of Training
• Phase 4: Max Strength Training (optional)
– Increase motor unit recruitment
– Increase frequency of motor unit recruitment
– Improve peak force
– High Loads, low reps (1-5), longer rest periods
• Phase 5: Power Training
– Enhance neuromuscular efficiency
– Enhance prime mover strength
– Increase rate of force production
– Superset one strength and one power exercise per body
part
– Perform all exercises as fast as can be controlled

14. Chapter 2
Basic Exercise Science

15. Human Movement
• Human movement is accomplished through
the fuctional integration of 3 systems:
– Nervous
– Musucular
– Skeletal
• These 3 systems are also known as the Kinetic
Chain

16. The Nervous System
• Consists of neurons that transmit and coordinate
signals
– Provides a network of communication within the body
• 3 Primary Functions
– Sensory: ability to sense changes in internal or
external environment
– Integrative: analyze and interpret sensory information
– Motor: neuromuscular response to sensory
information

17. Anatomy of the Nervous System
• Neuron: the functional unit of the nervous
system
• Consists of:
– The Brain
– Spinal Cord
– Peripheral Ganglia
• Forms the core of the nervous system

18. Anatomy of the Nervous System
• Neurons composed of 3 main parts
– Cell Body: Contains a nucleus and other
organelles, including:
• Lysosomes
• Mitochondria
• A Golgi complex
– Axon: provides communication from the brain and
spinal cord to other parts of the body
– Dendrites: gather information from other
structures and transmit it back to the neuron

19. Anatomy of the Nervous System
• 3 Functional Classifications of neurons
– Sensory (afferent):
• respond to touch, light, and other stimuli
• Transmit nerve impulses from muscles and organs to
the brain and spinal cord
– Interneurons
• Transmit nerve impulses from one neuron to another
– Motor (efferent)
• Transmit nerve impulses from brain and spinal cord to
the effector sites such as muscles and glands.

20. Central and Peripheral Nervous
Systems
• Central Nervous System: Consists of brain and spinal
cord
– Primary function is to coordinate activity of all parts of the
body
• Peripheral Nervous System: consists of nerves that
connect the CNS to rest of body and external
environment
• Two main functions
1. Provide a connection to nervous system to activate
different effector sites
2. Relay information from effector sites back to the brain

21. The CNS and PNS
• 2 Subdivisions of the PNS
1. Somatic
• Consists of nerves that serve the outer areas of the body
and skeletal muscle
• Responsible for voluntary movement
2. Autonomic
• Supplies neural input to involuntary systems
– Ex: heart, digestive systems, endocrine glands
• Further divided into Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
• Both divisions serve to increase levels of activation in
preparation for activity
• Parasympathetic decreases levels of activation during rest
and recovery

22. The CNS and PNS
• Sensory Receptors
– Convert environmental stimuli (light, heat, taste) into
sensory information for the CNS
– 4 categories
1. Mechanoreceptors:
– Touch and pressure
– Located within muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joint capsules
2. Nociceptors
– Pain
3. Chemoreceptors
– Smell and taste
4. Photoreceptors
– Light

23. The CNS and PNS
• Muscle Spindles
– Sensitive to change in muscle length and rate of length change
– When a muscle spindle is stretched, an impulse is immediately
sent to the spinal cord, and a response to the muscle is received
within 1-2 milliseconds
– Activation will cause muscle contraction
• Golgi Tendon Organs (GTO)
– Located where muscles insert into tendons
– Sensitive to changes in muscles tension and rate of change
– Activation will cause muscle to relax
• Joint Receptors
– Respond to pressure, acceleration, and deceleration of joint
– Act in extreme positions, or end ROM
– Ex: Ruffini endings and Pacinian corpuscles

24. Divisions of The Skeletal System
• Joints are where movement occurs in response to muscle
contraction
• 206 bones in the skeletal system
– 177 used in voluntary movement!
• Bones in body form over 300 joints
• Bones function as leverage and support (posture)
• Skeletal System divided into 2 divisions
1. Axial Skeleton
• Skull, rib cage, and vertebral column
2. Appendicular Skeleton
• Upper and lower extremities
• Shoulder and pelvic girdle
• Consists of 126 bones

25. Bones
• Remodeling: The process of resorption and
formation of bone
• Osteoclasts: A type of bone cell that removes
bones tissue
• Osteoblasts: A type of cell that is responsible
for bone formation
• Remodeling tends to follow the lines of stress
placed on the bone

26. Types of Bones
Bone Type Characteristic Example
Long Long, cylindrical shaft and
irregular or widened ends
Humerus, femur
Short Similar in length and width;
somewhat cubical in shape
Carpals of hand, tarsals of
feet
Flat Thin, Protective Scapulae, patella, ribs
Irregular Unique shape and function Vertebrae
Sesamoid Small often round bones
embedded in a joint
capsule or found in
locations where a tendon
passes over a joint
Patella

27. Long Bones
• Anatomic Features of a Long Bone
– Epiphysis: long, end part of bones
• Mainly composed of cancellous bone
• Houses much of the red marrow involved in RBC production
• Primary sites for bone growth (epiphyseal growth plate)
– Diaphysis: Shaft portion of a long bone
• Predominantly compact bone
• Inside of the shaft is hollow
• Principle role is support
– Epiphyseal Plate: connects the diaphysis to the
epiphysis

28. Long Bones
• Periosteum: tough, fibrous membrane that
coats the bone, except the ends of bones
(synovial membrane)
• Medullary Cavity: the central cavity of the
bone shafts where marrow is stored
• Articular (Hyeline) Cartilage: covers the
articular surfaces of bones
– helps reduce friction in freely movable synovial
joints

29. Short Bones
• All similar in length and width, appear slightly
cubical in shape
• Consists primarily of spongy bone tissue to
maximize shock absorption
• The carpals of the hands and tarsals of the
feet fit this category

30. Flat Bones
• Thin bones comprising two layers of compact
bone tissue, surrounding a layer of spongy bone
tissue
• Involved in protection of internal structures
• Provides broad attachment sites for muscles
• Examples include: sternum, scapulae, ribs, ilium,
and cranial bones
• Sesamoid bones: embedded in a joint capsule or
found in locations where a tendon passes over a
joint

31. Bone Markings
• Surface markings of bones can be divided into
two simple categories
– Depressions: flattened or indented portions of the
bone
• Common depression is a fossa
• Another type is called a sulcus
– Groove in bone that allows soft tissue to pass through
– Processes: projections protruding from the bone
where muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach
• Some of the more common processes are called processes,
condyles, epicondyles, tubercles, and trochanters

32. Vertebral Column
• Atlas
• C1-C7
• T1-T12
• L1-L5
• Sacrum
• Coccyx
• The adult spine has 3 major curvatures
1. Posterior cervical
2. Anterior thoracic
3. Posterior lumbar

33. Joints
• Joint motion is referred to as
Arthrokinematics, with 3 major types
1. Roll: one joint rolls across the surface of another,
both constantly changing contact surface
2. Slide: one joint’s surface slides across another
• like sliding on ice
3. Spin: one joint surface rotates on another much
like twisting the lid off a jar

34. Classification of Joints
• Synovial Joints: Joints that are held together
by a joint capsule and ligaments and are most
associated with movement in the body
– Comprise 80% of all the joints in the body
– Have the greatest capacity for motion
– All have a synovial capsule surrounding joint, a
synovial membrane (inner layer), and hyaline
cartilage which pads the ends of articulating
bones

35. Synovial Joints
• Gliding Joint: a nonaxial joint that either moves
back and forth, or side to side.
– ex: navicular bone and 2nd and 3rd cuneiform bones
• Condyloid: condyle of one bone fits into the
elliptical cavity of another bone
– Movement predominantly occurs in one plane (flexion
and extension)
• Hinge: uniaxial joints allowing movement mainly
in sagittal plane.
– Ex: toes, knees, elbows, and ankles

36. Synovial Joints
• Saddle: one bone looks like a saddle with the articulating
bone straddling it like a rider
– Allows for movement in two planes of motion (flexion and
extension in sagittal plane, adduction abduction in frontal plane
• Pivot: allow movement in mainly one plane of motion
(rotation, pronation, and supination in the transverse
plane)
– Ex: proximal radioulnar joint in elbow
• Ball-and-Socket: most mobile of the joints, movement in all
three planes
– Ex: shoulder and hip
• Nonsynovial Joints: no joint cavity, little to no movement
– Ex: sutures of skull, distal joint of tibia and fibula

37. The Structure of Skeletal Muscle
• 3 major types
– Skeletal
– Cardiac
– Smooth

38. The Structure of Skeletal Muscle
• Skeletal muscle, comprised of multiple bundles of
muscle fibers held together by connective tissue
• The muscle is surrounded by the epimyseum; a
layer of connective tissue underneath the fascia
• Perimysium: The connective tissue that surrounds
fascicles
• Endomysium: The deepest layer of connective
tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibers.
• Tendons: Connective tissues that attach muscle to
bone and provide an anchor for muscles to
produce force

39. Muscle Fibers and Their Contractile
Elements
• Muscle fibers are encased by a plasma
membrane known as the sarcolemma and
contain cell components such as cellular plasma
called sarcoplasm
• Myofilaments are the contractile components of
muscle tissue
• The actin and myosin filaments form a number of
repeating sections within a myofribril
– Each of these sections are known as a Sarcomere
– A Sarcomere is the functional unit of the muscle

40. Muscle Fibers
• Two protein structures that are also important
to muscle contraction are tropomyosin and
troponin
• Tropomyosin
– located on the actin filament
– blocks myosin binding sites located on the actin
filament
– Keeps Myosin from attaching to actin where in
muscle contraction

41. Neural Activation
• Skeletal muscles will not contract unless they are stimulated to do so by
motor neurons
• Neural Activation: The contraction of a muscle generated by neural
stimulation
• Motor Unit: a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
• Motor neurons originating from the CNS communicate with muscle fibers
through the neuromuscular junction
• Electrical Impulses a.k.a. “action potentials” are transported from CNS
down to the axon of the neuron
• When the impulse reaches the end of the axon (axon terminal)
neurotransmitters are released.
• Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that cross the neuromuscular
junction (synapse) to transmit electrical impulses from the nerve to the
muscle
– the neurotransmitter used by the neuromuscular system is Ach (acetylcholine)
– Ach stimulates muscle fibers to contract

42. Sliding Filament Theory
• Describes how thick and thin filaments within
the sarcomere slide past one another,
producing force
• Excitation-contraction Coupling: process of
neural stimulation creating a muscle
contraction
– Series of steps that start with neural activation
and end with muscle contraction

43. “All or Nothing” Law
• Muscles are divided into motor units
• A single motor unit consists of one motor
neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates
• If stimulus is strong enough to trigger action
potential, then whole muscle fiber will be
innervated. If not, it won’t be innervated
– Motor units cannot vary the amount of force they
generate

44. “All or Nothing” Law
• Size of motor unit relate directly to the
function of the muscle
• The more precise the movement required
from the muscle, a lesser amount of motor
units are found.
• Precise movements = fewer motor units so
synapses can control movement better.

45. Muscle Fiber Types
• Type I (slow-twitch): muscle fibers contain a large
number of capillaries, mitchondria, and
myoglobin
– Mitochondria creates ATP from food
– Myoglobin transports oxygen
• Type II (fast-twitch): subdivided into type IIa and
type IIx
– Type IIa: Intermediate fast-twitch, can use both
aerobic and anaerobic metabolism almost equally
– Type IIx: pure fast-twitch, entirely anaerobic

46. Muscles as Movers
• Agonist muscles are muscles that act as prime
movers
• Synergist muscles assist prime movers during
movement
• Antagonist muscles perform the opposite
action of the prime mover

47. The Endocrine System
• The endocrine system secretes hormones into the
bloodstream to regulate a variety of bodily functions
– Control of mood
– Growth and development
– Tissue function
– Metabolism
• Consists of host organs (known as glands), chemical
messengers (hormones), and target cells (receptor
cells)
• The term “endocrine” means hormone-secreting
• The endocrine system affects nearly all forms of human
functioning

48. Endocrine Glands
• The primary endocrine glands are the hypothalamus, pituitary,
thyroid, and adrenal
– Pituitary: “Master gland”, controls all other glands. Has 3 different
lobes; Anterior, Intermediate, and Posterior
• Anterior
– growth hormone
– Prolactin
» Milk production after birth
– ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
» Stimulates the adrenal glands
– TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone)
– FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
» Stimulates ovaries and testes
– LH (lutenizing hormone)
– Also stimulates ovaries and testes
• Intermediate
– Melatoncyte-stimulating hormone
» Control skin pigmentation
• Posterior
– ADH (anti diuretic hormone)
» To increase absorption of water into the blood by kidneys
– Oxytocin
» Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk production

49. • The thyroid gland produces hormones that
regulate the rate of metabolism and affect the
growth and rate of function of many other
systems
• Adrenal glands secrete hormones in response to
stress such as:
– Corticosteroids
– Catecholamines
• Cortisol
• Adrenaline (epinephrine)

50. Insulin, Glucagon, and Control of Blood
Glucose
• Carbohydrate is the primary energy source during vigorous
exercise
– Also principle fuel for the brain
– Control of blood glucose is regulated by the pancreas, which
produces insulin and glucagon
• Insulin helps regulate energy ad glucose metabolism in the
body
– After consuming a meal, glucose enters the blood at the small
intestine, giving rise in blood glucose levels.
• Circulating insulin binds with receptors of target cells, which let them
into cells.
• Causes cell membranes in the brain and muscles to become more
permeable to glucose
• Causes drop in blood glucose levels

51. Glucagon
• One of the two hormones secreted by the
pancreas that regulate blood glucose levels
• Functions to raise blood glucose levels by
triggering the release of glucagon.
– Stimulates the liver to convert its glycogen stores
back into glucose, which is then released to the
bloodstream.
– Organs become less permeable to glucose to keep
blood glucose levels high.

52. Adrenal, Pituitary, Reproductive, and
Thyroid Hormones
• The adrenal gland (sits on top of each kidney)
produces two catecholamines (fight or flight)
• Help prepare the body for activity.
– Stress response known as “fight or flight”
– Hypothalamus triggers adrenal glands to secrete
– Epinephrine (adrenaline) (fight)
• Increases heart rate and stroke volume
• Elevates blood glucose levels
• Redistributes blood to working tissues
• Opens up airways
– Noreepinepthrine

53. Hormones
• Males produce up to 10 times more
testosterone than females
• For males and females, testosterone plays a
fundamental role in the growth and repair of
tissue
• Raised levels of testosterone indicative of
anabolic training status

54. Hormones
• Cortisol: typically referred to as a catabolic hormone
– During stress, cortisol is secreted by adrenal glands; saves
energy by breaking down carbohydrates, fats and protein
• Growth Hormone: released from the pituitary gland in
the brain and is regulated by the hypothalamus
• Thyroid Hormone: primarily responsible for
metabolism
– Basal metabolic rate, protein sysnthesis, sensitivity to
– epinephrine, heart rate, breathing rate, and body temp

55. Chapter 3
The cardiorespiratory System

56. Introduction
• The cardiorespiratory system is comprised of the
Cardiovascular System and the Respiratory
System
• The Cardiovascular System is comprised of
– Heart
– Blood vessels
– Blood
• The Respiratory System is comprised of
– Trachea
– Bronchi
– Alveoli
– Lungs

57. The Cardiovascular System
• Transport blood from the heart to the tissues of
the body
• The Heart
– Muscular pump that rhythmically contracts
– Contained in the area of the chest known a the
mediastinum
– Approximately the size of a human fist
– Weighs roughly 300 g (10 ounces)
– Involuntary muscle; can’t be consciously controlled

58. The Cardiovascular System
• Cardiac muscle fibers are lined up like skeletal muscle,
but are much shorter and more tightly connected
• Irregularly spaced dark bands between cardiac cells are
called intercalated discs
– Helps hold muscle cells together during contraction
– Create an electrical connection between cells that allow
heart to function as a coordinated unit
• The heart has it’s own built-in conduction system to
generate muscle contraction
– Typical resting heart rate (RHR) is between 70-80 beats per
minute (bpm)

59. The Heart
• Located in the right atrium of the heart, the SA
node initiates an electrical signal that is
transmitted through the heart via a network of
internodal pathways
– SA node referred to as the pacemaker of the heart
• After the impulse leaves the SA node, it’s
transferred to the AV (antrioventricular) node.
– AV node delays impulse before relaying impulse to
ventricles via right and left branches of Purkinje
Fibers

60. Structure of the Heart
• The Ventricles are large chambers located inferiorly on either side
of the heart
• The atria are smaller chambers, located superiorly on either side of
the heart
• The four heart valves are:
– the tricuspid valve, located between the right atrium and the right
ventricle;
– the pulmonary (pulmonic) valve, between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery;
– the mitral valve, between the left atrium and left ventricle; and
– the aortic valve, between the left ventricle and the aorta.
• The right side of the heart is referred to as the pulmonic side b/c it
receives blood from the body that is low in oxygen.
• The left side is referred to as the systemic side because it pumps
blood high in oxygen to the rest of the body

61. Healthy Blood Flow Pattern
• From the body to the heart
– Dark bluish blood, low in oxygen, flows back to the heart after circulating
through the body
– It returns to the heart through veins and enters the right atrium.
– This chamber empties blood through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.
• From the heart to the lungs
– The right ventricle pumps the blood under low pressure through the
pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
– From there the blood goes to the lungs where it gets fresh oxygen
• From the lungs to the heart
– After the blood is refreshed with oxygen, it's bright red.
– Then it returns to the left heart through the pulmonary veins to the left
atrium
– From there it passes through the mitral valve and enters the left ventricle.
• From the heart to the body
– The left ventricle pumps the red oxygen-rich blood out through the aortic
valve into the aorta
– The aorta takes blood to the body's general circulation
– The blood pressure in the left ventricle is the same as the pressure measured
in the arm.

62. Function of the Heart
• Stroke Volume: The amount of blood pumped out
of the heart with each contraction
– SV (stroke volume) is the difference between
ventricular end-diastolic volume (EDV) ad the end-
systolic volume (ESV)
– EDV in a typical heart is about 120 ESV and 50 mL of
blood EDV, making the stroke volume about 70 mL
• Heart Rate: The rate at which the heart pumps
• Cardiac Output (Q) Heart rate X stroke volume;
the overall performance of the heart

63. Blood
• Blood: Fluid that circulates in the heart,
arteries, capillaries, and veins, carries
nutrients and oxygen to all parts of the body,
and also rids the body of waste
• There are three kinds of cells in the blood
– Red blood cells
– White blood cells
– Platlets

64. Blood
• Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs throughout
the body
• White blood cells help fight infection
• Platelets help with clotting
• Plasma makes up about 55% of total volume of blood
– The remaining 45% is made of red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets
• Blood helps regulate body temperature by transferring
heat from the internal core out to the periphery of the
body as blood circulate throughout the body
• Blood is essential in regulation of pH levels, as well as
maintaining water content of the body

65. Blood Vessels
• Vessels form a closed circuit of hollow tubes that allow
blood to be transported to and from the heart
• There are three major types of blood vessels
– Arteries
• Carry blood away from heart
– Capillaries
• Site of exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and
the tissues
– Veins
• Carry blood back to the heart
• Vessels that collect blood from the capillaries are called
venules
– Merge with other venules to form veins

66. The Respiratory System
• Respiratory System: a system of organs that
collects oxygen from the external environment
and transports it to the bloodstream
• The Respiratory system includes airways,
lungs, and the respiratory muscles
• The primary role is to ensure proper cellular
function
• Via the heart, works closely with the
cardiovascular system

67. Mechanisms of Breathing
• Breathing is the ctual process of moving air in and out
of the body, which requires optimal functioning of the
Respiratory pump
• Respiratory Pump: comprised of skeletal structures
(bones) and muscles that work together to allow
proper respiratory mechanics to occur and help pump
blood back to heart during inspiration
• Inpiration: The process of actively contracting the
inspiratory muscles to move air into the body
• Expiration: process of actively or passively relaxing the
inspiratory muscles to move air out of the body

68. Mechanisms of Breathing
• When the Intrapulmonary pressure decreases
below that of the atmospheric pressure, air is
drawn into the lungs
• Inspiratory ventilation occurs in two forms: active
and passive
• Normal breathing requires the use of the primary
respiratory muscles (diaphragm, external
intercostals)
• Heavy breathing requires the additional use of
the secondary respiratory muscles (scalenes,
pectoralis minor)

69. Structures of the Respiratory Pump
Bones Sternum
Ribs
Vertebrae
Muscles Inspiration Diaphragm
External Intercostals
Scalenes
Sternocleidomastoid
Pectoralis Minor
Expiration Internal intercostals
Abdominals

70. Structures of the Respiratory Passages
• Conducting airways
– Nasal cavity
– Oral cavity
– Pharynx
– Larynx
– Trachea
– Right and left pulmonary bronhi
– Bionchioles
• Respiratory airways
– Alveoli
– Alveolar sacs

71. Respiratory Airways
• Diffusion: The process of getting oxygen from
the environment to the tissues of the body
• Respiratory airways collect channeled air
coming from airways.
– At the end of the bronchioles sit the alveoli, which
are made up of clusters of alveolar sacs
– In the alveolar sacs, gases such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide are transported in and out of the
blood stream via diffusion

72. Cardiorespiratory System Function
• Air is inhales through nose or mouth
• Conducted through the trachea
• Down through the bronchi
• Eventually reaches the lungs and alveolar sacs
• While this is happening, deoxygenated blood is
pumped from right ventricle to the lungs through
pulmonary arteries
• Pulmonary capillaries surround the alveolar sacs, and
as oxygen fills the sacs, oxygen diffuses across the
capillary membranes and into the blood

73. Oxygen Consumption
• Resting oxygen consumption (Vo2) is appx 3.5 mL of
oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute
– Typically termed 1 metabolic equivalent or 1 MET.
– Vo2 = Q x a – vo2 difference
• The equation for oxygen consumption is known as the
Fick Equation.
• Vo2max is the best measure of cardiorespiratory
fitness, but needs to be measured directly with a
machine
• Maximal oxygen consumption
– The highest rate of oxygen transport and utilization
achieved at maximal physical exertion

74. Abnormal Breathing Patterns
• The breathing pattern becomes more shallow, using the secondary
respiratory muscles predominantly in the diaphragm
– Can become habitual
– Causes overuse to the scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, levator scapulae,
and upper trapezius
– Respiratory muscles also play a major postural role in the human
movement system.
• Increased activity may cause headaches, lightheadedness, and dizziness.
• Excessive breathing (short, shallow breaths)
– Can lead to altered carbon dioxide and oxygen blood content
– Can lead to feelings of anxiety that further initiate breathing response
• Inadequate oxygen and retention of metabolic waste within muscles can
create fatigue and stiffness
– Inadequate motion at the spine and rib cage can also cause joints to
become restricted and stiff.

75. Chapter 4
Exercise Metabolism and
Bioenergetics

76. Bioenergy and Metabolism
• Bioenergetics: The study of energy in the human body
• Metabolism: All of the chemical reactions that occur in
the body to maintain itself
– Metabolism is the process in which nutrients are acquired,
transported, used, and disposed of by the body
• Exercise Metabolism: The examination of bioenergetics
as it relates to the unique physiologic changes and
demands placed on the body during exercise
• Substrates: The material or substance on which an
enzyme acts

77. Bioenergetics and Metabolism
• The ultimate source of energy is the sun
• Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids (fats) are
main sources of substrates used to transfer
metabolic energy to be used for all types of
cellular activity
• Carbohydrates: main source of ATP needed to
fuel anaerobic workouts.
– Primary source of glucose
– Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

78. Fuel for Energy Metabolism
• Glycogen: The complex carbohydrate
molecule used to store carbohydrates in the
liver and muscle cells.
– Glycogen is converted to glucose, to be used by
muscle cells
• Fat: helps the body use some vitamins and
keep the skin healthy
– also serves as energy stores for the body

79. Energy and Work
• One of the primary sources of immediate
energy for cellular metabolism is stored in the
chemical bonds of a molecule called ATP
(adenosine triphosphate)
– ATP yields energy for cellular work (i.e. muscle
contraction) and ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
– Using the products of energy metabolism

80. Energy and Mechanical Work
• Any form of exercise can be define by
Intensity and Duration.
• ATP is a high-energy molecule that stores
energy to be used in cellular and mechanical
work
• Only about 40% of the energy released from
ATP is actually used for cellular work
– The remainder is released as heat

81. ATP
• ATP ↔ ADP + Pi + energy release
• Before ATP can release additional energy
again, it must add back an additional
phosphate to the ADP through
phosphorylation
• 3 metabolic pathways that can release ATP
– The ATP-PC system
– The glycolytic system (glycolysis)
– The oxidative system (oxidative phosphorylation)

82. ATP-PC System
• Once an ATP has been used, it must be replenished before
it can provide high-energy molecules can phosphocreatine
• Together, ATP and PC are called phosphagens
• The ATP-PC system is sometimes referred to as a
phosphocreatine model
• Simplest and fasted of the energy systems
• Occurs without the presence of oxygen
• Provides energy for high-intensity, short duration activity
• During all-out sprint, could supply energy to muscles for
about 10-15 seconds
• System is activated at onset of activity, regardless of
intensity

83. Glycolysis
• Involves the chemical breakdown of glucose
• Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
• Although can produce significantly greater energy than
ATP-PC system, it slower to act and only lasts about 30-50
seconds
• Most fitness workouts will place a greater stress on this
system than the other systems
– A typical repetition range of 8-12 reps falls within this time
frame
• By-product of anaerobic glycolysis is lactic acid
• By-product of aerobic glycolysis is Pyruvic acid
– Pyruvic acid can be used in the oxidative system, lactic acid
cannot

84. The Oxidative System
• Only occurs in the mitochondria
• Begins to work after about 2 minutes when other systems are
depleted
• Essentially unlimited, can run indefintely
• Takes a long time to work, and does not produce a lot of force
• Metabolism of one glucose molecule produces between 35-40 ATP
• The Three oxidative systems include
– Aerobic glycolysis (with oxygen)
– The Krebs Cycle (without oxygen)
– The Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
• In the prescence of oxygen, pruvic acid is converted into Aceltyl
CoA, which is then used in the Krebs Cycle
• The complete oxidation of acetyl CoA produces 2 units of ATP
– By-products are carbon dioxide and hydrogen

85. The Oxidative System
• Fat can metabolized aerobically
• The first step in oxidation of fat is referred to as
beta-oxidation
– Process begins with breakdown of triglycerides into
smaller subunits called free fatty acids (FFA)
– FFA’s can then can be converted into acetyl CoA,
which then are available to enter the krebs cycle
• Depending on what kind of fat is oxidized, one
molecule produces 129 ATP molecules
• However, carbohydrates are the preferred fuel
substrate for the oxidative production of ATP

86. Metabolism During Intermittent Work
• Oxygen consumption remains high for a short period after
cardiovascular exercise, referred to as excess postexercise
oxygen consumption (EPOC)
• ATP is needed for recovery and the aerobic metabolic
pathways are the most efficient and consistent source.
• Recovery of the ATP-PC cycle is complete in approximately
90 seconds
• The longer the period of high-intensity work, the longer the
recovery.
• Thus, even in sports like football, periods of training need
to address aerobic energy production efficiency
– Cardio training helps the ATP-PC system recover faster during
competition

87. Estimating Fuel Contribution During
Exercise
• The respiratory quotient (RQ) is the amount of
carbon dioxide (C02) expired divided by the
amount of oxygen consumed
– Measured during rest of at steady state of exercse
using a metabolic analyzer
• During steady-state exercise, an RQ of 1.0
indicates that carbohydrate is supplying 100% of
fuel
• RQ of 0.7 indicates that fat is supplying 100% of
the fuel
• 0.7-1.0 means a mix of fats and carbs

88. Chapter 5
Human Movement Science