1.
Effects of Tilt, Shade, and Temperature on Photovoltaic Panel Performance
Presented to the
University of California, San Diego
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
MAE 126A
March 15, 2016
Prepared by
Justin Bosch
Sik Cho
Gene Lee
Robert Zhang
Group EE2
Wednesday AM

2.
Abstract
Many different factors affect the maximum power output and efficiencies of photovoltaic
solar panels. This experiment was conducted to explore the effects of tilt, shading, and
temperature on PV panels. The solar altitude angle was measured on the shadow compass to be
38±3 degrees, which was used to calculate the optimal tilt angle of 52±3 degrees. At the 50
degree tilt measurement for the Kyocera solar panel, the maximum open circuit voltage of 19.3 ±
1.9 V, short circuit current of 0.75 ± 0.08 A, maximum power output of 10.06 ± 0.14 W, and
solar irradiance of 10000 ± 15 were found from the MP­170. The next set of/mW 2
measurements were to compare vertically and horizontally shading the cells in the grid of the
solar panel. The power output and efficiency graphs showed that horizontally shaded panel was
more likely to follow the trends of a typical I­V curve and have a more linear relationship
between the efficiency and shaded ratio than that of the vertically shaded. The last week of the
experiment was to observe the effect of temperature reduction on the PV panel. The
voltage­temperature coefficient was determined to be 0.062 . These coefficients along with/℃V
corrected power values were used to create a corrected efficiency plot that shows how the
panel’s efficiency increases by 0.076% per .℃
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3.
Table of Contents
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………... 3
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………..4
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..5
Theory……………………………………………………………………………………………..6
Experimental Procedure………………………………………………………………………...... 8
Data and Results………………………………………………………………………………… 10
Discussion and Error Analysis……………………………………………………………...........16
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………..... 21
References……………………………………………………………………………………......23
Appendices and Raw Data……………………………………………………………………….24
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4.
List of Tables
Table Description Page
A Rated Specifications and Measured Values for KY and US Panels at 0
and 30 degrees
10
3

5.
List of Figures
Figure Description Page
1 I­V Curves for Kyocera (KY) and Uni­Solar (US) PV Panels at 0 and 30 Degrees 9
2 Short Circuit Current ( ) vs. Tilt Angle (ᵯ)Isc 24
3 Open Circuit Voltage ( ) vs. Tilt Angle (ᵯ) Voc 25
4 Maximum Power Point Voltage vs. Global Irradiance in Plane of Panel 10
5 Maximum Power Point Power Output vs. Global Irradiance in Plane of Panel 10
6 I­V Curves for Vertically Shaded Cells 25
7 I­V Curves for Horizontally Shaded Cells 26
8 Panel Output Power as a Function of Load Voltage for Vertical Shading 10
9 Panel Output Power as a Function of Load Voltage for Horizontal Shading 10
10 Shaded/Unshaded Max Power Pt Power Ratio as Function of Shade Ratio w/
Vertically Shaded Linear Fit
11
11 Shaded/Unshaded Max Power Pt Power Ratio as Function of Shade Ratio w/
Horizontally Shaded Linear Fit
11
12 Reduction in Electrical Conversion Efficiency as a Function of Shaded Ratio w/
Vert Shaded Linear Fit
11
13 Reduction in Electrical Conversion Efficiency as a Function of Shaded Ratio w/
Horiz Shaded Linear Fit
11
14 Electrical Conversion Efficiency as a Function of Panel Temperature 26
15 Maximum Power Point as Function of Power Temperature 27
16 Voltage at the Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature 13
17 Current at the Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature 14
18 Current at Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature with Linear
Regression for Data Set 1
15
19 Current at Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature with Linear
Regression for Data Set 2
15
20 Corrected Electrical Conversion Efficiency relative to Panel Temperature for both
data sets
16
4

6.
Introduction
With technology continuing to advance in an accelerated rate, the world looks at new and
improved ways to provide energy to this ever­so energy demanding world. As sustainable energy
technology becomes more prevalent, drawing energy from a renewable energy source, such as
the sun, has become popular method of providing energy to the world.
Photovoltaics (PV) is the name of a method of converting solar energy into direct current
electricity. Utilizing semiconductive materials, solar panels are employed in which solar cells
supply usable solar power. By exposing these solar panels to light, in this case the sun, the solar
cells are able to create voltage or electrical current, thereby providing the necessary energy for an
electric consuming technology. This process is also known as the photovoltaic effect. The
photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Bequerel in 1839, who found
that certamin materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light
(Reference 1). This experiment looks to study the different aspects of PV and how they can be
utilized to produce the maximum amount of energy.
Utilizing the sun to create energy seems almost too good to be true and poses the question
why it is not being utilized for every electric device. Utilizing solar PV, however, requires proper
conditions to be met in order to use it at its highest efficiency. This experiment also looks at how
the amount of sunlight can affect the solar panel’s efficiency as well as the effect of PV cell
temperature on the electrical conversion efficiency. By understanding how the PV solar panels
can be best utilized for maximum efficiency, solar energy systems can become a more utilized
option in producing zero­emissions and an environmentally sustainable energy solution for the
world.
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7.
Theory
Photovoltaics use solar cells that convert photos from the sun into a flow of electrons.
Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms as they are excited, acting as charge carriers for an
electric current. Through an array of solar cells, they convert solar energy into a usable amount
of direct current electricity. Direct current allows the electric current to flow in a constant
direction, which can be used to charge batteries and as power supply for electronic systems. The
power of these PV devices can be determined by measuring the electric current (I) and voltage
(V) in a circuit.
VP = Isc oc (1)
The short circuit current is defined as the current that would flow in the closed circuit
while the open circuit voltage refers to the voltage drop across the circuit when no current flows
in the circuit. The power of the PV cell is also affected by the solar irradiance, which is the
energy coming from the sun. A high solar irradiance results in a high current, which ultimately
increases the power, or rate of energy, produced by the PV cell. The Global Horizontal
Irradiance (GHI) is the amount of terrestrial irradiance falling on a surface horizontal to the
surface of the Earth.
HI Direct Normal (DNI) cos(z) τ Diffuse Horizontal (DHI)G = * * + (2)
DNI refers to the the direct normal irradiance, which is the total amount of solar radiation
per unit that comes directly from the sun. DHI refers to the diffuse horizontal irradiance, which is
the total amount of solar radiation per unit area that has been scattered or diffused by the
atmosphere. The position of the sun relative to the an observer on the surface of the Earth is also
an important factor needed to model PV system performance. The solar zenith angle (z) is the
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8.
angle between the zenith and the centre of the sun’s disc. In order to maximize irradiance, it is
important for the solar ray to be perpendicular to the solar panel. In equation (2), refers to theτ
ratio between outgoing and incoming sunlight and is called atmospheric transmissivity.
τ = DNIsource
DNI (sea level)
(3)
The conversion efficiency of a PV panel is also important in modeling a PV system.
Equation (4) below describes the percentage of solar radiation incident on the panel that is
converted to electrical energy, and is usually listed for the maximum power point.
/ GI Aη = Pmpp POA (4)
Where is the power at the maximum power point on the I­V curve, is the incidentPmpp IG POA
irradiance in the same plane as the surface of the PV panel and A is the panel surface area.
Like other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. The
temperature coefficients of a panel can be determined through the following ratio:
TC = ΔTcell
ΔPcell
(5)
Where the numerator refers to the change in power of a cell and the denominator refers to the
change in temperature of a cell. As the equation shows, the coefficients can be found through the
slope of the voltage vs temperature and current vs temperature data plots. Using Equation (6)
below, an estimation of the linearized current to irradiance coefficient can be found.
γ = ΔGHI
ΔIMPP
(6)
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9.
Experimental Procedure
Week 1 Procedure
The first week, the experiment looked at using the basic functions of the EKO MP­170
Photovoltaic Module & Array Tester. First an inventory of all the cables and equipment was
taken. By locating a sunny spot in the EBU2 quad, both solar panels were placed next to each
other on the wooden board. With the MP­170 powered off, the black and red PV leads were
connected to the appropriate wires on one of the panels. The thermocouples were then connected
to the Sensor Unit, with one of the thermocouples placed in the shade. Next the solar zenith
angle was checked for using the compass with a picture of cross shadow taken for the report.
After making sure that everything was connected to its respective ports, using the Sensor Unit
the proper settings were set to make sure the panels would be reading proper data. At the home
screen, CONFIG > MEAS PAR > ENTER > SELECT > ENTER, highlighting the measurement
protocol from the PARAMETER LIST > ENTER. At home CONFIG > SYSTEM > ENTER>
highlight DATE & TIME SET > enter current time. At home, DATA > ERASE> ENTER>
ALL>enter current time. At home, MEASURE was pressed. Once the data was obtained for the
0° tilt angle, the same process was used for the 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, and 60° tilt angle for only
one of the panels.
Week 2 Procedure
This second week looked to investigate the effect of shading the PV panel power output and
efficiency. Like Week 1, first an inventory of all of the equipment was taken to ensure
everything was there. Again by locating a sunny spot in EBU2, the 10W Unisolar PV panel was
placed flat on a surface and the MP­170 was setup for measurement. First a baseline performance
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10.
measurement was taken when the panel was un­shaded. After, the panels were partially shaded
using the first column of cells on the panel in increments of two cells. Using a completely
opaque material, the cells were covered in the following order: (1,1); (1,1) through (3,1); (1,1)
through (5,1); (1,1) through (7,1); (1,1) through (9,1); (1,1) through (11,1). Then the panels were
shaded horizontally using the rows of cells on the panel. Again using a completely opaque
material, the cells were covered in the following order: Row 1, Row 1­2, Row1­3, Row 1­4,
Rows 1­5.
Week 3 Procedure
For Week 3, the effect of PV cell temperature on the electrical conversion efficiency of
the panel was sought. The general procedure for the operation and measurement with the
MP­170 was the same setup as Week 1 and Week 2. The 10W Unisolar PV panel was placed flat
on a surface in the sun and the MP­170 was set up to take measurements. One measurement of
the I­V curve was taken to ensure that everything was set up correctly. A plastic bag was filled
with ice then used to cover the entire surface of the PV panel to allow the panel to cool for
approximately 10­15 minutes. The bag of ice was then removed and measurements were taken.
The initial temperature readings were around 8 or 9 degrees and we took data readings until the
temperature rose to about 50 degrees, where the temperature was close to steady state. Numerous
measurements were taken as frequently as possible before the panel reached steady state. The
goal of this procedure was to measure the I­V curve of the panel at several different panel
temperatures. After the panel reached steady state, the steps in covering the panel with ice and
taking measurements were repeated to have two complete sets of measurements, waiting 5­10
minutes between the two tests.
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11.
Data and Results
Week 1 Data
Figure (1) I­V Curves for Kyocera (KY) and Uni­Solar (US) PV Panels at 0 and 30 Degrees
(W)Pmax (V)V max (A)Imax
US Specifications 10.3 16.5 0.62
US at 0 degrees 6.68 15.0 0.45
US at 30 degrees 9.72 14.9 0.65
KY Specifications 10 17.4 0.58
KY at 0 degrees 6.2 15.3 0.41
KY at 30 degrees 9.4 15.2 0.62
Table (A) Rated Specifications and Measured Values for KY and US Panels at 0 and 30 degrees
The two highest I­V curves in Figure 1 show that both the KY and US panels are both
more consistent with their rated performances at 30 degrees (as seen in Table 1) but are still
slightly under the maximum values.
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Figure (4) Maximum Power Point Voltage vs. Global Irradiance in Plane of Panel
Figure (5) Maximum Power Point Power Output vs. Global Irradiance in Plane of Panel
The maximum panel power output power of 10.06 W occurs at a 50 degree tilt with solar
irradiance of 1000 ./mW 2
Week 2 Data
Figure (8) Panel Output Power as a Function of Load Voltage for Vertical Shading
Figure (9) Panel Output Power as a Function of Load Voltage for Horizontal Shading
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13.
As seen in Figure (8), the power output curves all have relatively different shapes but all
uniformly reach 0 around 20 volts . For the horizontally shaded data in Figure (9), the curves are
relatively proportional but have different voltage ranges depending on the amount of cells
covered in the grid of the panel. However, the amount of cells shaded appear to have the same
effect on the maximum amount of power for both horizontal and vertical shading.
Figure (10) Shaded/Unshaded Max Power Pt Power Ratio as Function of Shade Ratio w/ Vertically Shaded Linear Fit
Figure (11) Shaded/Unshaded Max Power Pt Power Ratio as Function of Shade Ratio w/ Horizontally Shaded Linear Fit
Comparison of Figures (10) and (11) shows that the horizontally shaded data fits the
linear regression best. However, it also shows that as the shaded area ratio increases, the
maximum power ratio of horizontal shading decreases significantly faster than that of vertical
shading.
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14.
Figure (12) Reduction in Electrical Conversion Efficiency as a Function of Shaded Ratio w/ Vert Shaded Linear Fit
Figure (13) Reduction in Electrical Conversion Efficiency as a Function of Shaded Ratio w/ Horiz Shaded Linear Fit
From comparison of Figures (12) and (13), it is clear that the horizontally shaded data fits
the linear regression best. Figures (10), (11), (12), and (13) clearly show proportional
relationship between the shaded and unshaded maximum power point power ratio and electrical
conversion efficiency as the graphs look almost identical. Figures (12) and (13) also show that
when the shaded ratio is less than about 0.3, the horizontal shade gives a better efficiency and
vice versa.
Week 3 Data
Figures (14) and (15) in the Appendix appear to have decreasing trends but the minimum
temperature measurements have outliers that say the maximum power output and efficiency are around 0,
causing the linear fit to have a positive slope. This discrepancy continues throughout the rest of the graphs
for week 3. The GHI and efficiency appear to have an inverse relationship as the GHI values get higher
for lower efficiencies.
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15.
Figure (16) Voltage at the Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature
Figure (17) Current at the Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature
The voltage­temperature coefficient was found to be 0.062 , which is way off from/℃V
the rated value of ­0.0027 . and GHI appear to have a slightly negative relationship,/℃V V MPP
while and GHI have a slightly positive relationship.IMPP
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16.
Figure (18) Current at Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature with Linear Regression for Data Set 1
Figure (19) Current at Maximum Power Point as a Function of Panel Temperature with Linear Regression for Data Set 2
The linear regression functions for each data set was used to compute the linearized
to GHI coefficient of . The current­temperature coefficient wasIMPP .92248 0γ = − 1 × 1 −4
W
A•m2
then calculated to be 0.0084. Notable information: Increasing the temperature reduces the band
gap by increasing the energy of the electrons. This causes the I_sc to increase slightly and the
V_oc to decrease.
Figure (20) Corrected Electrical Conversion Efficiency relative to Panel Temperature for both data sets
The Figure above shows that the efficiency increases 0.076% per degree C.
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17.
Discussion and Error Analysis
Week 1
The objective of the full experiment was to study the reliability and efficiency of solar
panels using two different models of panels, based on three varying conditions: tilt, shading, and
temperature. The first week, we tested the solar panels’ capability based on tilt angle.
During the first week of the experiment, the major systematic error that the data were
subject to was the tilt angle, since it was the only values measured manually. It is safe to give an
error of for each trial. Based on the readings at 0 and 30 degrees for both the US and KY ± 2 °
panel, the short circuit currents and the open circuit voltages were found at each angle. At 0
degrees tilt, the short circuit current for the US panel was 0.45A (45% error from specifications)
and the open circuit voltage was 15.0V (9.09% error). At 30 degrees, the values were 0.65A
(4.84% error) and 14.9V (9.70% error). For the KY panel, the values were 0.41A (29.31% error)
and 15.3V (12.07% error) at 0 degrees tilt, and 0.62A (6.90% error) and 15.2V (12.64% error) at
30 degrees tilt. Based on this data, two definite conclusions can be made. First, the short circuit
currents for both panels at 30 degrees tilt were greater than the given specification values
(104.8% efficiency for US and 106.9% efficiency for KY). Therefore, we can conclude that the
readings are not fully accurate and that there are some systematic errors that we cannot control.
However, the I­V curves at 30 degrees were relatively consistent with the rated performances of
the PV panel because 30 degrees is a more optimal angle to catch total irradiance along with the
only slightly cloudy weather that brought the values close to their maximum rated specifications.
Secondly, the readings show that the short circuit current changes significantly with angle, but
the open circuit voltage stays relatively constant, regardless of tilt angle.
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18.
The maximum power was achieved at a 50 degree tilt angle, as highlighted in Figure 5.
The geographic and astronomical significance of this angle is that maximum power is achieved
when the direct normal irradiance (DNI) is perpendicular to the surface of the panel, which
occurs at the complementary angle of the solar altitude angle (ALT or angle from the horizon to
the sun’s center). At 9:26AM, the ALT was 34 degrees as seen in Figure A, but by the time the
tilt angle was changed to 50 degrees at 9:44AM, the sun may have risen to an amount closer to
40 degrees, the complementary angle of the ALT. The maximum power point on is located at
where the curve begins to get steeper or where the current begins to drop more rapidly as the
voltage goes up.
The MP­170 solar sensor unit has a measurement limitation which gives a error of%± 1
current and voltage readings and a error for solar irradiance readings. Since the values of.5%± 1
current and voltage are used to calculate the max power, the limitations also attribute to the error
in the measured value of power
0.06 .14 W δPmax = Pmax√0.01 .012
+ 0 2
⇒ Pmax = 1 ± 0
I .015 I 000 5 δGI = G × 0 ⇒ G = 1 ± 1 W
m2
*GI = global irradiance
Week 2
The second week, we studied the effect of shading on the production of the solar panels.
For week 2, we studied only the US solar panel. It is safe to say that this part of the experiment
had a very small, maybe , error in the tilt angle because the whole experiment was at a 0± 1°
degree tilt and was never changed.
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19.
As seen in Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9, the shaded and unshaded maximum power point ratio
and electrical conversion efficiency for vertical shading per shaded ratio first drops dramatically
and then levels into a more linear data set, while the horizontal shading has a more linear trend
throughout and thus fits the linear regression better. Reasons for these different trends can be
because vertical shading may hinder the unidirectional flow of the direct current throughout the
panel. The large jump between the first and second point in the vertical shading might be
because shading just one cell may be exponentially weaker than covering two or more at a time.
Our results imply that the different I­V curves and maximum power points from the
shaded and unshaded points make affects the inverter when converting the DC to AC. The
maximum power point tracking is thrown off since the inverter cannot choose an optimum
voltage for all cells, especially for vertical shading with unproportional and unpredictable power
curves. Some cells produce much less power than they could under their maximum power point
voltage, and the power loss in partial shading is disproportionately large compared to the fraction
of the shaded area.
Week 3
The third week, we studied the effect of temperature change on the production of the
solar panels. For this week, we studied only the US solar panel. It is, again, safe to say that this
part of the experiment had a very small, maybe , error in the tilt angle because the whole± 1°
experiment was at a 0 degree tilt and was never changed.
Based on the data readings as the temperature of the panel increases, the higher the global
horizontal irradiance (GHI) values are, the efficiency unexpectedly gets lower. However, as seen
in Figures 14 and 15, because of a few outlier points at the lower temperature readings, the best
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fit line is still positive. This is because as the time of the measurements advanced later into the
morning, the sun rose higher in the sky, causing the GHI to go up. The only explanation for
lower efficiencies with a higher GHI in the context of this experiment is that the lower
temperature overpowers the amount of a higher GHI on the efficiency of the panel.
The calculated voltage­temperature coefficient of 0.062 , which is simply the slope/℃V
of the linear fits, was not even the same sign as the rated value of ­0.0027 (/℃V .0647℃0
discrepancy : 2396.3% error). Even though most of the data looks like it has a negative trend, the
minimum temperature of each data set have outlying values so low that the calculated linear fit
has a positive slope, as seen Figure 16. These outliers may exist because the panel was not dry
enough after removing the ice, causing water on the surface to diffract the irradiance.
On a typical I­V curve, the current increases as the voltage decreases. The negative
relationship of and GHI and positive relationship and GHI proves that when theV MPP IMPP
power decreases, whether it be from GHI or temperature in this case, either voltage or current
increases and the other has to decrease to stabilize at the new maximum power point on each I­V
curve. The average GHI for the first trial was 823.0347 W/m​2 ​
and for the second trial, 952.2032
W/m​2​
, with an error related to the MP­170’s limitation in measure solar irradiance and the
number of trials. The noticeable increase in the average is most likely due to the fact that in the
span over the two trials, the intensity of the sun increased significantly because the sun continued
to rise in the morning. Ignoring the linear fit, Figures 16 and 17 visibly showed that voltage
decreased as current increased.
.416%δ GHI = √n
1.5%
= √13
1.5%
= 0
Trial 1 Average GHI 23= 8 ± 3W
m2
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21.
Trial 2 Average GHI 52= 9 ± 4W
m2
GHI 129Δ = ± 5W
m2
The average maximum power currents were also determined by fitting a best fit line to the data
set, which was 0.5293A for trial 1 and 0.5045A for trial 2. The error in these values also come
from the MP­170’s limitation in measuring current and the number of trials.
.277%δIMPP
= √n
1.0%
= √13
1.0%
= 0
Trial 1 Average .5293 .0015 AIMPP = 0 ± 0
Trial 2 Average .5045 .0014 AIMPP = 0 ± 0
I .0248 .002AΔ MPP = − 0 ± 0
Note that the change in GHI from trial 1 to 2 is a significant positive change, while the change in
I​MPP ​from trial 1 to 2 is a slight negative change. This shows that GHI and maximum power
currents are inversely proportional.
.92248 0γ = ΔGHI
ΔIMPP
= 129 W
m2
−0.0248A
= − 1 × 1 −4
W
A•m2
.92248 0 .17 0 δγ = − 1 × 1 −4
√( 5
129)
2
+ (0.002
0.0248)
2
= 0 × 1 −4
W
A•m2
1.92 .17) 0γ = ( ± 0 × 1 −4
W
A•m2
Finally, we plotted and calculated the corrected electrical conversion efficiency to determine the
effect of temperature on the panel’s efficiency. It was determined that the panel’s efficiency
increases 0.076% per every degree Celsius.
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22.
Conclusion
In an ever so energy demanding world, new forms of energy are always being looked
into. For the past centuries, the world has relied on mainly non­renewable resources to provide
energy. With increasing demand for energy and the increasing rate of greenhouse emission being
produced every year, new and renewable energy solutions are being sought out. Solar energy
using photovoltaics stands as a clean and renewable source of energy. Using the sun’s energy,
which seems like an inexhaustible source of energy, seems like a promising solution. Utilizing
photovoltaics, however, can be complicated and has many factors that play a part in producing
energy efficiently. This experiment examined how some of these factors play a role in converting
solar energy into usable energy.
Three factors that were analyzed was the solar panel tilt angle, partial shading, and
temperature. After collecting data with a solar panel at various angles, the experiment showed
that the panel produced the maximum power output at an angle of ​50 degrees​. At this angle, the
highest open circuit voltage Voc , short circuit current I sc , maximum power output Pmpp , and
incident irradiance GHI were recorded. Next data was collected by shading parts of the solar
panel and seeing how it affected its results. As predicted, the experiment showed that the shaded
and unshaded maximum power point ratio and electrical conversion efficiency for vertical
shading per shaded ratio first drops dramatically and then levels into a more linear data set, while
the horizontal shading has a more linear trend throughout and thus fits the linear regression
better. Lastly, the the effect of temperature on the solar panels was analyzed. Through the data,
the experiment showed that as the temperature increased, the voltage decreased. This can be seen
with a negative voltage­temperature coefficient, ​­0.0027 . ​Finally, we plotted and/℃V
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23.
calculated the corrected electrical conversion efficiency to determine the effect of temperature on
the panel’s efficiency. It was determined that the panel’s efficiency increases 0.076% per every
degree Celsius.
In conclusion, this experiment showed that in order to maximize a solar panel’s
efficiency in producing usable energy, many factors need to be accounted for. The sun may seem
and act as a renewable energy that is constantly hitting the Earth. But in order to convert the
solar energy into usable energy that can be used in this world, much more development need to
take place for solar panels. By understanding how photovoltaics works and continuing to do
research, creating a more sustainable and cost efficient solar panel can one day play a bigger role
in helping to create a more sustainable future.
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References
1. Kleissl, J., Garai, A. “Solar Energy Systems”. UCSD Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering. March 2016.
https://sites.google.com/a/eng.ucsd.edu/mae­171a­175a­126a/solar­pv
2. Kleissl, J., Garai, A. “Solar PV Lecture”. UCSD Department of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering. March 2016.
https://sites.google.com/a/eng.ucsd.edu/mae­171a­175a­126a/solar­pv
3. Knier, Gil. “How do Photovoltaics Work?”. NASA. March 2016.
http://science.nasa.gov/science­news/science­at­nasa/2002/solarcells/
4. Photovoltaic Education Network. March 2016. ​http://pveducation.org/
5. Skoplaki, E., Palyvos, J.A. “On the temperature dependence of photovoltaic module
electrical performance: A review of efficiency/power correlations.” Solar Engineering Unit,
School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens. 14 October
2008. ​http://ac.els​cdn.com
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Appendices and Raw Data
Figure A: Solar Altitude Angle for Week 1
Figure B: Solar Altitude Angle for Week 2
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26.
Figure C: Solar Altitude Angle for Week 3
Figure 2: Short Circuit Current ( ) vs. Tilt Angle (ᵯ)Isc
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27.
Figure 3: Open Circuit Voltage ( ) vs. Tilt Angle (ᵯ)V oc
Figure 6: I­V Curves for Vertically Shaded Cells
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28.
Figure 7: I­V Curves for Horizontally Shaded Cells
Figure 14: Electrical Conversion Efficiency as a Function of Panel Temperature
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29.
Figure 15: Maximum Power Point as Function of Power Temperature
Matlab Code
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