Moral and Non-Moral Problems

1. “The world has become too complex for simple answers.”
– Ronald W. Reagan
Is it ever OKAY to LIE?
Is SUICIDE a BETTER OPTION?
Is it justifiable to SPREAD
RUMORS about the person
you HATE?

3. WHO WILL YOU SAVE?

4. Ethics
Foundations of Moral Valuation
Lesson 1

5. Ethics as a subject for us
to study is about
determining the
grounds for the values
with particular and
special significance to
human life.

6. Ethics, generally speaking, is
about matters such as the
good thing that we should
pursue and the bad thing
that we should avoid; the
right ways in which we could
or should act and the wrong
ways of acting.

7. Ethics and Morals
Ethics – is the branch of
philosophy that studies
morality or the rightness or
wrongness of human conduct.
Morality, speaks of code or
system of behavior in regards
to standard of right and wrong
behavior.

8. Moral and Non-Moral Problems
 There are rules that are formulated by authorities for the common good or for
improvement but are not moral precepts.
 EXAMPLE: In school, you may come up with the rules in the school relative to the
wearing of school uniforms, ID’s and many more which you believe are constricting
or restricting.
 When does a rule become a moral problem or enter the domain of morality? It can be
stated that a rule becomes a moral rule if it violates certain standards. For instance, a
rule may be stated in the following terms: HIV infected individuals will be treated with
disdain and are not allowed to join any public forum. Such rule violates the inherent
human dignity and the right of an individual to be part of the larger society. This type of
rule implies moral valuation.

9. Kinds of Valuations that do not imply Moral Judgment or are
not part of Ethics
 Aesthetic Valuation.
 These valuations or judgments require the sense of approval or disapproval depending
on whether or not they have good appeal to the senses. But they are not valuations in
the realm of ethics.
 Technical Valuations.
 Some things are considered right or wrong depending on whether or not the proper
manner of doing them has been respected. This type of valuation is within the realm
of technical valuation.
 Etiquette.
 People approve or may disapprove about certain ways of doing. For example, inside a
library, I see to it that I do not make noise because people inside need to concentrate
on their studies. Or, I greet my teachers when I happen to meet them along the school
corridor. Knocking at the door before entering an office is perceived to be the proper
manner. These ways of doing are judged to be the proper observation of certain
standards or etiquette but are not judged according to ethical standards.

10. ACTS OF MAN VS. HUMAN ACTS
 The distinction between acts of man versus human acts will further help to consider certain
activities that absolutely imply no coloration of ethical concern and one which is clearly within
the domain of morality. The acts of man refers to the involuntary activities that are
necessary to sustain human life, like in the case of breathing, the continuous beating of
the heart and involuntary movements of the intestines and lungs. They are crucial activities
that sustain life and without them, life ceases to exist. Other than that, other natural acts like
speaking, hearing, eating and walking are also natural acts but have no moral implication as
such.
 On the other hand, helping someone in need and other gestures that relieve people from
their uncomfortable or disadvantaged experience or from their sufferings, making people
suffer and placing them in difficult situation are human acts. Understandably, the
activities categorized as acts of man carry no ethical valuation. But those that fall under
the category of human acts call for moral or ethical considerations.

11. IS KILLING A MORAL
PROBLEM?

12. Valuations that Involve Moral or Ethical
Valuations
 Moral problems according to Bulaong Jr. et al. (2018) “involve valuations that belong to
the sphere of human actions characterized by certain gravity and concern the well-
being or human life itself.”
 Example: Pre-meditating or making a plan how to kill another is an act that qualifies
under moral problems. Or, deciding whether to allow passive euthanasia to happen is a
decision with gravity and concerns the well-being or human life itself. These and other
acts relative to one’s well-being and the well-being of others involve ethical or moral
valuations.
 Something is about moral problem when it violates certain standards.
 Example, cultural practices and values are perceived as standards of behavior.
Unrespectful attitudes are judged as wrong. Among Filipinos, a very strong cultural
element is respect to the elderly. Anyone who treats the elderly with respect is considered
a person of excellent moral upbringing. However, anyone who treats the elderly with
disdain is unethical. It is ethically right to respect the elderly and ethically wrong to
disrespect them.

13. Valuations that Involve Moral or Ethical Valuations
 In the same vein of ideas, an act is a moral problem if it violates certain moral standards.
The examples below of moral standards will clarify this perspective.
a. “That we should not use people.”
b. “That we should not kill one person to save another.”
c. “That every life is sacred.”
d. “That it is wrong to discriminate against the handicapped” (Rachels, 2003)
 These moral rules or standards imply that these help us live a morally acceptable fashion.
Their violation would be judged as morally or ethically wrong or incorrect. They are
considered standards by which we pattern our life and tell us whether we are morally
upright or unethical in the way we live.

14. THE TROLLEY PROBLEM:
A trolley that is going down the tracks,
is set on course to run down five
people who are tied to the tracks. The
driver of the trolley has the option to
divert the trolley onto another track in
which only one person is tied. If you are
the driver, what would you do?

15. IS KILLING ONE PERSON FOR
THE SAKE OF OTHERS
ETHICALLY/MORALLY
ACCEPTABLE?

16. Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma
A situation that
calls for moral
valuation can be
called a moral
issue.

17. Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma
When one is placed in a
situation and confronted by
the choice of what act to
perform, s/he is called to
make a moral decision

18. Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma
When a person is an
observer making an
assessment on the
actions or behavior of
someone, s/he is
making a moral
judgment.

19. Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma
When one is torn
between choosing one of
two goods or choosing
between the lesser of
two evils, this is referred
to as a moral dilemma.

20. ASSIGNMENT:
 A student gets a warning from parents that getting into a relationship and getting pregnant
while studying will mean discontinuance of all support to continue her studies. Despite
such warnings and admonitions, the student disobeyed and is now two months pregnant.
What is she going to do? She is afraid to tell her parents about her situation otherwise her
parents will tell her to stop studying. But she wants to finish her studies.
 The predicament is, what to do in such a case? Will she resort to abortion and continue her
studies, or, tell her parents about her present status seeing the evil of abortion and continue
her pregnancy but stop schooling? What is a good alternative to her problem?
 Instructions. You are given 10 to 15 minutes to be able to come up with a solution to the
question of what should be the right thing to do. Continue the pregnancy and stop
schooling or, abort the baby and continue her studies?

21. Dilemma
 It refers to a situation in which a tough
choice has to be made between two or
more options, especially more or less
equally undesirable ones.
 What is common to ,oral dilemmas is
conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an
agent regards himself as having moral
reasons to do each of two actions, but
doing both seems to be ethically not
possible.

22. Ethical Dilemmas
Michael had several friends including Roger and Daniel.
Roger has recently met and started dating a wonderful lady
named Phyllis. He is convinced this is a long term
relationship. Unknown to Roger, Michael observed them at a
restaurant several days ago and realized Phyllis is the wife of
his other friend Daniel.
Michael is deciding whether to tell Roger that Phyllis is
married when he receives a call from Daniel. Daniel suspects
his wife is having an affair. Since Daniel and his wife share
many friends and contacts with Michael, Daniel asks if
Michael has heard anything regarding an affair.
If you were Michael, what will you do in this ethical dilemma?

23. Dilemma and Moral Dilemma

24. 3 Different Levels of Moral Dilemma
 Personal Dilemma. It pertains to choices affecting the individual himself or herself. The
example mentioned above relating to the problem of schooling and pregnancy is a
personal dilemma that an individual has to resolve. Personal dilemma may also involve
problems between individuals.
 Organizational Dilemma. Examples of this type of dilemma would refer to business,
medical and public sector/company situation. Organizational dilemma has a broader scope
and would tend to affect every member of the organization. Solutions arrived at also have
an impact on the life of each member.
 Structural Dilemma. This dilemma would include an entire network of an institution and
operative theoretical paradigm. The approval of the Bangsa Moro Law would fall under
this category of dilemma. It has the broadest scope of influence and impact of the three
levels. In the example given, the impact and effect of the approval would not only affect
the people where the law would be applied, but the entire archipelago.

25. HEINZ DILEMMA
 Heinz’s wife was dying because of a special kind of cancer. There was only one medicine
that the doctors thought might cure her, but it was an advanced formula that a
pharmaceutical company had recently discovered. This drug was extremely costly to
produce due to high-cost equipment and singular production techniques. On top of that, the
company was selling the drug at a price tenfold the production costs.
 Heinz went to everyone he knew to borrow money but he could only collect half of what the
drug costs. He sought an audience with the CEO of the pharmaceutical company, told him
that his wife was dying and begged him to sell the drug cheaper or allowed him to defer the
payment. But the CEO refused. He couldn’t make any exception as they had spent
massive funds in the research and equipment, and turning in a profit was the top priority for
the company.

26. CONTINUATION…..
 Heinz was devastated, and at wit’s end about what he should do next. In the end, he broke
into the company and stole the drug for his wife.
 Think about this. What would you do if you were Heinz and WHY?

27. Reflection
 I am deeply aware that I face situations involving moral dilemma. Do I have the courage
to face them? Have I not been too coward that I deny the presence of a problem and I
cannot face it squarely? Had there been situations that my human actions were with
double effects. How did these taught me lessons and what did I resolve?

28. Moral Assumptions
(Foundation of Morality)

29. Introduction
 Certain assumptions are essential in ethics. Acts are
considered moral or immoral, ethical or unethical,
acceptable or unacceptable because of these
assumptions. These assumptions are necessary because
without them, no moral valuation can be passed on to
certain acts. Here, we speak of reason and freedom as
necessary assumption of moral valuation. Acts can only
be judged to be moral or immoral, ethical or unethical
when these assumptions are present. Their absence
makes these acts morally or ethically valueless. In some
references, moral assumptions are referred to as the
elements of morality. This means that without reason,
freedom and voluntariness an act is not moral or
ethical.

30. REASON
 One crucial assumption in making moral valuation of certain acts and ascribing moral
responsibility to a moral agent is reason. Reason is the first element of a human act. We
assume that any person is a thinking being. By that, he or she is aware of the purpose of
his or her action. Furthermore, this assumption is also true about the consequences of such
action. Meaning, the person is also aware of the effects of the act. In other words, the
person can make judgment whether an action is right or wrong. Through reason, one can
assess the rightness or the wrongness of an act.
 By this, we understand that it is not possible to ascribe moral responsibility to a child who
is way below the age of reason. The child cannot make a judgment whether his or her act
is right or wrong. By the same token, we cannot judge the action of an insane person as
right or wrong because the person has no way of evaluating the rightness or the wrongness
of his or her act. Reason, therefore, is essential before we can ascribe moral valuation to
any act or any moral responsibility to the doer of the act. Hence, only acts performed with
deliberation or performed by anyone who knows the consequences of the act are moral or
ethical acts. Reason therefore is absolutely required or is assumed to be a basis for
declaring the rightness or wrongness of an act.

31. FREEDOM
 Second element or assumption is freedom. It is considered an important element in
making moral valuation and without which, no amount of reasoning can justify the ethical
value of an act. We say, moral action can only emanate from individuals who act
according to their choice or free will to do good. Moral valuation and moral responsibility
cannot therefore be ascribed to actions devoid of the freedom to act and as such they are
not qualified as moral action. Forcing someone to do an act will not make the person
morally responsible for the action taken. For instance, forcing someone to contract
marriage, this individual may later separate from the partner. Should the person act on that
possibility, his action is without moral implication and is free to act on it because there
was no marriage at all that took place since the person was forced under the threat of being
killed or for any other reason.
 An act is considered human act with moral responsibility when it is undertaken on the
basis of free choice or with a sense of freedom. Without the element of freedom, no
amount of explanation can declare someone morally responsible over the act.

32. Only Human beings can be Ethical
A. Only human beings are
rational, autonomous, and
self – conscious.
B. Only human beings can act
morally or immorally.
C. Only human beings are part
of the moral community.

33. Assessment
1. Without freedom can someone be considered morally responsible to his moral actions
and decisions? Explain why or why not?
2. Mr. X is a young lad but has proven medically to be mentally ill. Due to hardship in life,
his parents could not afford to bring him to the mental hospital for further treatment. One
day, Mr. X was standing at their front yard and Miss Y, a young beautiful student passed
by. Mr. X suddenly grabbed the lady on her long hair causing the lady to stumble and had
her knees injured. Is Mr. X. morally responsible for his action towards Miss Y? Explain.

34. Reflection
 Has it not been often the case that I am unforgiving to others and try not to understand
their situation? Am I not too judgmental especially to people who cannot defend
themselves? Have I given the full “ benefit of the doubt” to actions of others before
making the judgment on their actions?

35. Standards of Moral
Valuation Based on the Self

36. SENSES OF THE SELF
• ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM
• PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
• ETHICAL EGOISM

37. ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM
 Ethical Subjectivism is the idea that our moral opinions are based on our
feelings and nothing more. On this view, there is no such thing
as ʺobjectiveʺ right or wrong.
 The Theory of Ethical Subjectivism has developed. It began as a simple
idea – in the words of David Hume, that morality is a matter of sentiment
rather than fact.

38.  From this point of view, subjectivism leaps to the more radical claim that the individual is
the sole determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong. Bulaong Jr. et al.
suggest some clichés expressive of this mentality:
“No one can tell me what is right and wrong.”
“No one knows my situation better than myself.”
“I am entitled to my own opinion.”
“It is good, if I say that it is good.”

39. Psychological Egoism
 It is a theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all human actions. As a
descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in a particular way. Instead, it points out
that by nature, humans are self-interested and are after their own satisfaction and therefore
in all their undertakings they are ultimately looking for self-fulfillment and satisfaction,
aware or unaware. As such, the ego or self has its desires and interests and all actions are
geared toward the satisfaction of these interests. It would seem that there is no problem
with this position if we consider actions done on a daily basis: watch a movie, read books,
entertain visitors, etc. It is acknowledged that we do things in pursuit of some interests all
the time. The question; however, is do we try to consider actions that normally are directed
toward others? Consider for instance the act of generosity.
 The position of the psychological egoist is that he or she would maintain that underlying
such apparently other-oriented behavior is a self- interested desire, even when it is not
being acknowledged or that the doer is not conscious of it. Helping another might seem an
act of altruism. But the psychological egoist has inherent self-interest in expressing an act
of service. In the end, the act no matter how it appears to be other-oriented, it is by nature

40. Ethical Egoism
 Ethical egoism differs from psychological egoism in that the latter does not suppose that
all actions undertaken are self-serving. But ethical egoism is a position that self-interest
and personal ends are the single overriding concern. Ethical egoism is totally driven by
selfish motive with no interest or concern for another. Actions are taken with the sole
concern that the ultimate benefit will be for the self. One considers oneself as the sole
priority and does not allow any other concern benefiting another. Ethical egoism is totally
motivated by self- satisfaction and nothing more.

41. PYSCHOLOGICAL AND ETHICAL EGOISM
Psychological Egoism
(WE ‘DO’ ACT IN OUR OWN SELF-
INTEREST)
Ethical Egoism
(WE ‘SHOULD’ ACT IN OUR OWN
SELF-INTEREST)
STATES THAT PEOPLE ALWAYS ACT
OUT OF SELF-INTEREST
STATES THAT ANY CONSEQUENCE
BROUGHT ON BY AN ACTION THAT
BENEFITS THE DOER IS ETHICAL

42. Reflection
 Have I outgrown my childish perspective? Have I learned to see things from the
perspective of others? Am I ready and willing to accept others as they are and start a
dialogue with them? Have I been so self- centered, egoistic and selfish? What actions
prove that I am such. What must I begin to do now to improve myself. Am I ready to ask
others’ opinion and conduct self- introspection? Sing the Song Who Am I popularized by
Gary Valenciano. Sing it. Then reflect and write your answer to every line asking Who am
I?