Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person - Lesson 2: Methods of Philosophizing

8. TRUTH

9. KNOWLEDGE

10. CLAIMS

11. CLAIMS

28. DOUBT

31. 1. It can be justified or proven with one’s
senses.
2. It is based on facts.
3. It is a product of agreement or
consensus.
4. It can be applied in real life (tested
and verified)

32. •
•
•
•
•
•

34. OPINION

35. OPINION

36. OPINION

37. BELIEFS

38. BELIEFS

39. EXPLANATIONS

40. ARGUMENTS

41. ARGUMENTS

42. FALLACIES

45. • Ad hominem is a Latin term that means "to the
person.
• It is a logical fallacy or argumentative tactic in
which someone attacks the character, personal
traits, or circumstances of an individual making
an argument rather than addressing the
substance of the argument itself.

46. • John's idea about climate change is ridiculous
because he's just a tree-hugger.
• She can't be a competent scientist; just look at her
unkempt hair and messy clothes.
• Don't listen to him; he's only promoting that
product because he's getting paid to do so.
• You're too young to understand complex political
issues.

47. • Ad baculum is a Latin term that
translates to "to the stick" or "to the
cudgel."
• It is a type of informal fallacy in
argumentation and rhetoric that involves
the use of threats or force to persuade
someone to accept an argument or
position.

48. • If you don't stay late and finish this
project for me, I'll make sure you never
get a promotion.
• If you don't get straight As on your report
card, you're grounded for a month.
• Believe in our faith, or you'll be
condemned to eternal suffering in the
afterlife.

49. • It is a Latin term that means "to pity" or "to
appeal to pity."
• It is an informal fallacy in argumentation where
someone attempts to persuade others to accept an
argument or position by appealing to their
emotions, particularly their sympathy or
compassion, rather than presenting a logically
sound argument.

50. • I know I failed the exam, but I've been going through
a tough time, and I'm really struggling. Can you pass
me anyway?
• You should support my proposal because I've worked
so hard on it, and it would mean the world to me.
• I understand that the law was broken but think of the
impoverished people who resorted to stealing. They
had no choice; they were starving.

51. • The "ad populum" fallacy, also known
as the "bandwagon fallacy" or "appeal
to popularity."
• In other words, this fallacy asserts that
something must be right or good simply
because many people believe in it or do
it.

52. • Everyone is buying the latest smartphone model, so
it must be the best one on the market.
• Most of the country supports this political
candidate, so they must be the right choice for
office.
• Most people believe in astrology, so it must be a
valid and reliable way to predict the future.

53. • It is a Latin term that translates to "to antiquity" or
"to tradition."
• It is a fallacy in argumentation that occurs when
someone argues that a claim, idea, practice, or belief
is true, valid, or better because it is old or has been in
existence for a long time.
• This fallacy is also known as the "appeal to
tradition" or the "appeal to the past."

54. • Men and women have had defined roles in our society
for centuries, so we shouldn't change them now.
• Political dynasties have been a part of our political
landscape since the Spanish colonial era. It's just how
our politics work.
• Our cultural traditions, like arranged marriages,
have been practiced for centuries. They are part of our
identity.

55. • It also known as the "appeal to authority" fallacy.
• It revolves around the use of authority or expertise to
support a proposition.
• This fallacy occurs when someone accepts a statement
or argument as valid or true solely because it comes
from a person who is considered an authority or
expert, even if that person is not actually an authority
or expert in the relevant field.

56. • Viy Cortez said this weight loss tea worked for her, so
it must be effective and safe.
• The president said that inflation is a hoax, so it can't
be real.
• Dr. Johnson, who is a renowned physicist, believes
that this diet is the best for weight loss, so it must be
true.

57. • It is a Latin phrase that means "from a
saying without qualification."
• It is a fallacy in which a general rule or
observation is treated as universally true
regardless of the circumstances or the
individuals concerned.

58. • All men are liars.
• Doctors always know best.
• All college graduates are
successful.
• All fast food is unhealthy.

59. • The fallacy of composition is an informal
logical fallacy that occurs when someone
mistakenly assumes that what is true for
individual parts or elements of a whole is
also true for the entire whole when this is
not necessarily the case.

60. • Each player on the team is excellent, so the
team must be unbeatable.
• If every student in the class gets high grades,
they will all easily secure well-paying jobs.
• If every individual in the community helps
one another, it will create a harmonious and
prosperous community.

61. • The fallacy of division is an informal logical fallacy
that occurs when someone incorrectly assumes that
what is true of a whole or a group must also be true of
its individual parts or components.
• This fallacy involves making an unwarranted
inference from the properties or characteristics of the
whole to the properties or characteristics of its
individual elements.

62. • Jollibee makes billions in profit, so each employee
must be earning a six-figure salary.
• Gilas Pilipinas won the Asian Games championship, so
each player must be the best in their position.
• MHPNHS has a great academic reputation, so every
student must be academically outstanding.
• The Philippines has a strong economy, so all citizens
must be financially prosperous.

63. • The hasty generalization fallacy, also known as
"jumping to conclusions" or "fallacy of insufficient
sample," is an informal logical fallacy that occurs
when someone draws a broad or sweeping conclusion
based on limited or insufficient evidence.
• It involves making a generalization about a whole
group, category, or concept based on a small or
unrepresentative sample.

64. • I met two people from Malolos, and they were both
rude. Therefore, everyone from that city must be rude.
• I tried adobo once, and it was too salty for my taste.
All Filipino food must be overly salty.
• I encountered one Filipino who struggled with English,
so all Filipinos must have poor English skills.
• I heard one song by Juan Karlos, and it was terrible.
His entire discography must be awful.

65. • It is often referred to as "begging the question."
• It is a logical fallacy in which the conclusion of an
argument is essentially restated in the premises or
assumed from the outset.
• It occurs when someone makes a circular argument in
which they assume what they are trying to prove,
without providing any new information or evidence to
support their conclusion.

66. • PBBM is the best president because he is the superior
choice.
• The Bible is infallible because it's the word of God,
and we know it's the word of God because it's in the
Bible.
• The candidate is the most honest choice because she's
the most truthful, and we can trust her because she's
the most honest candidate.

67. • The post hoc fallacy, also known as "post hoc, ergo propter
hoc," is an informal logical fallacy that occurs when
someone assumes that because one event or action occurred
after another, the first event or action must have caused the
second.
• It involves mistakenly attributing a causal relationship
between two events solely based on their temporal sequence,
with the assumption that correlation implies causation.

68. • I wore my special hat, and then my favorite team won the
game. My hat must be lucky.
• I ate ice cream, and then I aced my exam. Eating ice cream
before exams must improve my performance.
• It rained on my wedding day, and we later got divorced.
The rain caused our marriage to fail.
• I ate sushi for the first time, and later I got a cold. Sushi
gave me a cold.

69. BIASES

70. • It occurs when people tend to attribute the behavior of
others to their inherent personality or disposition,
while downplaying the influence of situational
factors.
• In other words, it's the tendency to believe that
someone's actions or behavior reflect their true
character, even when there may be external factors at
play.

71. • You see a driver cut you off in traffic and immediately
think, "They are such a reckless and inconsiderate person,"
without considering that they might be rushing to the
hospital or have an emergency.
• A retail worker seems unfriendly to a customer, and you
think, "This cashier is so rude," without considering that
they might be having a bad day or dealing with difficult
customers.

72. • Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that occurs when
people tend to search for, interpret, favor, and recall
information in a way that confirms their preexisting beliefs
or hypotheses.
• In other words, it's the tendency to seek out and pay more
attention to information that supports what you already
believe and to ignore or downplay information that
contradicts those beliefs.

73. • A person who strongly identifies with a particular political
party tends to watch news and read articles that support
their party's views while avoiding or discrediting
information from opposing parties.
• In a romantic relationship, if one person believes their
partner is kind and loving, they may focus on and
remember acts of kindness while ignoring or rationalizing
behaviors that indicate problems in the relationship.

74. • It occurs when an individual or entity is in a position where
their personal interests or considerations might
compromise their ability to make objective or impartial
decisions in a particular context.
• This bias can influence their actions, decisions, or
judgments in a way that prioritizes their personal gain over
the interests of others or the broader public.

75. • A government official responsible for awarding contracts
has a close friend who owns a company bidding for a
contract. The official might show bias in favor of their
friend's company.
• Journalists with personal or financial connections to a
story's subjects or entities may present information with
bias that favors those connections.

76. • Cultural bias refers to the presence of a particular cultural
perspective or preference that influences the way people
perceive, understand, and interact with the world around
them.
• It can manifest in various aspects of life, including
language, behavior, values, customs, and social norms.
• Cultural bias can be implicit or explicit and may impact
individual beliefs, societal institutions, and broader systems.

77. • In the Philippines, the dominance of Filipino (Tagalog) and
English can lead to cultural bias against other languages, such
as regional dialects and indigenous languages. This bias can
affect communication, access to education, and job
opportunities for those who do not speak the dominant
languages.
• People from the capital city of Manila, may have certain
stereotypes or biases about people from other regions, which
can affect social interactions and opportunities.

78. • Framing bias, also known as frame
analysis or framing effect, is a cognitive
bias that occurs when people react to a
particular choice or decision in different
ways depending on how it is presented or
"framed."

79. • Politicians and political campaigns often frame issues in a way
that highlights their preferred policies or positions. For example,
the same policy might be framed as "tax relief" to appeal to
taxpayers or "tax cuts for the wealthy" to criticize opponents.
• Advertisers use framing to present products or services in a
positive light. For instance, a high-calorie soft drink might be
framed as "indulgent" for those seeking a treat or "unhealthy"
for those emphasizing nutrition.

80. • It is also known as the "I-knew-it-all-
along" effect.
• It is a cognitive bias in which people tend to
perceive past events as having been more
predictable or expected than they were
before the events occurred.

81. • After a big game, someone might say, "I knew our
team would win. It was so obvious!" even if they
didn't express such certainty before the game.
• After an election, a person might state, "I was
certain that candidate would win. It was a clear
choice," despite not expressing such confidence
before the election.