Literature can be defined broadly as any written work, but is often defined more restrictively as written works considered to have artistic or intellectual value. Literature encompasses works in various forms including poetry, prose, novels, novellas, short stories, and drama. The definition of literature has varied over time and place, from indicating all written works to distinguishing imaginative works from other forms of writing. Different cultures have developed various literary traditions over time, with some of the earliest known literature originating from ancient cultures like ancient Egypt, Sumeria, India, China, and Greece.

1. Literature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Classic of Rites (Chinese: 禮記;pinyin: Lǐ jì), an ancient Chinese text. Certain definitions of literature have
taken it to include all written work.
Literature, in its broadest sense, consists of any written productions. More restrictively, it refers to those deemed
to have artistic or intellectual value, or which deploy language in ways that differ from ordinary usage. Its Latin root
literatura/litteratura (derived itself from littera:letter or handwriting) was used to refer to all written accounts,
though contemporary definitions extend the term to include texts that are spoken or sung ( oral literature).
Literature can be classified according to whether it is fiction or non-fiction and whether it is poetry or prose; it can
be further distinguished according to major forms such as the novel, short story or drama; and works are often
categorized according to historical periods or their adherence to certainaesthetic features or expectations (genre).
The concept has changed meaning over time: nowadays it can broaden to include non-written verbal art forms, and
thus it is difficult to agree on its origin, which can be paired with that of language or writing itself. Developments in
print technology have allowed an evergrowing distribution and proliferation of written works, culminating in
electronic literature.
There have been various attempts to define "literature".[1]
Simon and Delyse Ryan begin their attempt to answer the
question "What is Literature?" with the observation:
The quest to discover a definition for "literature" is a road thatis much travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever
reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they inevitably change over
time. In fact, the only thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of
what is literature change over time as well. [2]
Definitions of literature have varied over time; it is a "culturally relative definition".[3]
InWestern Europe prior to
the eighteenth century, literature as a term indicated all books and writing.[3]
A more restricted sense of the term
emerged during the Romantic period, in which it began to demarcate "imaginative" literature.[4][5]
Contemporary
debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to the older, more inclusive notion of what
constitutes literature. Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of analysis both popular and minority
genres, in addition to canonical works.[3]
The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover exclusively those writings that possess high quality
or distinction, forming part of the so-called belles-lettres ('fine writing') tradition.[6]
This sort of definition is that
used in the Encyclopædia BritannicaEleventh Edition (1910–11) when it classifies literature as "the best expression
of the best thought reduced to writing."[7]
Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of what
constitutes "literature": anything can be literature, and anything which is universally regard ed as literature has the
potential to be excluded, since value judgments can change over time.[6]
The formalist definition is that the history of "literature" foregrounds poetic effects; it is the "literariness" or
"poeticity" of literature that distinguishes it from ordinary speech or other kinds of writing (e.g., journalism).[8][9]
Jim Meyer considers this a useful characteristic in explaining the use of the term to mean published material in a
particular field (e.g., "scientific literature"), as such writing must use language according to particular standards.[1]
The problem with the formalist definition is that in order to say that literature deviates from ordinary uses of
language, those uses must first be identified; this is difficult because "ordinary language" is an unstable category,
differing according to social categories and across history.[10]
Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammar," originally "writing
formed with letters," fromlitera/littera "letter".[11]
In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung
texts.[1][12]

2. Major forms[edit]
Poetry[edit]
Main article: Poetry
A calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire. These are a type of poem in which the written words are arranged in such a
way to produce a visual image.
Poetry is a form of literary art which uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition
to, or in place of, prosaic ostensible meaning.[13]
Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its being
set in verse;[a]
prose is cast in sentences, poetry in lines; the syntax of prose is dictated by meaning, whereas that of
poetry is held across metre or the visual aspects of the poem.[18]
Prior to the nineteenth century, poetry was
commonly understood to be something set in metrical lines; accordingly, in 1658 a definition of poetry is "any kind of
subject consisting of Rythm or Verses".[13]
Possibly as a result of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics), "poetry" before
the nineteenth century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or
rhetorical art.[19]
As a form it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by
an oral tradition;[20][21]
hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature.
Prose[edit]
Main article: Prose
Prose is a form of language that possesses ordinary syntax and natural speech rather than rhythmic structure; in
which regard, along with its measurement in sentences rather than lines, it differs from poetry.[18][22]
On the
historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the case of Ancient Greece] recent scholarship has
emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an "invention" properly associated with
the classical period".[23]
 Novel: a long fictional prose narrative. It was the form's close relation to real life that differentiated it
from the chivalric romance;[24][25]
in most European languages the equivalent term is roman, indicating the
proximity of the forms.[25]
In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the late fifteenth
century, with the meaning of "news"; it came to indicate something new, without a distinction between fact or
fiction.[26]
Although there are many historical prototypes, so -called "novels before the novel",[27]
the modern
novel form emerges late in cultural history — roughly during the eighteenth century.[28]
Initially subject to much
criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and
critically.[25][29][30]
 Novella: in purely quantitative terms, the novella exists between the novel and short story; the publisher
Melville House classifies it as "too short to be a novel, too long to be a short story".[31]
There is no precise
definition in terms of word or page count.[32]
Literary prizes and publishing houses often have their own arbitrary
limits,[33]
which vary according to their particular intentions. Summarising the variable definitions of the novella,
William Giraldi concludes "[it is a form] whose identity seems destined to be disputed into perpetuity". [34]
It has
been suggested that the size restriction of the form produces various stylistic results, both some that are
shared with the novel or short story,[35][36]
and others unique to the form.[37]
 Short story: a dilemma in defining the "short story" as a literary form is how to, or whether one should,
distinguish it from any short narrative; hence it also has a contested origin,[38]
variably suggested as the earliest
short narratives (e.g. the Bible), early short story writers (e.g. Edgar Allan Poe), or the clearly modern short

3. story writers (e.g. Anton Chekhov).[39]
Apart from its distinct size, various theorists have suggested that the
short story has a characteristic subject matter or structure;[40][41]
these discussions often position the form in
some relation to the novel.[42]
Drama[edit]
Main article: Drama
Drama is literature intended for performance.[43]
The form is often combined with music and dance, as in opera and
musical theatre. Aplay is a subset of this form, referring to the written dramatic work of a playwright that is
intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiefly dialogue between characters, and usually aims at
dramatic or theatrical performance rather than at reading. A closet drama, by contrast, refers to a play written to
be read rather than to be performed; hence, it is intended that the meaning of such a work can be realized fully on
the page.[44]
Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.
Greek drama exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial knowledge. Tragedy, as a dramatic
genre, developed as a performance associated with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon
well-known historical or mythologicalthemes. Tragedies generally presented very serious themes. With the advent of
newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form. War of the Worlds (radio) in
1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film
or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media.
The history of literature follows closely the development ofcivilization. When defined exclusively as written
work,Ancient Egyptian literature,[45]
along with Sumerian literature are considered the world's oldest
literatures.[46]
The primary genres of the literature of Ancient Egypt—didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and
tales—were almost entirely written in verse;[47]
while use of poetic devices is clearly recognisable, the prosody of the
verse is unknown.[48]
Different historical periods are reflected in literature. National and tribal sagas, accounts of the origin of the world
and of customs, and myths which sometimes carry moral or spiritual messages predominate in the pre-urban eras.
The epics of Homer, dating from the early to middle Iron age, and the great Indian epics of a slightly later period,
have more evidence of deliberate literary authorship, surviving like the older myths through oral tradition for long
periods before being written down.
“The roots of all our modern academic fields can be found within the pages of literature.” [49]
Literature in all its
forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to
decipher facts through things like characters’ actions and words or the authors’ style of writing and the intent
behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics,
psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very
important in terms of learning about our history. Through the study of past literature we are able to learn about how
society has evolved and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout history. This
can even help us to understand references made in more modern literature because authors often make references
to Greek mythology and other old religious texts or historical moments. Not only is there literature written on each
of the aforementioned topics themselves, and how they have evolved throughout history (like a book about the
history of economics or a book about evolution and science, for example) but we can also learn about these things in
fictional works. Authors often include historical moments in their works, like when Lord Byron talks about the

4. Spanish and the French in ‘‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage: Canto I’’[50]
and expresses his opinions through his character
Childe Harold. Through literature we are able to continuously uncover new information about history. It is easy to see
how all academic fields have roots in literature.[49]
Information became easier to pass down from generation to
generation once we began to write it down. Eventually everything was written down, from things like home remedies
and cures for illness, or how to build shelter to traditions and religious practices. From there people were able to
study literature, improve on ideas, further our knowledge, and academic fields such as the medical field or trades
could be started. In much the same way as the literature that we study today continue to be updated as we continue
to evolve and learn more and more.
As a more urban culture developed, academies provided a means of transmission for speculative and philosophical
literature in early civilizations, resulting in the prevalence of literature in Ancient China, Ancient India, Persia and
Ancient Greece and Rome. Many works of earlier periods, even in narrative form, had a covert moral or didactic
purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra or the Metamorphosesof Ovid. Drama and satire also developed as urban
culture provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production.Lyric poetry (as opposed to
epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in East Asia where songs were
collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs. Over a long
period, the poetry of popular pre-literate balladry and song interpenetrated and eventually influenced poetry in the
literary medium.
In ancient China, early literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture,
and poetry. China, the origin of modern paper making and woodblock printing, produced the world's first print
cultures.[51]
Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought period that occurred during
the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769-269 BCE). The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of
Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science (e.g. Sun Tzu's The Art of War) and Chinese
history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on
historiography, with often very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was
the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BCE, and attributed to the blind 5th century BCE historian Zuo
Qiuming.
In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included
drama, fables, sutras andepic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BCE, and
continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas
(vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the
Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or
the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[52]
The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the
composition and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, with
subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD.
In ancient Greece, the epics of Homer, who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, and Hesiod, who wrote Works and Days
and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of Ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres
included philosophy, poetry, historiography,comedies and dramas. Plato and Aristotle authored philosophical texts
that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho and Pindarwere influential lyric poets, and Herodotus and
Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in Ancient Greece, of the hundreds of
tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors still

5. exist:Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes provide the only real examples of a genre of
comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[53]
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German writer and author of the Faust books
Roman histories and biographies anticipated the extensive mediaeval literature of lives of saints and miraculous
chronicles, but the most characteristic form of the Middle Ages was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes
magical narrative with strong popular appeal. Controversial, religious, political and instructi onal literature
proliferated during the Renaissance as a result of the invention of printing, while the mediaeval romance developed
into a more character-based and psychological form of narrative, the novel, of which early and important examples
are the Chinese Monkey and the GermanFaust books.
In the Age of Reason philosophical tracts and speculations on history and human nature integrated literature with
social and political developments. The inevitable reaction was the explosion ofRomanticism in the later 18th century
which reclaimed the imaginative and fantastical bias of old romances and folk-literature and asserted the primacy of
individual experience and emotion. But as the 19th-century went on, European fiction evolved towards realism and
naturalism, the meticulous documentation of real life and social trends. Much of the output of naturalism was
implicitly polemical, and influenced social and political change, but 20th century fiction and drama moved back
towards the subjective, emphasising unconscious motivations and social and environmental pressures on the individual.
Writers such as Proust,Eliot, Joyce, Kafka and Pirandello exemplify the trend of documenting internal rather than
external realities.
Genre fiction also showed it could question reality in its 20th century forms, in spite of its fixed formulas, through
the enquiries of the skeptical detective and the alternative realities of science fiction. The separation of
"mainstream" and "genre" forms (including journalism) continued to blur during the period up to our own times.
William Burroughs, in his early works, and Hunter S. Thompson expanded documentary reporting into strong
subjective statements after the second World War, and post-modern critics have disparaged the idea of objective
realism in general.
Awards[edit]
There are numerous awards recognising achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field,
awards are typically limited in scope, usually on: form, genre, language, nationality and output (e.g. for first-time
writers or debut novels).[54]
The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895,[55]
and
is awarded to an author on the basis of their body of work, rather than to, or for, a particular work itself.[b]
Other
literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the
Man Booker International Prize and the Franz Kafka Prize.
An essay consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view, exemplified by works by Michel
de Montaigne or byCharles Lamb.
Genres related to the essay may include the memoir and the epistle.
Other prose literature[edit]
Philosophical, historical, journalistic, and scientific writings are traditionally ranked as literature. They offer some

6. of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names "fiction" to distinguish them
from factual writing or nonfiction, which writers historically have crafted in prose.
Natural science[edit]
As advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences, the "literary"
nature of science writing has become less pronounced o ver the last two centuries. Now, science appears mostly in
journals. Scientific works of Aristotle,Copernicus, and Newton still exhibit great value, but since the science in them
has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction. Yet, they remain too technical to sitwell
in most programmes of literary study. Outside of "history of science" programmes, students rarely read such works.
Philosophy[edit]
Philosophy has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs
with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in academic journals. Major philosophers through
history—Plato, Aristotle, Socrates,Augustine, Descartes, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche—have become as canonical as any
writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", but much of it does not, and some
areas, such as logic, have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of mathematics.
Psychology[edit]
Literature allows readers to access intimate emotional aspects of a person’s character that would not be obvious
otherwise.[56]
It benefits the psychological development and understanding of the reader. For example, it al lows a
person to access emotional states from which the person has distanced himself or herself. An entry written by D.
Mitchell featured in ‘‘The English Journal’’ explains how the author utilized young adult literature in order to
re-experience the emotional psychology she experienced as a child which she describes as a state of “wonder”.[57]
Hogan also explains that the temporal and emotional amount which a person devotes to understandin g a character’s
situation in literature allows literature to be considered “ecological[ly] valid in the study of emotion”.[58]
This can be
understood in the sense that literature unites a large community by provoking universal emotions. It also allows
readers to access cultural aspects that they are not exposed to thus provoking new emotional experiences.[59]
Authors choose literary device according to what psychological emotion he or she is attempting to describe, thus
certain literary devices are more emotionally effective than others.[60]
Furthermore, literature is being more popularly regarded as a psychologically effective research tool. It can be
considered a research tool because it allows psychologists to discover new psychological aspects and it also allows
psychologists to promote their theories.[61]
For example, the print capacity available for literature distribution has
allowed psychological theories such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to be universally recognized.
Maslow’s ‘‘Third Force Psychology Theory’’ even allows literary analysts to critically understand how characters
reflect the culture and the history in which they are contextualized. It also allows analysts to understand the
author’s intended message and to understand the author’s psychology.[62]
The theory suggests that human beings
possess a nature within them that demonstrates their true “self” and it suggests that the fulfillment of this nature
is the reason for living. It also suggests that neurological development hinders actualizing the nature because a
person becomes estranged from his or her true self.[63]
Therefore, literary devices reflect a characters’s and an
author’s natural self.[64]
In his ‘‘Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature’’, Paris argues “ D.H. Lawrence's
“pristine unconscious” is a metaphor for the real self”.[65]
Thus Literature is a reputable tool that allows readers to
develop and apply critical reasoning to the nature of emotions.

7. History[edit]
A significant portion of historical writing ranks as literature, particularly the genre known as creative nonfiction, as
can a great deal of journalism, such as literary journalism. However, these areas have become extremely large, and
often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a result, the writing in
these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often(and in its better moments)has that quality. Major
"literary" historians include Herodotus, Thucydides and Procopius, all of whom count as canonical literary figures.
Law[edit]
Law offers more ambiguity. Some writings of Plato and Aristotle, the law tables of Hammurabi of Babylon, or even
the early parts of theBible could be seen as legal literature. Roman civil law as codified in the Corpus Juris Civilis
during the reign of Justinian I of theByzantine Empire has a reputation as significant literature. The founding
documents of many countries, including Constitutions and Law Codes, can count as literature; however, most legal
writings rarely exhibit much literary merit, as they tend to be rather Written by Samuel Dean.
Other narrative forms[edit]
 Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of works that originate in digital environments.
 Films, videos and broadcast soap operas have carved out a niche which often parallels the functionality of
prose fiction.
 Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and text.
Genres of literature[edit]
Literary genre is a mode of categorising literature. The term originates from French, designating a propos ed type or
class.[66]
However, such classes are subject to change, and have been used in different ways in different periods and
traditions.
Literary techniques[edit]
Main article: Literary technique
A literary technique or literary device can be used by authors in order to enhance the wri tten framework of a piece
of literature, and produce specific effects. Literary techniques encompass a wide range of approaches to crafting a
work: whether a work is narrated in first-person or from another perspective, whether to use a traditional linear
narrative or a nonlinear narrative, or the choice of literary genre, are all examples of literary technique. They may
indicate to a reader that there is a familiar structure and presentation to a work, such as a conventional
murder-mystery novel; or, the author may choose to experiment with their technique to surprise the reader.
In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the first
modern novels, Pamelaby Samuel Richardson. Pamela is written as a collection of letter-writing correspondence,
called "epistolary technique"; by using this technique, Pamela strengthened the tradition of the epistolary novel, a
genre which had been practiced for some time already but without the same acclaim.
Literary technique is distinguished from literary device, as military strategy is distinguished from military tactics.
Devices are specific constructions within the narrative that make it effective. Examples include metaphor, simile,
ellipsis, narrative motifs, and allegory. Even simple word play functions as a literary device. The narrative mode may
be considered a literary device, such as the use of stream-of-consciousness narrative.

8. Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a piece of literature and, in some cases, it is used to improve a
work in progress or a classical piece, as with an ongoing theatre production. Literary editors can serve a similar
purpose for the authors with whom they work. There are many types of literary criticism and each can be used to
critique a piece in a different way or critique a different aspect of a piece.
Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorised reproduction since at least 1710.[67]
Literary
works are defined by copyright law to mean any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken
or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c)
preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database.
It should be noted that literary works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works expressed in print
or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).[68]