Fourth Edition A Short Course in HY AN INTRODUCT I 。 N TO P H 。 TOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE 币2比 笔 霞a e A W 忽 3 ι E Barbara London Jim Stone ＠民arson Publish盯： Roch Wilkofsky Editorial Assistant: Kaylee Navarra Product M盯kecing Manag盯 Nicholas Bole Executive Field Marketing Manager: Wendy Albert Managing Content Produc盯 Donna DeBenedictis Project Coordina口on, T四E Design, and Electronic Page Makeup: SPi G lobal Cover Designer: Lumina Datamat1cs Cover Image: Adam Ekberg, Va印刷，s 011 a Froz;en La岭， 2005. C> Adam Ekberg Manufacturing Buyer: Mary Ann G lo riande Printer/ Binder: LSCC-Kendallville Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Acknowledgmen臼 of th ird-par ty content appear on the appropriate page in the text o r on page 228, which const,ru四s an extension of this copyright page. Frontispiece: Edward Bateman, Landscape Photographer, 2012 Opposite page: Teun Hocks, Untitled, 2000. Courtesy of the ar tist a nd Torch Gallery, Amsterdam PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademar ks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates in the United States and/ or oth盯countries Un less otherwise indicated h盯ein, any th ird-party t rademarks that may appear in this work a re the property of their respec口ve own盯S and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, o r other trade dress are for demonstrative o r descriptive pu叩oses on ly. Such references are not intended co imply any sponsorship, endorsement, autho口zation, or promotion of Pearson’s prod- UC臼 by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the own盯and Pearson Education, Inc., or its 对'f,liates, authors, license凹， or distributors Library of Congress Ca时oging-in-Publication Data London, Barbara I Stone, J,m A short course in photography. D igital an introduction to photograph ic technique / Bar bara London, Jim Stone Fourth edition. I Upper Saddle River, New J ersey Pearson Educa口on, Inc., (2018) LCCN 2017047540 I ISBN 9780134525815 I ISBN 0134525817 LCSH: Photography…Digital techniques…Textbooks. I Image processing…Digital techniques…T四tbooks LCCTR267 .L647 20 18 I DOC 771－位23 Copyright © 2019, 20 15, 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America Th,s publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prio r to any proh ib ited repro- duction, storage in a retrieval system, or 盯·ansmission in any form o r by any me.ans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise For info rmation regarding permi臼ions, request fo rms and the appropriate contac臼within the Pe.arson Education G lobal Rights & Permissions Deparε盯Y、ent, p lease v’s’E飞叭ww.pe缸soned com/per盯T、 s阳，sfφ 1 18 ＠民梢。n Student Edi口on ISBN 10: 0-13-452581-7 ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452581-5 A La Carte Ed，口on ISBN 10: 0-13-452603-1 ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452603-4 Instructor's Review Copy. ISBN 10: 0-13-452601-5 ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452601-0 曰 』~ Contents iv CONT ENT S Preface vii ...

1. Fourth Edition
A Short Course in
HY
AN INTRODUCT I 。N TO P H 。TOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
币2比
笔
霞a
e
A
W
忽
3
ι
E
Barbara London Jim Stone
＠民arson
Publish盯： Roch Wilkofsky
Editorial Assistant: Kaylee Navarra
Product M盯kecing Manag盯 Nicholas Bole
Executive Field Marketing Manager: Wendy Albert
Managing Content Produc盯 Donna DeBenedictis

2. Project Coordina口on, T四E Design, and Electronic Page
Makeup: SPi G lobal
Cover Designer: Lumina Datamat1cs
Cover Image: Adam Ekberg, Va印刷，s 011 a Froz;en La岭，
2005.
C> Adam Ekberg
Manufacturing Buyer: Mary Ann G lo riande
Printer/ Binder: LSCC-Kendallville
Cover Printer: Phoenix Color
Acknowledgmen臼 of th ird-par ty content appear on the
appropriate page in the text o r on page 228, which const,ru四s
an
extension of this copyright page.
Frontispiece: Edward Bateman, Landscape Photographer, 2012
Opposite page: Teun Hocks, Untitled, 2000. Courtesy of the ar
tist a nd Torch Gallery, Amsterdam
PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademar
ks owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates in the
United
States and/ or oth盯countries
Un less otherwise indicated h盯ein, any th ird-party t rademarks
that may appear in this work a re the property of their
respec口ve
own盯S and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, o r
other trade dress are for demonstrative o r descriptive pu叩oses
on ly. Such references are not intended co imply any
sponsorship, endorsement, autho口zation, or promotion of
Pearson’s prod-
UC臼 by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between
the own盯and Pearson Education, Inc., or its 对'f,liates, authors,
license凹， or distributors

3. Library of Congress Ca时oging-in-Publication Data
London, Barbara I Stone, J,m
A short course in photography. D igital an introduction to
photograph ic technique / Bar bara London, Jim Stone
Fourth edition. I Upper Saddle River, New J ersey Pearson
Educa口on, Inc., (2018)
LCCN 2017047540 I ISBN 9780134525815 I ISBN 0134525817
LCSH: Photography…Digital techniques…Textbooks. I Image
processing…Digital techniques…T四tbooks
LCCTR267 .L647 20 18 I DOC 771－位23
Copyright © 2019, 20 15, 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All
Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America Th,s
publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be
obtained from the publisher prio r to any proh ib ited repro-
duction, storage in a retrieval system, or 盯·ansmission in any
form o r by any me.ans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise For info rmation regarding permi臼ions,
request fo rms and the appropriate contac臼within the Pe.arson
Education G lobal Rights & Permissions Deparε盯Y、ent, p
lease v’s’E飞叭ww.pe缸soned com/per盯T、 s阳，sfφ
1 18
＠民梢。n
Student Edi口on
ISBN 10: 0-13-452581-7
ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452581-5
A La Carte Ed，口on
ISBN 10: 0-13-452603-1
ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452603-4

4. Instructor's Review Copy.
ISBN 10: 0-13-452601-5
ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452601-0
曰』~
Contents
iv CONT ENT S
Preface vii
I Camerα1111 2
Ge忧ing Star晦d Getting y。ur camera read y 4 • Focusing an d
se忧ing t he exposure
6 • Exposure readout 7 • Exp。sing images 8 • What will you
ph悦。graph? 9
• Types 。f Ca meras Film cameras 10 • Digital cameras 1 2 •
Basic Camera
c。ntrols 14 • M。re ab。utCamera c。ntrols 1 6 • Inside a d
igital single-lens
re自由came甩 17 • Shutter Speed A俄cts light a nd m。tion 18 •
Use it creatively
20 • Apertt』re Affects light a nd de pt h 。f fi eld 22 • Use it
creat ively 24 •
Sh utter Speed and Aperture Blur vs. depth o f field 26 • Getting
the Most from
y。ur Camera and l ens 28
2 L ens 9 30
Lens Focal Length The basic di民rence between lenses 32 •
Normal F民d

5. Lengtl、 The m。st like hu man visi。n 34 • Long Focal Lengtl、
Telephoto
lenses 36 • Short Focal Len萨 Wide-angle lenses 38 • Zoom,
Maao, and
Fisheye Lens国 40 • Focus and Depth of Field 42 • Automatic
F。cus 43
• Dep由 of Field Controll ing sharpness in a ph。tograph 44 •
M。陀 about
Depth 。f Field H。wto preview it 46 • Perspective H。wa
photograph sh。WS
depth 48 • Lens Attachments Cl。se-ups and fi l回归50
3 Li~ht αnd E x posure I 52
Sensors and Pixels 54 • Pixels and Resoluti。n 55 • Col。r in
Phot。罗叩hy
c。lor Systems 56 • Col。r Cha racteristics 57 • White Balan国
58 • Using
Hist。grams 60 • Exp。sure Meters W ha t different types do 62
• How to cal-
cula te and a句ust a n exposure manua lly 64 • Overrid ing an
Automatic Exp。－
sure Camera 66 • Making an Exp。sure of an Average Scene 68
• Exp。sing
Scenes that are Lighter or Darker than Average 70 •
Backlighting 72 •
Exposing Scenes with High Contrast 73 • H DR Hig h dyna m ic
ra nge 74
4 Di互itαl Workplαce Bαsics ( 76
Equipment and Materials You’ II N时 78 • Pictures Are Files 80
• 时时
Col。r Modes, gam uts, spaces, and profil es 82 • Channels 83 •
Cal ib阻ting for
accu阻cy 84 • Working wi出Camera Raw 85 • Stay organized
Setting up a
Worl<fl。w 86 • Phot。g阻pher's Workfl。wProg甩ms: 87 •

6. Importing an
Image 88 • Scann ing 89
5 Im础e Editin~噩 90
Getting Started Edit ing an Image 92 • Adju叫ng an Image Lev由
94 •
Curves 96 • Adj usting Part of an Image Sel ecti。ns 98 • More
Techniques
Layers 100 • Ret。uch i ng 1 02 • Sharpening 1 04 •
C。mpositing 106 •
c。lor into black and white 108 • Filters 1 09 • An Edit ing
Workfl。w 1 10
• Ethics and Dig ital Imaging 1 12
6 Prin tin~ a n d Display 誓114
Prin国rs and Drivers 11 6 • Pape阳 and Inks 117 • Soft P roofing
118 •
P四oramic Phot。，graphs 119 • Presenting Your Work Fram ing
120 • Matting
a print 121 • M。unting a P rint Equipment a nd materials
y。u’II need 122
• Dry Mou nting a Print Step by Step 1 24 • Bleed
M。untingρvermatting 1 26
7οr~anizin~ αnd Storin~ 9 128
Image Storage 130 • Using Met adata 1 31 • S。玩ware fo r
Organ izing 1 32
• Archivi ng Images and Prints 133
8 U sin互 Li~h t t; 134
Q ualit ies of Light From d irect to d i仔used 136 • Existing
Light Use what’s
available 1 38 • The Main Light The strongest s。urce of light
140

7. • Fill Light To lighten shadows 142 • Simple p。rtrait Lighting
144 •
UsingArti行cial Light Ph。t。lamp 。r flash 146 • M。re ab。ut
Flash How E。
p。sition it 148 • Using Flash 1 SO
9 Seein~ Lik e αCαmerα • 152
What ’s in the Picture T he edges 。r frame 154 • The
background 1 56 •
Focus Which parts are sharp 158 • Time and Moti。n in a
Photograp h 1 60 •
Depth in a Pict ure Three dimensio ns bee。me two 162 • Cha。s
into order 163
• Photographing for Meaning 164 • P。rtraits Informal : Find ing
them 166 •
F。rmal : Setting them up 168 • Ph。tographing the Landscape 1
70 •
Photographing the Citysca pe 1 72 • Ph。tographing Inside 1 74
• Assembled
to be Ph。t。graphed 176 • Resp。nding t。 Ph。t。，graphs 178
10 History of Photo互raphy ffl 180
Daguerre。type “Design s 。n si lver bright” 182 • Cal。type
P1ctu res 。n paper
184 • C。llod ion Wet - Plate Sharp and reproducible 185 •
Gelatin Emulsi。n/
Roll- Film Base Ph。tography for every。ne 186 • C。lor
Ph。tography 1 87 •
Early p。rtraits 188 • Early T ravel Ph。tography 190 • Early
Images of War
191 • Time and M。ti。n in Ea rly Ph。tographs 1 92 • The
Phot。graph as
Docu me nt 1 93 • Ph。t。graphy and Social Change 194 •
Pho叫。urnalism
196 • Phot。graphy as Art in t he 1 9由Century 200 • Pictorial
Ph。t。graphy

8. and the Ph。t。－Secessi。n 201 • The Direct Image in Art 202 •
T he Quest
f。r a New Vision 203 • Ph。tography as Art in the 1950s an d
1960s 204
• Ph。t。graphy as Art in the 1 970s and 1980s 206 • Color
Phot。graphy
Arrives- Again 208 • D ig ita l Ph。tography Predecessors 21 0 •
Bee。mes
mainstream 212
H。w to l ear n M。re 214 • Troublesh。。ting 2 1 5 • P hotograp
hers' Web S ites
220 • Glossary 222 • Bibliograp hy 226 • Ph。to Credits 228 •
Index 230
CONTEN T S v
Penelope Umbrico. Sunset Portraits from
8,462,359 Flickr Sunsets on 12/ 21/ 10, 2010.
Photography 四” be your subjec皂剧 well as
your medium. Umbrico began searching the Web in
2006for阶e most-often-photographed sut沪ct, find-
ing it to be sunsets (541,795 pictures posted on the
popular photo-sharing site Flickr at that timψ
Umbrico had 4 x 6-inch machine prints made
from an "appropriated” selection (th且2010 piece
includ，出on如those sun扭曲时阶 si/houet胆d figures),
and exhibits them in grid form, about 8 feet tall. For
a 2011 gallery sh仙台 she showed 1,058 4 × 6 -inch
sunset portrai阳， by then the to臼I number of sunsets
on Flickr had grown to 9,623,557.
As you make your own photographι it ι wort,

9. askingyourself questions. What are the w吵得you
can impro时阶e pho归•graphsyou are now making>
If others have alrea命photographedyour subject,
how will your pictures bed伊rent? If you magnifj,
伪e meaningyour images have for you, will you also
increase the impact they have on others? Read on.
l川…叫川t photog吵nd
would lik e to learn, or if you want to make better p ictures than
the ones you are maki n g now, A Short Cot4rse in Photograp抄
D怨“I will h e lp you. T his book is modeled after the widely
used
fi lm-and-dark room edi tion of A Short Co1'r咒 in
Photograp妙， but
presents the medium in its cu rrent, e lectronic form.
We present her毡，mdep巾， the basic E旺hn iques of
photography:
1 H。w to get a good四posure
1 How to a句ust the focus , s hutt er speed, and aperture (the
size of the lens openin g) to produ ce the results you want
1 Howton-血1sferyOL町 pictures to a computer血1dmal也sure
they缸e organized and safe fro m loss
1 How to use com p uter software to ma!忧your ph。tographs
look t h eir best
Alm ost all of today’s cameras i ncorp。rate automa tic fea tu
res,
b ut t hat doesn't mean t hat t h ey a u tomatically produ ce t he
re-

10. s ults you want. Th is edition of A Sh。时 Courτe in Photograp抄
de-
votes special atten tion to:
1 Au tomatic focus a n d a u tomatic exposu re-what they do
and, part icularly, h ow to override them when it is better to
adj us t the camera man ually
Some of t h e book’s h ighligh ts inclu de:
1 Getting Started If y口U缸e brand new to photography, this
section w让l walk you through 出e first s teps of selecting and
ins talling a mem01yαrd, settin g the camera's menu options,
focus ing sh盯ply, adjusting the四posL町e, and making your
自rst piαures. S四pag臼4-9.
1 Projects. T h ese projects are designed to help develop your
tech n ical and expressive skills. See page 136 or 155.
1 Making Bett er Prints. This includes informatio n abou t how
to adjust your p h otographs with image咱diting sofn，.咀re
(pages 92- 11 1), select ink an d paper for th e m (page 1 17),
p rint them (page 1 18), and由en display them in a mat and
frame (pages 120- 12乃．
1 Types oflenses (pages 31-4 1), cameras (pages 10- 13),
ligh ting (pages 13 4- 15 1), and software for 。rganizing and
arch ivi n g (pages 13 1- 133).
1 History of Photography. The medium has been used for
docu men tatio n, persuasio n, and person al expressi。n sin ce
its 19由－centu1y inventio n. See pag，臼 180-213.
Photography is a su均ective undertaking. A Sha时 Course in
Photograp抄emphasizes your choices in p ictu re m aking:

11. 1 How to look a t a scen e in th e way a camera can record it
1 How to select th e shutter speed, point of view, and 。ther
Pr巳fαce
elemen ts that can ma!但the differen ce between an ordin血y
snapshot a n d m四citing p h otograph
1 Ch apter 9, Se凹ng Like a Camera, explores your ch。tees
in selecting a n d adjusti吨the image and presents ways to
p h otograph su同ects s u ch as people a n d landscapes.
1 An updated Chapter 10, T h e H istory of Photograph y,
traces t h e technical, social, and artistic development of the
mediu m since its incepti。n.
New in this fourth e d ition are:
1 The latest o n camera techno logy an d software, integratio n
of
workfl ow applications-includin g Capture On e Pro-at every
step, and expanded coverage of a Camera Raw workfl ow.
1 Newph。tographs by g陀at con temporaiy artists, including
Edward Bateman, Ian van Coller, S副11 Come1飞John Divola,
Filip D ujardin, Adam Ekber忘Kate Joyce, David Leven ti,
Marti na Lopez, Ch ristoph Oberschneider, Todd Owyoun g,
Christia11 Richter, and Geoffrey Robins。n
1 The 1970s四plosion of color photography is四pl血nedin the
Histo1yofPhocography, Chapter 10.
1 Cu rrent produce and technical information throu gh o u t ,
with updated demonstratio n and example ph。tographs.

12. This b。ok is designed to make learn in g photograph y as easy
出
possible:
1 Every two fac ing pages completes a single toptc
1 Detailed s叩句－sαp instructi。ns clari今each stage 。f
extended procedu res
1 Boldfaced h eadings ma!也subtopics easy to spot
1 Numerous p h o tographs and drawings illustrate each topic
Acknowledgmen臼
Many people gave generously of th e ir time and effort in the
pro-
duction 。f th is book. Feedback from ins tructors h elps con
firm
the d irection of th e book and determ ine the new elements in
each
edition. The a u thors are grateful to all th。se wh o reviewed
pre-
vious editions and forwarded comments. At Pearson Educatio n,
Roth Wilkof』ky provided editorial su pport. Annemarie
Fr剖1klin,
Steve Martel, a11d the team at SPi Global s u pervised th e
produc-
tion of the book from manuscrip t to prir
treme ly few, of c。urse) errors. Atτ1ber, Jade, and Skye Ston e
gave
their dad 口me to fin ish ct、e bo。k Ify。u have suggesti口ns,
pl回se
sen d th em to Photograph y Editor, Pearson Educatio n, 221
Riv臼
Street, Hoboken，町07030. T h ey will be sincerely welcomed.

13. Jim Stone
Barbara London
PREFACE vii
ANN I E LE’80V，τz
Yo Yo Ma, 1998 Framing is a b,uic control you 阳时
in making a p加tograph. The two photofaphs on 曲is
page and opposi胆are about music. Would you
center your su句ect or use a corner? Do you want action
or ，它pose? Black and white or color? Ho巾ontal,
vertical, or勾uare? Candid or po且d? Viewed from
above, bel，酬，，or stra.以s on? More about framing
。” pages 154- 155.
Ge时ng Started ..... ...... ...... 4
Ge，时ingyo11r cam旷are叫y ••• •••••• 4
Fowsing and setting the exposure • ••• 6
Expomre reado11t •••• •••••• •••••• 7
Exposi，您images ••••• •••••• •••••• 8
What will yo11 photograph? • •• •••••• 9
T ypes of Cameras ... ...... ..... 10
Film cam旷-as ••••••• •••••• ••••• 10
D忽ital cameras ••••• •••••• ••••• 12
Basic Camera Controls .... ..... 14

14. More about Camera Con町ols ... 16
Inside ad也ital single-lens
F吃卢四cam旷·a •••••• •••••• •••• • 17
OOOOAU
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et
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Ge时ngtheMost 命。m Your
Camer a and Lens . ...... ...... 28
In this chapter yo,i'Ll leαrn ...
• the basic c。ntrols of your camera and what they d。

20. • the categones of cameras, and their charactenstics,
so you can ch。。se the right 。ne for your purposes.
• the first S四ps of ♀etting a came用 ready, focusing
an image, and adjusting the camera飞坦白，ngs.
Project:
EXPOSE SOME PICTURES
YOU Will NEED
Camera. We suggest one with a句ustable c。ntrols
Outpu t. To evaluate y。ur work, it’ s g。。d to
see exactly what y。u did y。ur digita l p ictures
can be viewed 。n the camera ' s small mon itor
but they a re easier to evaluate on a computer
screen . Pages 8 and 88 tell y。u h。w to d。wnload
photographs from your camera t。 a computer
Once they a re on a c。mputer, y。ur unedi四d
ph。tographs can a lso be displayed large with a
digital pr。，ject。r or on a wide-screen television s。
you can easi ly see small deta ils and imagine wh且
they might look like printed at a large s ize. If you
shoot 3Smn、 fi lm you can take it to the photo lab
in a drug store 。r supermarket cha in fo r 。vern ight
pr。cessing and printing
Pencil a nd ”。tepad 。r smartph。”e to keep
tra ck 。f what y。” d。. Optional, but highly rec-
omme
PROCEDURE See pages 4-9 if y。u a re j ust
beginning to photograph. Those pages walk y。u
thr。ugh the 自陌t steps of setting up your camera,
focus ing an image sharply, adjusting the camera
settings s。your ph。t。g日phs won' t be too light 。r

21. too dark, and making y。ur first pictures. See pages
10-13 fo r more about the kinds 。f cameras
Have some variety in the scenes when you
sh。。t For example, photograph su同ects near and
far , indoors and 。utside, in the shade and in the
sun. Ph。tograph different types 。f subjects, such
as a poπrait, a landscape, and an action scene
Page 9 gives some suggestions
HOW DID YOU DO? Which pictures d id y。u
like best? Why? Were s。me d i民rent from what
you expected to get? Did some 。f your came日’s
operati。ns cause c。nfusion? It helps to read y。ur
instructi。n b。。k a ll the way through or ε。 ask 币or
help from some。ne fam iliar with your camera
Todd O吃young. Drummer Quest/oνe pe，作rmingwith
the Roots, Fox 7百eater, St. Louis, Missouri, 2008.
Cαmerα
All……伽i咿…m a n e-formi口内
light-sensitive surface (film or a digital sensor) to record the
ligh t chat
forms a n image; a light-tigh t contain er (the camera’s body) to
keep
other lψE。ut; and w。important con trols to a句ust the am。Unt
。fp肌ire
ma!《i口g lig ht (theεxposure) d、at reaches the light-sensi tive
surf汪ce.
T h is chapter describes those light controls and how you can
ta!但charge

22. of them, instead of letting them control you. Almost all current
cameras are
equipped with automatic 四posure and automatic focus, a n d
many h ave
automatic flash. If you are interested in making better p ictures,
however, you
s h ould know how y。ur camera m冰es its decisions, even if the
automatic fea-
tures can' t be turned off. If they can, you will want to override
your camera’s
automatic decisions from time to time a nd m汰e your 。叭响
choices.
’ You may want to blur the motion of a moving su均已ct o r
freeze its
motion sharply. Pages 18-19 sho即how.
• You may want a scene sharp from foreground to background
or the
foregrou n d sharp but the backgroun d o u t of focus. See pages
44-45.
• Y。u may want to override your camera’s automatic focus
mechanism so
that only a certain part of a scene is s h arp. Page 43 tells when
and how
to do so.
• You may de口ide to s ilhouette a subject against a b rig h t
background，。g

23. perh aps you want to make s ure that you don’t end up with a
s ilhouette. See page 72.
Most profi自sional phot o g r a phe rs use cam e ras wit h autom
atic featu res,
but they know h。w their cameras operate manually as well as
automatically so
they can ch。。se which is best fo r a particular situation. You
will wane to do
the same because the more you know about how your camera
operates, the
better you w ill be able to get the results you want.
3
Getting Stαγted
GETTING YOUR CAMERA READY
A c amera’s m a in “ n ctio n s are t o help you
v i e w the s ce n e so you can select what you want t o
p h otograph, focus t o get the scene s h a rp w h ere
you want i t to be, a nd exp o se t he picture so it is
n o t too l ig h t or t oo dark.
This illu stration div ides a came ra in half so it
s h ows p arts fo r b oth fil m a nd d ig ital cap ture. For

24. more abo ut s p ec i fic ca m eras, see p ages 10-13.
The lens mov田 ro.. 帽，d and back to
bring 。同ects at d，陆rent dis<anc目
。nto sharp focus.
The ape<ture adjusts from la<gec (lettin且mo陀
light pass 衔。m由e lens m由e light-sensit<Ve
阳rlace) to smaller (letting less light pa臼）
C hoose a Memory Card
The shu忧垒，。pens and
d。S白白l imi t the length
。ftime that light strikes
由e I唱ht-sensi t<Ve 钮，自由
The sensor (in a digotal 日mera)
converts 由e light from the lens
,nto electncal s,gnals that are 四川
回由emem。，ycard
The memo叩card (in a
digotal cam肝·a) stores
,mages un til they can be
printed 。川rans舱，red
to a comp皿er or 。the,
storage d阳ce
Select a n ISO
More about 田mero controls on pages 14-2 7.
CF ( C。mpact Flash)

25. SD (Se<u re Digital )
睡
．
Digi时臼meras store p町ures on m回10ry饵，ds
that V莓，γ in capacity and speed Because t h ere
a陀several types t h at are n ot int erc h angeable,
make su re you h ave one t h at fi臼 your camera
非－|“ 0 IC(• I凸旧汹汹 ｜<J,., ~ff, ..rt, ~r, 目"W: T叫川: llJ I(:
l日：l>lJ 日OJ IJC,: DJ UJ: H(l !&:<JI
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27. 川
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二
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巧
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二
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t
＝
ISO speed ( 100, 200, 400, and 目。n〕
descri bes a sensor’s ( or fil m 's) sensit ivity to
ligh t. The h igher the number, the less l!ght
it needs for a correcε 四posu陀 （币。r a p icture
t h at is n ot too ligh t o r too da战）. With a
d ig ital camera, you may select an ISO set-
t ing w ithin that came阻’s range. You may
ch。。sea di仇rent ISO for each p icture, or
y。u may set your came日 to d。 s。automati -
cally L。wer n umbers will gene阻lly result in

28. highe卜quality p ictures (see Noi盟， page 75)
Set a n ISO 。f 50 to 800 for shooting 。ut-
doors in sunny cond it ions. In dimmer light,
such as ind。。目， use an ISO of800 。r h igh-
er Film is made wit h a fixed ISO; an en t ire
roll m ust be exposed at t h at speed 400
sp四d fi lm isa g。。d all-purp。se choice.
4 CAMERA
Check the Batteries Insert a Memory Card
Make su陪y。urcamera’s batteries ha ve a
b四h charge. N。 dig1tal came日s and
也w fi lm cameras will 。pe用自with。旺 ’-
power. Ahal阳叩ty symbol will let 111
Y。u kn。ww hen the batte叩is low. "I
Ca叫a fu lly-c ha rged spa陀 ify。u can . 也且
Many cameras use proprietary battery
packs that must be recharged with 由e
man ufactur苍白 matching charger. s。me
c。mpact cameras have b uilt-,n battenes that
lim1tyoursh。。ting w hile they recha『-ge
s。me cameras u皿 standard batteries
thaεy。u can buy nearly anywhere M。st
c。nvent1。nal s『zes are av副lable m m。ney-
坦vmg rechargeable versions
hw tt
hd3

29. n
HB
n
忧
。
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30. b
闭
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31. M
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eockn
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ae
we’
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32. 。
。
咱
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：
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33. m
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可
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34. r日
r
eeA 四
m
m
J旧
m
m
m呻
a
a
M
n
a
tN
ee
-kec
Keep cards protected when th町are not in
t he came阻 Mem。叩cards are vulnerable
to d ust and moisture as well as magnetic
fie lds, heat, and shock Try n。tto touch the
electrical c。n国cts
Open the 。pti。ns menu. Tum the camera
。n and p ress the butt。n c。display t he menu

35. 。n the came阻’s monitor.
Review the defaul臼. In y。ur came阻’s
manual, read t hro ugh the hst 。f settings
t hat can be changed by the 。pe阻四r. Decide
wh,ch 。fthem r。u w。uld 1,ke to c hange
&om the camera ’s defaul白， the way th。se
。P＂。ns have been 坦t by the factory.
臼马叫（川·n r-.c ',H. 、
l节Op:1厅 ，ze ,mag,
,-_; Image 阳川
｜二一Image 11Le
! 'I' 什l ’•e b;I矿山
凶l)i_J ,i_' I"•'.''• 1 ＇、
四川•p
面
Select a menu ite m with the c。ntrol wt四el
。n the came阻’s back, then u臼 the Jog d ,a l
(als。。n the back) to r凹四l a list of settings
。r choices for that item
R ’ di s
Getting Stαrted
FOCUSING AND SETTING THE EXPOSURE
.... Basic Men u Ooc10
I 那~马盯兰J

36. 币量M ：~~
SM
Select the file type and resolution. 节、e
menu t田m may b e called ",mage q ua lity,”
b ecause visual 自del 1ty IS a伯cted byyour
choice. A lower resolut1。n 。rc。mpressed fi le
lets you store more pie阳陀s。n your mem。叩
card , but a t s。me loss 。fquality. SaVJ ng
pictures in the came阻’S 阻wform at, aεm
highest resoluti。n, kee ps t he quality highest.
Cho。se an ISO speed. It can be d，能rent
f。r each picture Higher n umbers let y。u
sh。。t 1n lower light b ut prod uce an image
with m。re no1四｛四e page 75 )
：号：p
襟。
Sunlight Cloudy Shade
Select the white balance ( color 回mpe日－
ture）。f t he d。m inant light source 1n whict、
y。u a re sh。。ting, such as incand escent
(t ungsten) bulbs, sun hgh飞。r。utd。。r shade
A camera 四E。n automatic makes these a d -
JUStments fo r you. If your camera has a 阻W
for町、at 。pt1on, 1t lea ves t he wh1回 balance
choice u nt1I you edit 由e自le
More about ISO speed on page 75.
6 CAMERA
Focus

37. F。cus on the most impo rtant part of y，。ur
scene to m a ke su陀 1t w,II be sha甲in the
ph。tog阻ph. Practice focusing 。n 。bJects a t
d1能rent d略目nc白白you look t hroug h the
viewfind er so t hat you bee。me fa milia r with
the wayεhe camera focuses
Manual 也cusing. As y。u l。。k through
the View币nder, rota回 the focusing nng a t
the fi-ont 。f the le ns. The view币nder 。fa
single-lens refl四came阻 has a ground-gla臼
screen that shows w hic h paπs of the scene
a re m。st sharply focused. S。me came阻s
als。ha回a m1cropnsm, a small nng at the
center。f the screen in which an 。bJect ap-
pears c。arsely d。民ed u nt1l 1t 1s focused. An
advanced 。r伊tem DSLRmay 。他r a choice
o f focusing screens
」二二2峭Shutte, relem
队』n。n
. 丘马（阳，z 'c'•ydαw n
-t--t- a u t 。阳ω '
兰乡削All z’、e w志Y
d<>w，、· shutter
”lea回d
Automatic f。cusing. Usually 由『S IS d。neby
cen回nng 由e focusing brackets (v1s1b le in the
m idd le of the 响ew击nder） 。n your s u bject as
y。u dep陀ss the shutter re lease p art w ay. The
came阻adjusts the lens fo r you to bnng the
bracketed 。bJect into focus D。n't pushεhe

38. shutter re lease a ll the way d。wn until you
a re ready to take a p icture
More about focus and when and how to override
automatic focus on page 43.
Set the Exposure
Shutter speed Aperture s ize
@[email protected]
γ125sec f/16
MENU
’ ISO 国、”’,
?lo..
至善
T。 get a correctly剧p。sed pictu陀， 。ne
th at 1s no t too light （。ver四p。sed） 。rto。
dark (u nde阳p。sed), you－。r the camera-
must set the shutter s peed a nd the apeπure
ace。rdmg to the selec四d ISO sens『t1V1ty
and h。w l 1ght 。r dark your su bject 巴 节咀
shutter speed determ ines the len阱。f t1me
th at hght stri kes t he sens。盯 the apeπure s『ze
determines h。wb nght the light 1s th at passes
through 由e lens and shutter to the light-
sensitive s urface
More about shut臼r speed and aperture on p四rges
18-27 and about 四户osure and
metenngon p鸣＇es 62-73.

39. Expos ure Readout
A data panel appea陌。n t he b。dyofsome
cameras, d ,spla·户ng shutter speed and ape俨
tu吨 settings {here，始到sec. shutter speed,
f/ 16 aperture), as well as 。ther information
The shutte r speed and aperture settings
appear in the viewfinder of s。me came阻S
(he陀，始到 sec. sh utter speed , f/ 16 aperture)
A hist。，gram 1s an accu阻四 representation
。fexposure that m。st cameras can d isplay
。n the m。mtor a仕er y。u take each
ph。tog阻ph. lfy，。ur subject ,s n。t m。vmg
W目。therwise c。operative, make a test
exp。sure of the scene first. Over－。r u nder-
exp。sed tes臼can be deleted. M。re about
h istog日ms 。n pages 60-61
EXPOSURE READOUT
Manually Setti n
‘雪01曲：如＝g•阳bj,由剧时曲”
Shu阳W叩曾4 ’／2SO 阳”、d
s,,gh, Mha,•,un l 』gh,Mha,y,un
O咱‘d o"n= I (do,untt向d-)
f/ 16 ,, ...
- f/ S.6 fM I=“』，gh"ddo,o up剑bj"'"· Su同ttt,h>d<d f.om

40. g国bu，句h,od by • '"8' • ..,. o f ,k歹
Wi由 manual 四p。SU陀， you set both the
shutter speed a nd apeπure yourself. H。w
do you kn。wwhich settingsε。 use? At
the simplest level you can use a c hart like
the 。ne above. Decide whaεkind 。flight
illuminates the scene, a nd set the apeπu陀
（由e非n umber sh。wn on the chaπ） and the
shutter speed acc。rdmgly.
Notice that t he rec。mmended shutter
speed 。n the c hart 后均由sec. 。r Y, 2s sec
These relaovely fast shutter speeds make It
easie r for y。u to get a sharp p icture w hen
hand holding the came阻 （when 1t 1s not 。n
a tnp。d) . Atsl。w shutter speeds, such as
比o sec. 。r sl。wer, t he shutter is 。pen l。ng
en。ugh fo rthe p1ctu陀 to be b lurred 1f y。u
move the came阻sh阱tlydunng 由e exp。sure
二I ,::: :- · ! ·2 .. 1 .而山：2 ＇：，.已
You 日n use a臼mera’s built-in meter
for manual exp。sure Point 由e camera at
the m。st imp。πant paπ。f the scene and
activ毒自由e meter. The v,ewfinder will show
whether the 四p。sure 1s correct. If 1t isn 't ,
change t he shutter speed and／。r aperture
u ntil 饨 ，s Here, p lus num bers signa l overex-
p。sure, minus means under由p。sure. Lining
u p the red arr。wwith the dot 1n 由e center
1nd1cates t he exp。sure 1s nght
T。 prevent blur caused by the came阻
m。v1ngdunng由eexp。sure ( 1f the camera is
n。E 。n a tnpod), select a shutter speed 。fat

41. leasε 比o sec A shutter speed 。fJ,2s坦C. IS扭住r
Automatically Setting
t he Expos ure
Wi由 automatic e叩。sure, t he camera
sets the shutter speed 。r apeπure， 。rb。th,
fory。u
。
Wi由 programmed (fully automatic)
四p。sure, each time you press the shutter
release butt。n, the came阻 automatically
meters the light, then sets both shutter
speed and ape陀ure
益萨干 （｛？
画：飞:'• ·' c~飞＇. I
Wi由 shutter-priority a‘Jtomatic回归sure,
y。u set the shutter speed a nd t he camera
sets the apeπure T。prevent b lur fr。m
camera m。”。n 1fy。u are hand h。ldi ng t he
camera, select a sh utter speed 。fb♀o sec
。r faster
｛：每
协事？回』.s
国·－ A
.?
OFF ‘川＇；
LIGHT
ON • •

42. Wi由 aperture-priority automatic剧p。－
sure, you 四t 由eapeπure and the came阻
sets the shutter speed. T。keep the picture
sha甲when r。u hand hold the camera, check
that the shutter speed 阻Wio sec 。r faste r. I f 眩
IS n。ιsetthe ape陀ure to a la『-ger opening ( a
smaller ιnumber)
More a品。“t hmνtoovemdeou阳motJc
四rposure on page 66.
R ’- 7
JU
- e
一臼
r
-
G
α
－
呐
QU
-lu
g-
M
n-
l

43. u
一o
e
-
P
G
一日
Hold the Camera Stead
F。r horizontal photogr，叩hs ( sometimes
called "landscape”m。de), keep y。ur arms
against y，。ur b。dy E。 steady the camera
Use your right hand t。 h。Id the came阻
and your nght fore自nger to press the shut-
ter release Use y。ur le仕hand ε。 help sup-
p。πthe camera 。r to focus 。r make 。ther
camera adjustments
For verti日I ph。tographs ("portrait''mode),
support 由e camera &om bel。W川的ther
y。ur nght 。r le仕 hand. Keep that elb。w
against y。ur b。dytos回ady the camera
A trip。d steadies the came曰“r y。u and
lets y。u use sl。wshutter speeds f。r night
scenes or 。由er situations when the light
1s d,m Make s ure to use a cable release,
rem。te trigger，。r selιtimerw,ch It
8 CA M ERA
Make an exp。sure. Recheck the focus and
c。mp。s,c,on JUSt before 四p。sure. When

44. you a re ready to take a p icture, s臼b1lize
your camera and y。urselfand gendy press
the shutter re lease all the way d。wn M。st
cameras prefocus automatically when you
press the shutter button hal仙•ay d。wn If
your s u bject c。。阴阳tes, try severa l d，他rent
exp。sures 。ft he same scene, perhaps &om
d，他rent angles
An LCD monitor sh。ws 四act fram ing
a nd lets y。u check to see that the pi目ure is
not t。。 light 。r too dark a仕er you take 1t
Mostd『g,tal came用S w ,11 also let you z。。m
,n the m。mtord isplay。n a small paπ。fthe
saved p icture to check pre口臼 focus
You’ II learn faster ,f y。u keep a rec。rd as
you a re sh。。t1ng. Digital cameras a utomatl-
cally save camera and exp。”陀 ，nforn咀－
”。n-like the apeπure, shutter speed, and
ISO-and sto陀 It with each picture But 1t
he lps ton。四y。ur reas。ns for th。四 choices
the way a subject was m。ving，币。r example,
。r the d 1rect1on and quality ofligl、E Th1swill
lety，。u identi命the pa由toy。ur s uccessful
images and help y。u make g陀at pictures
m。re o仕en
Down load the Pictures
Transfer your pictu陀s to another storag e
device, usually a c。mput町、 hard d n ve, at
the end of a day's sh。。ting 。r w henever you
want to review them 1n detail. This transfer
is called d阳onloading. Yo u can 陀move the
mem。ry card and plug 比into a card reader,

45. as shown ab。ve， 。rc。nnect t he camera and
c。mpu四r d1陀ctly with a cable, bel。w Some
cameras can transfer images w1relessly.
Download your pictures directly t。 a
c。mputer 1f It’s c。nven,ent. If you are
sh。。ting 。n l。c.at1on y。u can trans也r
由em to a p。πable ha rd dnve 。r 。ther
device m ade fo r reading cards. D。n't
e rase t he memo叩 card u n ti l y。u a re sure
all your images are secu re and, ,f p。s-
sib le, d u p licated ,n at leastεw。 p laces
y。u can delete unwan ted 1 mag臼 fror,、
出e card using t he camera, but-unless
y。u are running 。Ut 。f r。。m 。n the card
during a shoot-It 1s safer t。 save that ed-
阳ng step until a仕er all y。u r images have
been d。wnl。aded
WHAT WILL YOU PHOTOGRAPH?
2
2
仨
呐
a
a
you more in terested in the person cooking>
D。 you want the wh。le wall of a bu ild ing,
o r was it only t he g日ffit i on it t hat caught
your attenti。n?

46. Get closer (usually) . 0丘en people photo-
graph from too fur away. What paπ。f the
scene attract ed you? Do you want to see
thewh。le deck, t he wh。le back 归rd，。r a re
Where do y，。u start? One place to staπ is
by looking around through t he view币nder
A SU均ect 。ften l。。ks di仇rent isolated in
a viewfinder than it d oes when y。u see it
surro u nd ed by 。ther objects. What in te r-
ests you ab。ut this scene? W hat is it that
you want to make into a ph。tog阻ph>
t he setting? Is t here a d istract ion (like bright
su nlight 。r a sign d irectly behind s。me。ne’s
head] that you c。uld avoid by changing
posit ion? Ta ke a l。。k
lo。k at the background ( and 由e fo陀－
ground). How d oes y。ur su均ecε relate to
its surround ings? Doy，。u want t he su均ecε
centered 。r o仔t。。ne side t。 show m。re of
Try a di他陀，1t angle . I『，stead 。f always
sh。。ti『1g fr，。m 『飞。m、al eye- evel heig ht, try
getting up high and looking d。wn o n your
SU同ect o r kneeling and looking u p
More about backgrounds and the image 斤·ameon
P回,ges 154-157.
E
Au－
e
e

47. 飞
句泛
resulting ph。tog日忡， darker parts of t he
scene may appear complet ely black， 。r the
subject itself may be silhouetted against a
brigh ter background.
D。”’t be afraid to experiment, t。。．
Incl ude a bright lig h t s。urce 。r bright sky
in t he p icture (just d。n't sta re d irectly a t
the sun t h rough t he viewfinder). In t he
Check the lighting. At fi rst, y。u a陀m。re
likely to get a good 四”sure if you ph。回－
g目ph a m。陀 。r less evenly lit scene, n悦
。ne where the su均町 is against a v町l ight
background , such as a bright sky.
9 . CH A PT E R 1
More about lighting on pages 134- 151.
Types ofCαmerαs
FILM CAMERAS
W hat kind 。fcam-
era is best for you? For
occasional snapshots of
fami ly and friends, an
inexpensive, completely
auromar,c, nonad1usr-
able camera that you
just point and shoot will
probably be sa口sfacrory.

48. But if you have become
interested enough in
photography to take a
class or buy a book, you
will 飞wane an adjustable
camera because 1t will
g,ve you greater creative
control. If you buy a
camera with auromanc
features, make sure it is
one that al lows you to
manually override them
when you wane to maJ也
exposure and focus
choices yourself.
Film camera d esigns
evolved as too ls for spe-
cific tasks, and followed
the slow evolution of
film (see Chapter 10,
pages 184- 186). Here
are the m勾or styles,
which are useful to
know about because
many elements of these
designs have been incor-
porated into their digi-
tal counterparts.
Single-lens re向ex cameras
(SLRs} show you a scene
d irectly through the
lens, so you can preview
what will be recorded.

49. You can see exactly what
the lens is focused on;
with some cameras, you
can check the depth of
field (how much of the
scene from foreground
to background will be
sharp). Through-the-
lens viewing is a definite
advantage with telepho-
to lenses, for close-ups,
or for any work when
you want a precise view
of a scene
Very early SLRs used
large glass p lates or fi lm
sheets but since the
1950s almost all were
made co accept 35mm
film. A few models
aimed at (and priced
for) profess旧naJ pho-
E歹二、 刚刚＼ 件
、
A
川
人
Si” gle -lens Reflex Camera
·•
10 CA M ERA

50. rographers used larger
roll fi lm . Recent SLRs
incorporate auromanc
exposure, auromanc
focus, and automatic
flash but allow manual
control. Many different
interchangeable lenses
for SLRs are avai lable.
Dψtal SLRs (DSLRs)
resemble their 35mm
fi lm ancestors. Some
SLR cameras made
for 21，♀－it、ch－飞、~de roll
film (called n飞edium
f。rmat} may be used
with accessorγdigital
capture backs. Digital-
on ly models, also called
medium-format, are also
available.
SLRs have long been
verypopul盯with profes-
sionals, such as photo-
journalists or fashion
photographers, or with
anyone who wants to
move beyond making
snapshots.
Rang efinder earner目 are
viewfinder fi lm cam盯缸
This means they have

51. a peephole, or window,
separate from the lens,
through which you view
the scene Inexpensive
"pomt-and-shoot" view-
finder cameras simply
show the approximate
framing through the
飞叽ndow. A rangefinder
camera ,s more complex,
飞叽th a visual focusing
system that you use as
you look through the
viewfinder 飞川ndow. The
window shows a split
image when an object
is not in focus. As you
rotate the focusing
ring, the split image
comes together when
the object is focused
Range白”der Film Ca mera
sharply. Rangefind盯
cameras let you focus
precisely, even in dim
light, but you cannot
visually assess the depth
of field because all parts
of the scene, even the
split image, look equally
sharp in the viewfinder
Because the viewfind-

52. 盯四in a different posi-
口on from the lens that
exposes the 日lm, youdo
not see exactly what the
lens sees. This difference
between the viewfinder
image and the lens
image is called parallax
error, and is greater for
objects that are closer
co the camera Better
rangefinder cameras cor-
rect for p盯allax error
and have interchange-
able lenses, although
usually not in as many
foe.al lengths as 盯e av剖1-
able for SLRs. Mose use
35mm 自Im; ones called
medium formar 盯e for
wider roll fi lm, few are
digiral. Range日nder
C剖白盯as 盯e fast, reliable,
qu,er ,n operar,on, and
rel a口vely small.
P盯al lax error and a
viewfinder image char
is reversed le丘ro righr.
Some now-discon口nued
TLRs had inrerchange-
able lenses; adjusrmenrs
on all models are com-

53. plerely manual
Twin-lens Reflex Camera
Twin-lens ref!四cam-
eras (TL时， excepr for
a couple novelty "rerr。”
digiral versions, are all
film cameras. New ones
a陀made by a few com-
panies, bur secondhand
models are widely avai l-
able. They cannot easily
be adapred ro digital
capture. Each c剖白era
has rwo lenses: one for
viewing rhe scene and
another jusr below it
char exposes the film
A large fi lm format
(21,4 inches square) is
rheTLR’s advantage
!rs disadvantages 盯e
View臼meras have a lens
in rhe from, a gro山1d-
glass viewing screen in
the back, and a flexible,
accordion-like bellows in
bec:ween. The camera's
mosr valuable fearure is
i rs adj usrabili叩rhecam-
era's P盯rs can be moved
free! y in relation ro each
orh町， which lees you airer

54. pers~ecrive and sharpness
to swt each sc白世You
can change lenses and
even the catηera's back;
for example, you can
attach a back ro use selι
developing film or one to
record a digital image.
Each film exposure
is made on a separare
sheer, so you can make
one shot in color and
the nexr in black and
white, or develop each
sheer differenrly. Fi lm
s,ze ,s large-4 x S inch-
es and larger-for crisp
and sharp derail even in
a big print.
Using a view camera
can be a more cons,d-
ered process because
they are slow to use
comp盯ed ro smaller
hand-held cameras. They
盯e large and heavy and
muse be mounred on a
tripod. The image on rhe
viewing screen is upside
down, and iris usual ly
so dim char you have
to put a focusing clorh
over your head and rhe
screen ro see rhe image

55. clearly. When you wane
complere conrrol of an
image, such as for archi-
tectural or product pho-
tography or for personal
work, rhe view c剖叽era’s
advanrages ourweigh
whar some mighr see 臼
mconven,ences
Some cameras are made
宦。而II a specialized need.
Panoramic cameras
make a long, narrow
photograph char can be
effective, for example,
wirh landscapes. Some
of rhese cameras crop
our P盯t of rhe normal
image rectangle to make
a panoramic shape
Ochers use a wider-than-
normal secrion of roll
日Im; some may rotare
the lens from side ro side
during the exposure
Digiral pat10ramas
can be made during
editing by s口rching sev-
eral individual fr副咽es
togerher，白rher from
digiral caprure or from
scanned film, so special-

56. purpose panoramic
cameras 盯e no longer
common. Some digiral
cameras can display a
segment of rhe previous
fr剖叽e on the side of the
monitor to help align
the next shoe for more
seamless reassembly
lacer. Ocher cameras
(and smart phones) have
a飞weep” mode chac can
capru陀 a panoramic
image with one press of
the bucron when moved
across a scene
Ste陀o or 3-D cameras
ta!<e two picrures ac che
S缸’1e 口me chrough cwo
side-by-side lenses. The
resulting pair of images,
a ste陀·ograph, gives che
illusion of three dimen-
s1ons when seen ,n a
stereo vie飞wer.
Underwa-ter cam-
旷·as are not only for
use underw’acer bur for
any siruacion in which
a c副白era is likely ro
gec wec Some cam-
eras are water res,scan飞
rather chan usable

57. under飞.vacer. Specially-
made underwater hous-
ings are available for
professional use or larger
camera models.
R ” 11
Types ofCαmerαs
DIGITAL CAMERAS
D igital camera d吨m
are continually evolving
and the aπay of avai l-
able models can be over-
whelming. With so many
options, you can usually
choose a camera based
on the combina口on
of features you need,
but you may have to
compromise. To get the
most our of this book
(and your photography)
choose a camera that
offers you the op口on to
control focus and expo-
sure manual ly
est SLR out for a walk
requires a shoulder strap
or camera bag. Using
one in public suggests to
others that you are not a

58. casual snapshoot町， that
you 盯e photographing
seriously.
Compact臼meras 缸e
mostly designed for
amateur photographers
but V盯y considerably in
quality. The smaller the
camera, the more likely
its features will be lim-
ited Some compacts are
good enough to be used
c。mpact Camera
Size is often the first con-
sideration in choosing
a camera. Your c缸’1era
shouldn' t be so large or
so small that it gets in
rhe way of your phorog-
raphy.
Digi.tal single-le刑时iflex
(DSLR) cameras 盯e the
most versa口le choice bur
rhey 盯e big enough that
you’H probably C盯叩one
only when you 盯e mean-
ing to use it. Professional
models can be relatively
heavy, bur caking even
the smallest and light-

59. 12 CA M ERA
by professionals when
they don' t want to carry
a larger camera; some
are made to be used a
few times and then set
aside. Mose compact
digital cameras 盯e a bit
coo large and heavy for
your pocke飞 but fie well
in a smal l shoulder bag
along with your phone
and sunglasses.
5份compact digital
cam旷as can be carried
in a pocket so you 盯e
ready to make pictures
anywhere, any time.
CD • ’
c。mpactActi。” E忌”’era
Vich image quality and
features chac compa时
poorly to larger cameras,
che market for subcom-
paces is giving way to
smart phones.
Lens. Do you need ,mer-
changeable lenses? One
common charactensetc
of a camera made for

60. serious ~horographers is
chac a wide assortment
offenses can be attached.
An arsenal of specialized
lenses can be expensive
to acquire and cumber-
some to carry. A fixed
lens may be all you need,
especially if it is a zoom
chac covers the range
you’d expect to use (see
pages 32-33}
Viewing system. The
purpose of a c剖叽era·’s
viewing syscem is to let
you frame and p时view,
as accurately as possible,
the photograph you are
about to capture
A single-le阳陀卢阳
camera projects the
image-forming light
directly from your lens
onto a mirror and chen
to your eye through a
pencaprism (see page 17)
so you see what the lens
sees Because the view-
finder is held to your
eye, it is relatively easy
to follow actton. But
the mirror muse swing
out of che way for che

61. moment of exposure, so
you don’E actually see
the exact image you have
captured And the mir-
ror's motton can cause
unwanted v,bratton chat
causes slight blurring.
M irrorless cam旷as
most O阮町、have a small
monitor or LCD screen
on the back of the c剖叽·
盯a chac displays what
che lens 1s seeing,
transmitted directly
from che image
sensor. This
image, called
live vierv, ,s used
for framing
and focusing,
and is replaced
momentarily
with a叽ewofeach
captured image imme-
diately after being taken.
Medium-format Digital SLR
The monicor on some
cameras ,s arciculaced, or
tilcable, for viewing from
unusual angles, such as
overhead or w刮目level

62. M,rrorless cameras
may have an electronic
M白吃卢M叽 or EVF. This
viewfinder is a smaller
version of che LCD
monicor char is located
inside che camera It
can be seen when hold-
ing the camera to your
eye rather than at arm’s
length. SLR-style mirror-
less c剖叽eras have a ch盯－
actensnc pentapr,sm,
ocher cameras resemble
rangefinder film cam-
eras with the EVF vis-
ible through a peephole
located in a corner of the
camera' s back.
An EVF display can
be made lighter and
darker to compensate
for the brightness of a
scene or for setting diι
ferem apertures (page
22). Some cam盯as can
show in the vie飞.vfinder
an outline of the 盯eas
of best focus, somenmes
called foc11s peaking, or
日II che b缸’1e with a
very small section of the
scene co allow more pre-
c,se visual focusmg

63. Res。lution. The max,-
mum number of阴阳Is
ac.an、era·’s sensor can
capru陀 is called s臼
resolunon A camera,
for 四ample, may be
12, 16, or 24 megapix-
els (MP). An image fi le
唱巨变马马’ －
~- .. . 、Soz..y ~
革勾~~~：：~：＇
4 ～」F Q'.
ig
草原
Miff'，。rless EVF Camera
captured by almost any
current digital camera
can make a sansfac-
tory letter-size (8验× 11}
prim. Generally, to keep
the same image quali叨，
the larger che prim, the
higher the resolution
needed (see page 55). If
you aren' t p lanning co
make large prin臼， you
probably don' t need che
highest mega阴阳l count.

64. Sens。v size also affects
image quality. A 12MP
sensor can be physically
large or small. If it is
small, co have the s剖ne
number of individual
light-sensing elements as
a large 12MP sensor, the
elements must also be
smaller and more 口ghdy
packed The larger and
less crowded these ele-
mems are on che sensor,
the higher che quality
。f che image (see noise,
page 75). Most subcom-
pact cameras and all cell
phones have very small
sensors and, therefore,
produce images of some-
what lower quality.
A sensor the same
size as a 35mm film
frame is called Ji.！忻州e
Larger sensors 盯e made
for medium-fortηat digi-
tal c剖neras, priced for
well-paid professional
phocographers. Some
com盯ion sensor sizes
smaller than full frame
盯e (in descending order
of size) APS-C, Four-

65. Thirds, 2/ 3”, 1/ 1.8”(see
the chart on page 45).
Other features may be
a faccor 川your choice.
Most cameras have a
builc-in flash for use in
dim light. A few have
builc-in Vi-Fi that can
transfer image fi les wire-
lessly co a computer as
you shoot Some cam-
盯as can be r白白ocely
controlled with built-in
Vi－日， Bluecooth, infra-
red, or radio receivers
Many cameras will cap-
cure video at very high
quality levels. They have
builc-in microphones co
record sound and many
allow external micro-
phones co be connected.
To record an active
lifestyle, there are action
spor臼 cameras （。pp。sit
page, cop) that 盯e water-
proof, shock resistant,
and can be helmet or
surfboard mounted.
Cell phone cameras now
outnumber all other
types by a wide mar-

66. gin, and they capture
a m勾oriry of the pho-
cographs made daily,
worldwide. Most ta!四
only low-resolunon
images and allow the
user no control other
than where it points and
when it shoots, but the
best C剖叽era is always the
one you have with you
R ” 13
Bαsic Cαmerα Controls
EES
-
E
,3aenui
‘
InOH
由
m
o
c
w
E

67. n
O
M
叫
·
如
但
由
汀
m
w
t
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阳
A
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U
A
U
L
ud
UZI
t
os
二

68. 啊
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69. u
o
e
σ
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a
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LHO
uos
s
rOLUF
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础，
y
s
m
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vj
’
elL

70. m
u
m
m
巾
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UEA
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71. t
气
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m
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咫
t
t
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eHE
-
-
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，
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q
A

72. C
S
V
’
”
you how to visu alize the scene the camera will
capture and how to use the camera’s controls
to ma!刊 the picture you have in mind. D igital
cam盯as are shown h ere. A film camera will have
some 。r all of these sam e controls.
On these fully-automatic cameras, you
can press the shutter release and have the
“meraau阳mati，臼llyfo阳s the lens (au阳fo-
cus) and set the shutter speed and aperture
(autoexposure). When you want 阳choose
camera settings yourself, you can manually
oν＇erride the automatic functions.
c。ntrol d;al
Controls and data panels app臼ron both
阶is entry-le昭I sin2)e-lens reflex camera
(abo时and the more sophisticated "sy如m”
“耐用户ight) aimed at pro向sionals. Both
can be equipped wi阶a wide variety of special-
pu’-pose len阳and accessories. Push-buttons
and dials let you select the shutter speed (the
length of time the shutter remains open) and
阶e aperture (the size of the opening的，side the
lens）. 时阶either仰”叫you can阳伽nge
one lens for another. Top-of-the-line cameras
often do not have built-in flash.

73. Interchangea ble lens
14 CAM E RA
Shutter-speed control.
Movingo句ects can be shown
cri.平ly sharp, frozen in mid-
motion, or blurred either a
little bit or a lot. The faster
the shutter speed, the sha’per
阶e moving object will appear.
Turn 臼pages 18-19 for
information about shutter
speeds, motion, and blur.
Aperture control. Do you
want part of the picture sharp
and part out of focus or do
you want the whole picture
sharp from foreground to
back-ground? Changing the
size of the aperture (the lens
opening) is one way to control
sharpness. 7百e smaller the
aperture, the more of the
picture that will be sharp.
See pages 22-25.
Lens focal length. 自ur
lens's fo臼I length controls
阶e size of o价出in a scene
and how much of that scene
is shown. 7百e longer the
focal length, the la嗯er阶e

74. objec缸时l/ appear. See
pages 32-39 for more about
focal length.
Focusing. 7百rough the viewfinder window you see the s臼ne
that will be recorded, including the sha，如st part of the scene,
阶e part on which the camera is focused. A particular part of a
S臼ne 臼n be focused sharply by manually 阳ming阶efo阳sing
ring on the lens, or you can let an autofocus 臼mera adjust the
lens automati，臼lly. More about focusing and sharpness appears
on pages 42-45.
R ” 15
More αbout Cαmerα Controls
Automatic 叫osure is a basic feature in
alm ost all cameras. T he purpose is to let in a
controlled amount of ligh t so that the result -
ing image is neither too lig h t n o r too dark. T h e
camera’s built-in merer measures the brightness
of t h e scene and t h en sets shutter speed, aperture
(lens open ing), or both in order to let the right
amount of ligh t reach the camera’s recording
sensor (or t he film in a fi lm camera). As you
become m。re experienced, you w ill wan t to set
the exposure manually in certain cases, instead
of always relying on t h e camera. Read more
about exposure in Chapter 3, pages 60-73.
You have a choice of 四posure m odes with
many cameras. Read your camera’s instructio n
manual to find o ut which exposure features your
model has and h ow they work. You may be able to

75. dO＼•吼load a replacement manual from t h e manu-
facturer’s 飞.Veb site, if you don’t have one.
Wi由 programmed (fully automatic) exp osure,
the camera selects both the sh utter speed and the
ap盯ture based on a program built into the cam-
era by the manufacturer. T his automatic opera-
Exposure information appears in the viewfinder of many 臼m-
eras. This viewfinder shows the shutter speed (he吨， 地o sec.)
and aperture (f/5.6). Displays also show you when the flash is
rea吵to fire and give you warni，，结s of under- or
oven自：posure.
16 CA M E RA
tio n can be useful in rapidly changing situattons
because it allows you simply to respond to t h e
SU同ect, focus, and sh oot.
In shu忧er- priority mode, you set the sh ut-
ter speed and the camera automatically sets t h e
correct aperture. Th is mode is useful when t h e
m otion of subjects is important, as at sport-
ing events, because the sh utter speed determines
whether movi ng o同ects wi ll be sharp 。r blurred.
In a p erture-pr iority m ode, you set the lens
open ing and the camera automatically sets t h e
shutter speed. T his mode is useful when you want
to control the depth of field (the sh a
image fro m foregro und to background) because
the size of the lens opening is a major factor
affecting sharpn ess.
M a nua l expos u re is also a choice with many

76. au tomatic cameras. You set both t h e lens open-
ing and shutter speed yourself using, if you wish,
the camera’s bu ilt-i n light meter to measure t h e
brightness of the light.
Some cameras also have a data panel on the body of the
臼mera that shows the same information-shutter speed and ap-
erture-as附II as exposure, autofocuι and ISO modes and 伪e
number of.叩osures remaining on the memo,y card (here 12匀
INSIDE A DIG l丁AL SINGLE-LENS REFLEX CAMERA
A u camera• have t h• …basic featu res:
• A light-t ight b。x to hold the camera paπs and a
rec。rd ing sensor o r fi lm
• A viewing system that lets you a im t he camera
accu rately
• A lens t o forrr币 an image and a mechan ism to
focus it sha rply
• A shut定er and lens apeπureε。 control t he amou nt
。f light thaε reaches t he record ing surface
• A m四ns to hold a memory card t hat saves its
captured info rmation o r to hold and ad vance fi lm
A. B。dy. The light-t ight box that c。ntains the cam-
era’ s mechanisms and protec臼 the lig ht -sensitive
surface ( sensor o r fi lm) from exp。sure to lig ht until
you a陀 ready to make a ph。tograph

77. B. Lens. F，。cuses an image in t he viewfi n d er and 。n
t he lig ht -sensitive record ing su rface.
C lens elem e nts. The o ptica l glass lens components
t hat prod uce t he image.
D F。cusing ring. Turning t he ring foc uses the
image by adjust ing t he d istance 。f t he lens from
t he rec。rd ing surface s。me cameras focus
automat ically.
E. D iaphragm. A circle of。verlapping leaves inside
t he lens t hat adj usts the size 。f the ape同ure ( lens
o pening) . It 。pens up to increase （。r closes d own
to d ecr四se) the am。unt of light reachi鸣 the
rec。rd ing surface
F. Apertu陀 ring or butt。n. Setting the ring or εurn-
inga c。mmand d ial ( 0 ) d e t erm ines the size 。fthe
diaph甩gm d u ring exposu re.
G. Mirror. Du ri ng viewing, the m irror re fl ects light
from t he lens u pward onto the viewing screen
Duri ng an exp。sure, the mirror swings o ut o f t he way
s。l ight can pass stra ig ht to the recording surface.
H. Viewi~g. scree n . A gr。und-glass （。r simila r) su白白
on which t he foc used image a ppears
I. Pentaprism . A five-sid ed optical d evice thaε
reflects t he image from t he viewing scree n in t o t he
viewfind er
J. Metering cell. Measu res the brig htness of the scene
being ph。tographed

78. K. View西nder eyepiece. A wind ow through which the
image from the penta p rism is visible
L. Shutter. Keeps light from t he recording surface
u ntil y。u a re ready t。 take a pictu re. Pressing the
shutte r release 。pens and closes the shutter to le t a
measu red am。unt 。f lig ht reach the sensor
M. Sensor. A grid (usuall~ called a CCD o r CMOS
ar日y o r chip ) comprising m illions 。f t iny lig ht -sen-
B
, ,,,
N
sit ive electron ic d evices (phot osit es) t hat rec。rd the
image. The ISO ( or lig_ht sen忧ivi呐。f the sensor is
adjustable, and is set in t o t he came日 by a d ia l o r
menu setting
N. Data panel. A d is.play (most 。他n an LCD screen)
fo r such information as shut臼r sp四d, aperture,
ISO， 四p。sure and met ering m。des, and the num-
ber of exposu res remain ing 。n t he memory card
0. Command d ial. Selects t he shutte r sp四d , the
length of time the shu tter remains o pen On some
m。dels, it a lso sets the mode 。faut。matic exp。－
sure ope日tion. In some locat ions, it is called a
thumbwheel o r j。g d ia l.
P Shutter release. A but ton thaεactivates the exp。．
SU陀 sequence in whic h t he apertu陀 adjusts, t he
mirr。r rises, t he shutter opens, light strikes t he

79. rec。rding surface, and t he shutter closes.
Q. H。t sh。e. A bracket t hat a ttaches a fl ash u n it to
the camera and provides an electrical linking that
synchronizes camera and flash
R M。de d ial. Sets a manual 。r one o f several auto -
ma tic 剧posu re modes. On 民Im cameras, a crank
to rewind an 四posed roll of而I m may be located
here. Most new fi lm came甩s rewind a utomatically
S. Cable connections. Plug in cables that, for exam -
pie, connect external power o r a c。mputer, o r c。n -
t ro l the camera remotely
T. Memory 臼时. Stores image fi les May be e rased
and reused; capacity varies. Can be removed to
fac ilita t e transferring 而les to a computer or other
storage d evice
s
A simplified look inside
a digitol single-lens refl，臼
臼mera or DSLR ( de.咿s
vary in different models)
The camera tokes its name
from its single lens (another
kind of reflex film camera
has two lense吵and from its
reflection of light u如'Ord
for ν'iewing the image.
R ’ 111 17

80. Sh utter Speed
AFFECTS LIGHT AND MOTION
L igh t a nd t h e s hutter speed . T。 m冰e a
correct exposure, so t hat your p ictu re is neit her
too ligh t nor too dark, you need to control t h e
amount of lig h t that reaches the d igital im age
sensor （。r fi lm). T he s hutter speed (th e amount
of time t h e sh utter rem出ns open) is o ne of two
controls your camera has over the amoun t of
light. T he apertu size (page 22) is t he other. In
automatic operation, the cam era sets the shu tter
speed, apert ure, or both. In manual 。peration,
you choose both settings. T h e sh utter-speed dial
(a p ush bu tton o n som e cameras) sets t he sh utter
so t h at it opens fo r a given frac t ion of a sec。nd
after the sh utter release has been pressed. T h e B
（。r bu lb) setting keeps th e shutt er open as long as
the shutter release is held down .
Motion 缸，d t h e s hutter s peed . In addi tion to
controlling t h e amo unt of light that en ters the
camera, the shutter speed also affects the way that
moving o均ects are shown. A fast shutt er speed
can freeze moti。n-V2.so sec. is more than fast
eno ug h for most scenes. A very slow sh utter speed
w ill record even a slow-mo机鸣。同ect 、.vith som e
blu r. The im portant factor is how m u ch the im age
actually moves across the recording surface. T h e
m ore of that surface it crosses wh ile the shutt er is
open, the more the image will be blu rred, so t h e
shutter speed n eeded to freeze m otio n d epends in
part on the d irection in wh ich th e su同ect is mov-
ing in 时ation to t he camera (see opposi te page).

81. T he lens focal length and the distance of t he
su bject from the camera also affect the size 。f
the image on the sensor (or 自Im) and thus how
m uch it wi ll blur. A subject will be enlarged 山tis
photographed with a lo ng-focal-length lens o r ifit
is close to the camera; it has to move o n ly a little
before its image crosses en。ugh of th e recording
surface to be blu rred
Obvio us ly, the sp四d of t h e motio n is also
im portant: all other t h ings being equal, a dart-
ing swallow needs a faster sh utter speed than
d oes a h overing h awk . Even a fast-moving su b-
ject, howev凹， may have a peak in its m ovement,
wh en t h e motio n slows just befo re it reverses. A
gym nast a t the h eig h t of a j u m p, fo r instan ce, or
a motorcycle neg。tiating a sh arp cu rve is moving
slower than at other times and so can be sh arp ly
p h otograph ed at a relatively s low sh utter speed.
See the project o n m。tion, page 161.
|
2
静
气
；
）
t
⑦

82. 1/ 8 sec 1/ I S 1/ 30
Shutter speeds appear in the
camera's vie,听·nder (near righ从
on 阶e shutte问：peed dial (cen -
ter), or as data panel readout
(far r，妙。Here, the camera is
set to 巳生so sec. Noti，臼 that on如
the bottom number of the frac-
tion is shown on the camera
Shutter-speed settings are in seconds or fractions of a
second: 1 坦c，始sec., l4，扮，约5，约O, 始O, !-fas，始so,
始田，V.ooo, and sometim自始棚， L岳阳， and L也曲。 Each
setting Jets in twi，臼 as much light as the next faster settin阜
half as much as the next slower setting. L告so sec. lets in twice
as much light as ~oo sec., half as much as 约2s sec. With
many臼meras, e写pecially in automatic operation, shutter
speeds are "stφless，”阶ecamera 臼n set the shutter to b全2S
sec.，均•oo sec, or wha胆ν·er speed it calculates will produce a
correct由p出ure.
18 CA M E R A
I ~---1
I d理｜
A focal-plane shutter
consists of a pair of印刷ins
usually located in the camera
body just in 卢·ont of the
且时or. Duringe气posure, the
印刷ins open to form a slit
that moν·es across 伪el.也•ht­

83. sensiti·时surface.
7百e size of the slit is
adj us阳hie: the wider the
slit, the longer the exposure
time and the more l也•ht that
reaches the sensor or film
Focal-plane shutters are
found in most single-lens
ref/，自cameras and some
range{inder cameras.
@
0
()
C
• A leaf shutter is usually
built into the lens instead of
阶e 臼mera body. The shutter
consists of overlapping leaves
伪at open during阶eexpo-
sure, then dose again
The longer伪e shutter
s伺ysope叽 the more light
that刷ches阶e l也fit－坦肘此i时
SU，仿ce. Leaf shutters are
found on m时t compact,
point-and-shoot, rangefinder,
and twin-lens ref/，自由meras,
view 臼mera lenses, and some
medium-format sinie-lens
reflex cameras.

84. ‘.
1/ 30 sec
一－－幽
Slow shutter spee叫， subject blurred. The direction a su句iect
is moving in relation to the 印刷阳臼na所ct the sh呻•ness of
the picture. At a slow shutter speed, a driver moving from right
阳left is not sharp.
’
1/30 坦C
昌
一
副
Slow shutter speed, subject sha’-p. Here the driver is
sha’'Pe时n阶outJ, photographed at the slow shutter speed阶at
recorded blur i，，，阶e卢刚picture (top left) . She was moving
directly 阳ward阶e 臼’”era, so her image did not cross enough
of the recording su彷ce 阳blur. The other g，。如rt, turning 阳
mo时across the frame, becomes blurred
Blurring to show m o tion. Freezing motion ts one
way of representing ir, bur it is not the 。nly way.
In fact, freezing motio n sometimes eliminates the
feeling of movement altogether so that th e su均ect
seems to be at rest. Allowing the su bject to blu r can
be a graphic me血1s of showing that it is moving.
..
1/ 500 sec
一－
－

85. 幽
Fast shutter spee叫： subject slra’-p. Photographed at a faster
shutter speed, the same drj,时rmoving巾 the 如me direction
issha’p. During 伪e shorter exposun窑， her image did not cross
enough 矿the recording su彷ce 归blur.
. .
1/ 30 sec.
影疆乌
Pa’”’ing with the vehicle is another way 阳keep it and the
dri，时rre归ti，时。sharp. During the exp_osure, the photographer
’”。时dthe camera in the same direction 阶at the go-kart was
moving (a ho斤zon阳I sweep from r，也•ht to left). Notice the
streaky look of the 切ckgro川d, characteristic of a panned shot.
Pa nning to s ho w m otio n . Pann ing the camera-
moving it in the same d irectio n as th e su bject’s
movement during the exposure-is another way of
showing motion (bot tom right). The backgroun d
will be blurred, but the subject will be sh arper
than it would be if the camera were held steady.
R ” 19
Sh utter Speed
USE IT CREATIVELY
M ake a decision about s hutter s p eed for
every sho e; don' t si m ply inherit o ne fro m your
previous exposure o r lee t h e camera choose for
you . Experiment with arresting motion, like the
ph otographs o n the opposite page, and with the

86. p。ssibili ties of blur. Try making a lo ng exposure
of a m oving subject wi th a motionless camera, as
shown on page 160, and by pann ing, as above.
Every photograph you decide to make can capcure
multiple variations 。f m ovement, and each can
still be a correct exposur巳
20 CAMERA
John Divola. D07F12, from the series D。gs
Chasing My Car in the De坦问 Morongo Valley,
California, 199 7. Creating blur can e萨ctively
suggest motion and can often be a better choice
than freezing a moving su句：＇ect. Panning (page 19)
is most often accomplished by sweeping the camera
across the field of view from a fixed van阳，ge point.
Divola held his 臼mera out the window of his mov-
ing臼盯 the dog cooperated by matching阶e写peed
。,fthe vehicle.
Josef Koudelka. Spain,
1971 . A shutter speed
that captures rapid
motion also freezes
anything slower. The
posture and gestures of
阶e partfo仰nts in 伪位
event are held in place for
our close inspection.
Naoya Hatakeyama.
8/ast#5416, 1998.
n阳e shutter arrests

87. action but it do臼n't
protect阶e photogra·
pher. For his own safety,
making 伪ιseries of
pictu的田。f由:plosions at
a quar，饥 Ha阳k电yama
used a remote control
归trigger阳切酬，sec.
exposur，臼e He relied on
advice from the blasting
enfineer, who u，由rstood
阶e "nature" of the rock,
阳locate his camera to
capture the ”nature" of
violence without damage
R ” 21
Aperture
AFFECTS LIGHT AND DEPTH OF FIELD
c
d
吨
ι
舍
．
‘
v..
c

88. d
ρ
n
川
n
。
n
h
L阻
e
u
I
」
陆
E
sou
-
unsee
c
3
u
n
h
鸣

89. -qUJet
-
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万
e
s
c
a
a
u
（
h
e
o
力
＋
也
H
U
’
也
何
K
U
，
、
汀

90. O
E
＆4
」
比
斗V
到
h
V
J
S
n
（K
坦
叫
E
川
尸H
m
m
h
由
d
时
∞

91. 川
TJABgeq
已
m
h
d
由
r
m
wmhnm
吨
c
p
t
o
s
r
s
s
σ
。
n
eno
a

92. －
m
阻
力
n
n
e
o
且
四
a
m
』
H
e
k
w
t
u
t
k
H
S
I
σ

93. b
u
E
Enb
叫
u
m
h
m
a
a
＆
n
川
剧
喀
啤
n
b
k
w
T
H
U

94. r
u
ι
E
g
h
－m
B白
L
U
U
m
w
A
m
p
a
A
U
C－
－
L
川
川
···b
o
&
ocuh

95. uu
Aperture settings appear on a 臼mera's
Jens aperture ringβhownabo昭•）， in the
vieiν'finder (below /efi), or as da阳仰nel
r臼dout (below r也＇ht). He鸣 the camera
isset 阳f/5.6.
22 CA M E R A
size of the diaphragt” ’ a ring of overlapping meta l
leaves inside the lens. (In automatic operation, the
camera can do this for you.) Like 巾 iris of your
eye, the d iaphragm can get larger (open u p) to let
more ligh t in ; it can get smaller (stop down) to
decrease the amount of light.
可1 6f－寨’轩cccccccccccccccccccccc
、．．．吃Y Half as much l吩t as f/ 11
,..~ Twice as much light as f/ 16
f/ 11 ，.究ITCT)（（（（（ζζ〈ζ（（（（（（（（（《《…Q' Halfas
much light as归
，..，，λTwice as much light as f/ 11
何！Ill.:豆豆《《《《《《《《《《《
嘲~ Halfas much light as 可5.6
"''G ccc~~cl:~f ~~~f ccccc
C怪：；~~｛tf f cccc
也部(
,o (lccC&C~附则
Light and the aper阳re.

96. 7百e size of the lens oJ地F
ing－阶e aperture, or
f-stop-ccntrols the amount
ofl敏t阳tpa出s thro~gh
the Jens. Each aperture is one
“stop" from the n叫 that
is, each lets in twice as much
l也·ht as 阶e next smaller
opening, half as much light as
the n臼t larger opening. No-
tice that the lower the f-stop
number, the wider the Jens
opening and 伪emore/ight
that is let in. For example,
f/8 is a wider opening and
lets in more I，也＇ht than {/11,
which lets in morel也ht阶an
does f/16, and so on.
Ape阿ure settings (f-st ops ) . Aperture settings,
from larger lens openings to smaller ones, are f/ 1,
f/ 1.4, f/ 2, f/2.8， 例，疗5.6， 例，们1, f/16， 疗22, and
f/ 32. Settings beyond f/ 32 are usually fo und on ly
。n s。me view-camera lenses
The l。wer the f-stop nu mber, t he wider the
lens opening; each setti ng lets in twice as much
ligh t as t he next f-stop number u p the scale, half
as m uch ligh t as the n ext number down the scale.
For example，加l lets in double the light 。ff/16,
hal f as much as f/ 8. Larger openi ngs have sm aller
n u mbers because the f/ n umber is a rat旺 the
lens focal length divided by t he diameter of th e

97. lens open ing.
Referring to a stop (wi thout the “ f ”) is a short-
hand way of stating t h is half-or-double relation-
sh ip. You can give 。ne stop more {twice as much)
exp。sure by setting the aperture to its next wider
opening, o n e stop less (half as much）四posure
by stoppi，毯（closing) do叭响 the aperture to its n四t
s maller openi ng.
No lens has t he entire range of f-s tops; m ost
have about seven . A 50mm lens may range from
f/ 2 at its widest open ing t。 f/16 at its small-
est, a 200mm lens may range from f/ 4 to f/ 22.
Most lenses can set intermediate f-stops partway
between t he whole stops, often in o ne-th ird-stop
increments. T he widest lens setting may be an
intermediate stop, for example, f/ 1.8.
D e p t h o f fi eld a nd t he aperture. T h e size of
the aperture setti ng also affects how m uch of the
image wi ll be sharp. T his is known as th e depth
of field. As th e aperture 。pening gets smaller, the
depth of fie ld increases and more of t h e scen e
from near to far appears sharp in t he photograph
(see photos bel。w an d pages 42 and 45). See t h e
depth of field project on page 159.
Small Aperture
M。” Depth 。f Fie ld
Dep伪。ffield and the aperture.
7百e smaller the aperture openin阜 the
greater the dep伪 offield. At {/16
(left， 阳”，时th 阶e hands and string

98. 巾the foreground cri.写ply i，，阳吨，the
face in the backgro川dis a/sosha’?-
Ata much la嗯er aperture, {/1.4
(left, bo阳时，there is very little
dep伪。f{ield 7百eh出的 the back-
ground is completely out of focus.
Large Aperture
Less Depth 。f Fie ld
R ” 23
Aperture
USE IT CREATIVELY
A choice about a p erture is a choice about
f ocus, one of the most impo rtant decisions you
can m汰e about a picture. For all th e similarities,
a camera doesn't really see the way your eye does.
A picture freezes focus; sharp par臼 stay sharp,
blur and softness remai n no matter how much we
stare at a photograph . O ur vision, though, is fl uid.
Our eyes dart around a scene so we can perceive it
as a whole， 血1d they are constantly-and involun-
tarily-refocusi ng. Knowing the difference between
human vision and photographic visio n can be a
powerful tool， 目these 四amples show.
24 CAM E RA
-----
Joel S ternfeld. The Spa回到uttle Columbia

99. londs at Kelly Air Force Base, San Antonio,
Texas, March 1979. A small aperture gives
great depth of field 阶at 臼n make all parts of
an image equal如 sha’p. This can seem, as
here, to flatten three dimensions into two
Sternfeld uses that flatness for a playful ambi-
guity. The foreground spectator appears to be
inspecting a wall-sized photograph or watching
a giant television.
Terri Weifenbach. Untitled, 2014. A 旬，-ge
aperture creates a narrow band of focus that
can slice 阶rouiJ, the middle of a s臼吨leaving
o侬出blu句both in front and behind. This
image-of an evergreen that produces red winter
berries-was the ”咿，off• at the end of a long
visual conver回tion carried out via email between
灿ifenbach 的the US and another artist in Japan.
c…ER ’ 9l 2s
Shutter Speed αndAperture
BLUR VS. DEPTH OF FIELD
Cameras set shutter speeds
between whole stops. Older
shutters on如had full stoJ后，
each double the amount of
time of the shutter speed
before it or half that of the

100. one a~er it. 而day's shutters
set shutter sp出ds in incre-
me础。,fone-half or one·
C ont ro lling ti、e expos‘ . B口th sh u
and apenure affect d飞e am。un t 。f light reach ing
the camera's light-sensitive rec口rding surface. To
get a correctly exposed p ictme, o ne that is neith er
too light nor too dark, you need to fi nd a com-
bi nation of sh utter speed and aperture th at will
let in the rig h t amount of light for a particular
scene an d ISO setting. (Pages 60-73 explain h ow
to do this.
Equivalent exposur es. O nce you know a correct
combination of sh utter speed and aperm re, you
can change one setting an d still keep th e exposure
the same as long as you change t he o ther setting
the same amount in the 。pposite directio n. If
you wan t to use a smaller ap凹ture (wh ich lets in
less lig ht), you can keep t he exposure the same by
usi ng a slower shutt er speed (which lets in more
light), and vice versa.
A stop o f expo s u re ch a nge. Each full
ιstop setti ng of the aperture lets in h alf (or dou-
ble) the amount of lig h t as t he n四E full setti ng,
a o n e-stop differen ce. Each shutt er-speed setting
does the same. The term stop is used whether the
ap盯ture o r sh utter speed is ch anged. T h e exp。－
s ure stays constant if, for example, a m ove to th e
Slower shutter speed:
M。re light enters
M。re chance of m。tion blurri啕

101. 118 sec. 1/1 5 1β0
next fas ter sh utter speed (one stop less exposure)
is matched by a move to the n ext larger aperture
(one stop more exposure).
W hich com b ination do you choose? Any 。f
several com binations of sh utter speed and aper-
cure could make a good exposure, bu t t h e effect
o n t h e appearance of t he image wi ll be different.
S hurter speed affects the s harpness of moving
objects; aperture size a仔ects depth of fie ld (t h e
sharpness of a scene from near to far). S hutt er
speed also helps prevent blur caused by can1era
moti。n during the 四p。sure. If you are holding
the camera in your hands, you need a faster sh ut-
ter speed than if you have t he camera o n a tripod
(see page 28 fo r details).
y。u can decide for each p iccure whether
stopped m。tion or depth of field is more impor-
tant. More depth of fie ld and near-to-far sh arp
ness with a smaller apenure means you would be
using a slower sh utter speed and so risking that
m otio n would blur. Using a fas ter sh utter speed
to freeze motion means you would be usi ng a
larger aperture, with less of the scene sh arp n ear
co far. Depending o n the sicuatio n , you may have
to comprom ise on a m oderate amount 。fdepth 。f
field with some possibi lity of blur.
third s阳，ps T丑，s chart sh由屿，
in gray, those fractional stops
Some cameras allow you

102. 阳choose among dφrent
ways 阳set shutter speeds
(and ape时ures), use full
stops while l国rnmg
Speeds a臼meradi制制，
d晤，e an fractio,晤，
8 on a display is 1/ 8 sec.
’ / 3 STOP ’ / 2 STOP
1 1
1.3 1.5
1.6
2 2
2.5 3
3
4 4
5 6
6
8 8
10 11
13
15 15
20 20
25
30 30
40 45
50
60 60
80 90
100
125 125
160 180
200

103. 250 250
320 350
400
500 500
Faster 由utter spe副
Less light enters
Le目chan国 of m。tion blurri啕
Shutter speed and aperture combina-
tions. Both the shutter speed and the
aperture size control the amount of light.
Each setting lets in half(ordoubl，ψ
1厄0 1/125 1/250 1/500
Shutter
speed
Aperture
C) ~l)t） ‘）。－－
00000 00
the amount ofl也ht as the adja时nt
setting-a one-stop difference
!{you decrease 阶eamount 咐，ight
ones.阳，p by moving to the next smaller
aperture settin阜you can keep the
exposure cons阳nt by also moving归 the
n田t slower shutter 写peed. In automatic
operation, the camera makes these
changes for you.

104. Each combination of apertu趴在
f/16 1/11
Smal幅r aperture:
Less light enters
More de pth of field
26 CAME RA
1/8 1/5.6 1/4 町2.8
Larger a阳同ure:
More light enters
Le臼depth of fi eld
1/2 and shutter speed shown at le~ lets in
the same amount oρight, but see the
photographs on 阶e opposite page: the
combinations change归纳呻n甜。f
the picture in different w咿S
Fast shutter speed (!lsoo sec.）： 伪emoving阳·ingissha’？
”币＇de aperture (f/2) : the trees, picnic table, and person in
theba咆round are out of focus. On归价出the same dis-
tan臼as the foreground posts, on which the lens was fo阳sed,
are sharp
－、电
Shutter -..-
speed -

105. sec. 1111 1/15 1启0 1160 1/1 25 1尼50 1/500
f/16 的1 f/8 f/5.6 f/4 f.古2.8 I，尼
。
Medium-fast shutter speed （~也o sec.): the moving swing
shows some blur. Medium-wide aperture (f/5.6）：阶e
background is still a little h乓y but the middle ground appears
巾focus
t): r
sec. 1启 1/15 1启0 1尼0 1/125 1尼50 1/ 500
f/16 f/ 11 1/8 1/5.6 f/4 f/2.8 f/2
@…
Slow shutter speed （始sec): the moving swing is completely
blurred. Small aperture (f/16）：阶e middle- and切c代ground
are completely sha’?
（善如r
提C. 1111 1/15 1/30 1局0 1/125 1尼50 1/500
f/16 的1 f/8 f/5.6 f/4 f/2.8 I，尼
＠仰erture
This image was intentionally remov巳d for this version.
Shutter speed and ape时ure combinations. Each of the 由：posure
combinations for this scene
lets 的 the same 阳阳I amount of light, so the o时阳II exposure
stays the same. But the motion of
the swing is blurred with a slow shutter speed, sha’p with a fast
shutter speed. 7百e depth of field
白时rail sharpness of nea俨归－far objects) is shallow with a

106. 阳也uaperture， 自tends farther with a
small aperture.
R ” 27
Getting the Most from Your
Cαmerααnd Lens
C am era motion causes blur. Thoug h some
ph otographers claim to be able to hand h old a
camera steady at slow shutt er sp eeds- 1/15 sec. or
even slower－此时悦。nly a slig h t amoun t of cam-
era motio n d uring exposure to cause a no t iceable
blur in an image. If a sharp picture is you r aim ,
usi ng a fast shutter speed o r supporti ng t h e cam-
era o n a tripod is a m uch su rer way to prod uce a
s harp im age.
W h e n h a nd h o lding t h e cam er a (see righ t, cop
and center), use the focal length of your lens as a
g uide to how fas t your sh utter speed should be.
The longer the focal length, the fas ter th e shutt er
speed must be, because a long lens m agn ifies any
motion of th e lens d uring the 四posure just as it
magn ifies t he size of t he objects photographed.
As a general rule, the slowest shutter speed
that is safe to hand hold is ma tch ed to t he focal
length 。f the lens. T h at is, a 50mm lens should be
hand held at a sh utter speed of Vso sec. 。r fas ter, a
100mm lens at V100 sec. o r faste r, and so o n . Th is
d。esn't mean that the camera can be free ly moved
d u ri ng the 口posure. At these speeds, the camera
can be h and h eld, bu t with care. At the mo m ent of

107. exposure, ho ld your breath and squ eeze the shu t-
ter release smooth ly.
T h e camera itself can affect your ability to
hand h old it; som e cameras vibrate more than
oth ers d urin g exp。sure. A s ing le-lens refl ex cam-
era, wit h its moving m irror, fo r example, vibrates
more t han a ran gefi nder or compact camera.
Some lenses an d ca m era b。dies have electron ic
s ta bilizat io n system s t hat help yo u take s ha rp
p hotographs at l。nger exposures.
A tripod and cable r e lease (shown righ t, bot-
tom) will keep the camera absolutely sti ll duri ng an
exposure. T h e t ripod supports the camera s teadily;
the cable release lets you trigger the shutter wit h -
out having to to u ch the camera directly. A t ripod
and cable release are useful when you need a s lower
shutter speed than is feasib le fo r hand h。lding; for
example, at d usk when the ligh t is dim. They also
28 C AM E RA
help when y。u wan t to comp。sea p icture carefully
o r do close-up work. T hey a re always used for copy
work, such as ph otographing a pain ti ng, an other
photograph， 。r someth ing e。m a book, because
hand holdi ng at even a fast sh utter speed will not
produce cri tical s harpness for fi ne details. A view
camera is always used on a t ripod.
T he job of a cable release, to trigger the sh u t-
ter with o ut t ransm itti ng movement, may also be
accomplished at a d istance with a variety of remote
wireless triggers that use radio 。r infrared signals.

108. T o protect a ca m e ra in use, use a neck st rap,
eith er worn arou nd you r neck or wound around
your wrist. It keeps th e camera handy and makes
you less likely to drop it . Lenses can be kept in lens
cases or plastic bags to protect them from dust,
with lens caps both back and front fo r add itional
protection of lens su rfaces.
A padded bag, case, or backpack will protect
your equipment from bu mps and jolts when it is
carried o r moved, a camera bag makes your acces-
sories and extra fi lm readi ly available. Alu m inu m
o r mo lded plastic cases with fi tted foam com-
part men臼 provide th e best protection; some are
even waterproof. T h ei r disadvantage is th at they
are bulky, not conveniently carried o n a shoulder
strap, an d the camera may not be rapidly accessible.
Baαery power is essential to t h e func tion ing of
m ost cameras. If your viewfin der display 。r o t her
data d isplay begi ns to act er ratically, the batteries
m ay be getting we汰Many cameras have a bat-
tery check that will let you test battery strength o r
an indicator that warns of low power. It’s a good
idea to check batteries before beginni ng a day’s
shooting or a vacation outing and to car ry spares
in your camera bag. If you don’t have sp缸es and
t he batt eries fail, t1y cleaning the ends of the bat-
teries and the batte1y con tacts in th e camera with
a pencil eraser or cloth; the problem may j ust be
poor electrical contact. 飞:Varming t h e batt eries in
the palm of your han d m ight also bring them back
to life tem porari ly.
To hand hold a camera,
keep feet apart, rest the

109. camera lightly against your
face. Hold your breath as
you squeeze the shutter
release s/o叫y.
With the camera in a
vertical positi，。”， the le~
hand holds and focuses the
le问伪er，也＇ht hand releases
the shutter.
A tripod and cable
release 阴阳en阳I if you
wantasha’p image at slow
shutter speeds. Keep some
slack in the cable release so
it doesn 't tug阶ecamera
Clean the sensor and
inside the camera 昭q
臼reful如 Whenyou blow
air inside the camera, t伊
the camera so the dust falls
out and isn't pushed in归
the mechanism. Don’t touch
a’~伪的阜e时nwi，阶a brush,
unless absolute如necessary.
、
~
Clean the lens. F守时t, blow
then brush a’~ visible dust o厅
the lens surface. Hold the lens

110. upside down to let the dust fall
off阶e SU拍出instead ofjust
circulating on it.
事
Use lens cleaning fluid.
Dampen a wadded piece of
lens-cl，臼ningt.凶ue with the
fi~id and gently wiP: the lens
with a circular motion. Don’t
put lens fluid direct.吻。n the
lens because it can run to the
edge and soak into the barrel.
Fi ,ish with a gentle, circular
wipe using a dry lens tissue.
Cam e ras and m e mory card s in t r a n s it s hould
be protected fro m s t rong magnetic fie lds, sh ock,
excessive h eat, and su dden temperamre changes.
Avoid leaving equipment in a car o n a su n ny day.
Excessive heat can soften t h e oil lubricant in the
camera, causi ng the oil to run out and create prob-
lems, s uch as jam ming lens d iaphragm blades. At
very low tem peratures, m oving m echan isms, both
oil-lubricated an d d1y, as well as camera, flash , and
meter batteries m ay be sluggish, so on a cold day
it is a good idea to keep t h e camera warm by cany-
ing it u nder your coat unti l you ’re ready to take a
pictu re. 飞.Vhen you bring a camera in fro m the cold,
let it W缸m up before rem oving the lens cap to keep
condensation off the lens. O n the beach, protec-
tio n fro m salt spray and sand is vital.
If a cam e ra will n o t b e used for a whi le, cu m
off any o n/ off sw旧hes, and store t h e cam era
away from excessive heat, h u m id ity, an d d us t .

111. For l。ng-term storage, remove batteries because
they can corrode an d leak . Retu rn t h e batteries
tempor arily and operate t he shutt er occasio nally
becau se it can become balky if n ot u sed.
Protect your cam era from dust a nd d irt.
Replace memory cards and ch ange lenses in a d ust-
free place if you possibly can . y。u should blow
occasio nal dust off the focus ing mirror or screen,
but it’s wise to let a competent camera techn ician
do any work beyond th is.
D ust an d specks t hat appear in your view-
finder are usually o utside t he optical path and will
likely n ot appear in your photographs. However,
any dust or d irt o n a digit刻 sensor (actually, on
the bui lt -in glass fi lter that covers it} w ill appear on
each p icture. Some cameras have a built-in mech a-
n ism to shake the sens。r clean but when you see
unwan ted marks in the same location on all your
pictu res, consider clean ing th e sensor.
D igital SLRs have a men u comman d for sen-
sor cleaning, wh ich locks t he m irror up so you can
access th e sensor by rem。ving the lens. It also cuts
th e sensor power to reduce static ch arge.
Touchi ng t h e sensor can b e risky; scratches are
permanent. Start by t巾ng to blo胃口仔unwanted
d ust gen tly. A rubb盯 squeeze bulb is safer t han a
can of compressed gas that may produce eno ugh
force to damage comp。nents. A squeeze bulb that
blows ionized air will do a better job 。f removing
d ust held by an electrostatic charge.
If your came阻’s sensor needs a more thorough

112. clean ing, special bmshes, pads, or swabs are avail -
able. But touch ing t he sensor may make perman ent
marks, and voids a cam盯白 warranty, you may
want to h ave your sensor cleaned professio nally.
A ny le n s s urface must b e clean for best per-
fo rmance, but keeping dirt off in t h e firs t place
is much better t h an frequent cleani吨， wh ich can
damage the delicate lens coating. Avoid touch ing
the lens surface wit h your fingers because they
leave o ily prints t h at etch into the coating. Keep
a lens cap o n t he fro n t of the lens when it is not
in use and one on t he back of t h e lens when it is
removed fro m the camera. Clean back caps t h or-
o ughly before using t h em; dust 。n the cap will
often find its way to your sensor.
D uring use, a lens h ood helps protect t he
lens surface in addit ion to sh ield ing t h e lens from
stray light t hat may degrade t he image. A UV
(ult raviolet) or lA fi lter wi ll have very little effect
o n t h e image; some photograph ers leave one on
the lens all t h e time for protection against d irt
an d accidental damage.
To clean 由e len s you will need a mbber squeeze
bulb or a can of compressed gas, a soft brush, lens
tissue, and lens cleaning fluid. Use a squeeze bulb
o r compressed gas to remove d ust, lens clean ing
flu id and tissue if you have fingerp rints o r smears.
Cans of compressed gas may spray propellant
if t ilted; keep them vel'tical for use. Av。id using
clean ing products made for eyeglasses, particularly
any t reated cloths; they are too harsh for lens sur-
faces. A clean cotton clot h or pape门issue is usable

113. in an emergency, but lens t issue o r an untreated
m icrofiber clot h will be m uch better.
R ” 29
G E。FFREY Roe，例SON
Press photographers outside Buclcingham Palace
on 曲e royal wedding day of Prince William and
K,,te Midd/et酬， Lt,ndo”， 2011
Wo成ingpho阳，graphers ore often constrained
to a prea"anged A。但旧” at major events
Robinson sht1Ws us w曲!Y it can be difficult 阳
report the m咽from刷刷usual阳ntoge point.
Lens Focal Length .. ...... ..... 32
The basic d伊rence bet附·en 阳S自.. 32
Normal Focal Length ..... ..... 34
The most like human vision .. ..... 34
Long Focal Length .. ...... ..... 36
Telepho阳 lenses ..... ...... ..... 36
Short Focal Length . ...... ..... 38
Vide-angle lenses .... ...... ..... 38
Zoom, Macro,
and Fisheye Lenses ...... ..... 40
Focus and Depth

114. 。fField ........... ...... ..... 42
Automatic Focus .. ...... ...... 43
Depth of Field .... ...... ...... 44
Controlling sharpn臼S
in a photograph . ... ...... ...... 44
More about Depth
。fField .......... ...... ...... 46
How to preview it ... ...... ...... 46
Perspective ........ ...... ...... 48
How a photograph
shows depth . ...... ...... ...... 48
Lens Attachments . ...... ...... 50
Close-"
In this chapter yo,i'Ll ie<Lrn ...
• the focal length of a lens 』S the most imp。rtant
difference between lenses, the longer the focal
length, the larger a subject appea目
• that a viewer a l m。st a lways looks at the sharpest
part of a ph。t。graph f,阳t, and you can control y。ur
photograph’s sharpness in several ways.
• perspective is the impression of depth in a two-
di『γ，ens’。『、al image; we gauge ,t by the relative sizes
。f。均ects, detern、l『
distance fr。『Y、 y。ur subject.

115. On 伪e lens ba"e/ ( as shown belo吵are controls such as a ring
that focuses the lens. Cameras and lenses va,y in des驴，so
check
the features of your own camera. Fore.κample, m叫印刷刷
have push-but阳nor dial controls on the camera body instead of
an aperture control ring on the lens. Markin~ on the lens (shown
belo吨 r也•ht) always include its focal length and maxim n
aperture (ora range for each ifit is a zoom), usually alongwi ，阶a
serial number and the maker's name.
Focusing ring
rotates to bring
di何erent pam 。fthe
scene into focus
Aperture-co阳。I ring
selects the f-stop or size
。f the lens 。pening
Oep由咱f-field scale
shows h。w much of
the scene will be sharp
indicates on the
distance scale the
d眩目nee 川feet and
meters on which
che lens is f。cused
Lens 2
F叫an im鸣e. Alchoug
s h arp photographs, y。u d。口，E actually need 。ne to take
pictures. A
primitive camera can be constructed fr口m liccle more than a

116. shoe box
with a tiny pinhole at 。ne end a nd a digital sen sor, a piece
of自Im, or a sheer of
light-sensitive photographic paper at the other. A pinhole won't
make as clear
a picture as a glass lens, bur it does form an image of o均ects in
front of it
A s imple len s, s uch as a magni今mg glass, will form an image
that is
brighter and sharper than an image formed by a pinhole. Bu t a
simple len s has
many optical defects (called aberrati.ons) that prevent it from
forming an image
that is sharp a nd accurate. A m odern compound len s s ubdues
these aberra-
ti。ns by combining several simp le lens elements made of
diff盯ent kinds of
g lass and ground to different thicknesses and curvatures so
char they cancel
out each och e r' s aberrations.
T h e main function of a len s is co project a s harp, undistorted
image onto
the light-sensitive surface. Lenses vary in design, and different
types perform
s。me jobs bette r than 。thers. Twom司jordi仔erences in lens
characteristics are
focal len g th and speed.
Le n s focal le ngth is, for a photograph凹， the most impo rtant
characteristic
of a lens. One 。f the primary advantages of a s ingle-len s
reflex camera or a
view camera is the interchangeability of its len ses; many

117. photographers o叭响
more than one lens so they can change lens focal length. More
ab。Ut focal
len g th appears on the fo llowing pages.
Le n s s p eed is n ot the same 臼shutter speed. More co盯eccly
called maxiη1um
ape时U陀， it is the widest aperture co which the lens diaphragm
can be opened.
A lens that is "faster” than another opens co a wider aperture a
nd admi臼 more
light; it can be used in dimmer ligh t or with a faster s hutter
speed.
Focal lengtl’ . The shorter the focal length,
the wider the 川ew 。fa scene. The longer
che 岛cal length, the narrower the 川ew
and the m。re the su均ecc is magnified
Manufacturer
／阳im…阳U陪
The lens' s widest
。pening or speed
Appears as a rat山，
here 1 :2. The
maximum aperture
is the lase paπ 。fthe
ratio， 町2
Filter size. The
diameter in mm 。fthe
lens, and so che size
。f fi lter needed when

118. 。ne is added onto
che lens
31
Lens Foeαl Length
THE BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LENSES
P h otographers d escribe lenses in terms
of t h e ir focal le ngth; gen erally t h ey refer to
a n。rmal, I。ng, or s hort lens, a 50m m lens, a
24 - l OSmm zoom lens, and s。。n Focal length
affects t h e image form ed o n the sensor o r film
in two important an d related ways: th e amo unt
of the scene s hown { t h e aniJe of归功 and thus th e
size of objects {the ir magn ificatio n ). A lens with a
single， 。r fixed, fo cal length is called a pηme le ns;
a va口，able or ac句ustable focal -
a zoom lens
How focal length a仔·ects an image. The shorter
the focal length of a lens, the more of a scen e th e
lens takes in a nd the smaller it m akes each 。bject
in the scen e appear in the image. You can dem-
onst rate this by looking throu gh a circle formed
by your th u mb a n d fore自nger. T h e shorter th e
d istance between you r hand (the lens) and your eye
(the digital sensor o r fi lm), th e m。re of th e scen e
you will see (the wider t h e angle of view). T h e more
o均ects t hat are shown o n t he same size sensor （。g
negative), t h e smaller all of them will h ave ro be
(the le臼magnification). Si milarly, you cou ld fill a
sensor e ither wi th an image of one person's head
or wi th a grou p of twenty people. In the grou p

119. p。rtrait, each pers。n’s head must be smaller.
The size of 由e record ing surface a仔ec也 the
angle of view. With t h e same le ns, a smaller
sensor will captu re less o f a scen e. Some digital
sensors a re the same size as a fra me of 35m m
fil m {24 x 36mm); these are called户H乔·ame sen-
sors and a re usually fo und o n relatively expensive
cameras mar keted to profession a ls. Wi t h cameras
t hat use oth er, usually smaller, size senso凹， lens
fo ca l lengths are o日i:en g iven in terms of a 35mm
eq1'ivalent. A camera with a n APS-C sensor (ab。Ut
15 x 22m m) us ing a 3 1mm lens h as t h e sam e
a n g le o f view as a full-frame cam era with a 50m m
le ns (see the opposite page). Focal lengths in th is
book a re g iven as 35mm equ ivalents. A camera
with an APS-C sensor is also said to h ave a 旷·op
j如ctor of 1.6. Mui叩lying its lens focal length by
1.6 will g ive the 35m m equ ivalent.
Interc hangeable lenses are convenient. T h e
副11oun t of a scene sh own and th e size of 。均ects
can be changed by m ovin g th e camera closer to o r
fa巾er from 巾SU均ec呐ut the option of chang-
in g lens focal length g ives you more flexibility
a n d co n trol. Sometimes you can’E easily get closer
to your s u bject-for example, s ta n di n g on s h o re
photograph ing a boat on a lake. Someti m es you
can't get far enou g h away, as when y。u a re p h oto-
graphing a large grou p o f people in a s m all room.
飞;vith a camera t hat accepts d iffe rent lens-
凹，such as a s ingle-len s reflex camera, you can

120. remove o n e lens and p u t o n another when you
want to ch ange focal length. Interch angeable
lenses range from sup盯－wide-angle fis h eye lenses
to 四tra-long teleph。tos.
100mm focal le ngth
32 LENS
Focal length is measured from an optical point near
the back of a lens 阳the image it forms on the film
ord也i阳I image旦时or. It is ’”臼sured when the lens
is sharply focused on an o侬d巾 the far distance
。echnically known as 巾finity) . Magnifi臼tion, the size
of an object in an image, is directly re归ted 阳fo臼I
length. As the fo臼I length increas，白， the image size of
伪e object increases. A 100mm lens produ臼san im-
age twice as large as one produced by a 50mm lens.
Project:
LENS FOCAL
LENGTH
YOU W ILL NEED
A ca mera either with a
z。om lens or with lenses
of two di仇rent focal
lengths. The g陀ater
the di自由nee in focal
lengths, the easier it will
be to see the d i仇rence
between them. If you
can, use a shoπ－focal-
length lens (35mm or
sho陀er) and a long lens
(85mm or longer)