The document discusses religious confusion during the Tokugawa period in Japan. It explores the influences of Zen Buddhism, Shintoism, Confucianism, and modern rationalism on Japanese culture and society. While Zen Buddhism remained influential in private life, Confucianism became more prominent in public life over time as it merged with modern thinking. The document analyzes primary sources like sculptures and woodblock prints to understand how religion was practiced publicly and privately during the early and late Tokugawa period. Historians debate the extent to which different philosophies shaped Japanese culture and social hierarchy during this era of isolation.

1. Tokugawa Japan
Religious Confusion in the Land of the Rising Sun
James Greer
History 401
Professor Jeff Manuel

2. 1
The Core Philosophies That Drive the History and Setting
In Japan prior to the Tokugawa period1 there were two factors that shaped the
everyday life of people. These two factors were Zen Buddhism and Shinto religion in which each
had a different perception of life. During and post the Song dynasty in China2, China influenced
the shaping of the Japanese material and ideological culture in different ways often viewing
Japan as its little brother. During the Ming dynasty of China a new philosophy made its way to
Japan known as Confucianism. I wish to argue that Zen Buddhist religion was still influential in
the private life of people during Tokugawa period, though over time Confucianism merged with
modern rationalism and became more influential in the public life of the people. I will be looking
at several important documents written by individuals about their experiences during the
Tokugawa period as well as artifacts present in attempt to come to a conclusion on this
complicated subject matter.
The Tokugawa period lasted from approximately 1603-1868 C.E. followed by the Meiji
1 EDO PERIOD (EDO JIDAI, The Edo Period (1600 or 1603 to 1868) can be dated from 1600,when Tokugawa leyasu
prevailed al the Battle of Sekigahara and established hegemony over Japan, or from 1603 when he was given the
title shogun. Itcan also bereferred to as the Toku- gawa Period. It is noted not only as one of Japan's mostcolorful
eras in terms Of culture,but also as a timeOf isolation and restriction,which could havecostJapan dearly.Having
defeated his rivals atthe Battle Of Sekigahara in 1600,Tokugawa leyasu became the major power in Japan and was
legitimized as shögun in 1603 by Emperor Go-Yözei. Followinga time-honored tradition of rulingbehind the
scenes, leyasu resigned justtwo years later,in favor of his son Hidetada (1579—1632),but still wielded the power
until his death in 1616.He was determined not to losehis grip on power, and he was to enforce a rigid status quo.
Henshall,Kenneth Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945 Library of Congress.(2014) 91
2 Song dynasty, Wade-Giles romanization Sung, (960–1279), Chinesedynasty that ruled the country duringone of
its most brilliantcultural epochs.Itis commonly divided into Bei (Northern) and Nan (Southern) Song periods,as
the dynasty ruled only in South China after 1127. The Bei Song was founded by Zhao Kuangyin,the military
inspector general of the Hou (Later) Zhou dynasty (lastof the Five Dynasties),who usurped control of the empire
in a coup. Thereafter, he used his mastery of diplomatic maneuveringto persuadepowerful potential rivalsto
exchange their power for honours and sinecures,and he proceeded to become an admirableemperor (known as
Taizu, his temple name). He set the nation on a course of sound administration by institutinga competent and
pragmatic civil service;he followed Confucian principles,lived modestly,and took the country’s finestmilitary
units under his personal command.Before his death he had begun an expansion into the small Ten Kingdoms of
southern China.Song Dynasty. (2015). In Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573875/Song-dynasty

3. 2
Restoration period. During the Tokugawa period Japan had closed off its doors to many except
for the Dutch and China to modernize in response to changes in global power and structure. This
period was founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu and followed by multiple members of the same ruling
family therefore giving it the name of the Tokugawa period. The main center of social,
economic, and physical development was a town known as Edo which is along the eastern edge
of Japan opposite of Kyoto therefore also giving it the name of the Edo period. There were 4
main philosophies present in some form in Japan excluding the Christian philosophy which
Tokugawa Ieyasu was not very appealed to. These 4 philosophies were Shintoism, Zen
Buddhism, Confucianism, and Eighteenth Century Modern Rationalism or Reasoning. Neither
one fully agreed with each other on all terms but there were some commonalities. However, I am
only focusing on Confucianism and Zen Buddhism, though the evidence found presents conflict
between all 4 philosophical schools.
Confucianism in short, is a philosophy based on a series of morals and behaviors that
originated in early Chinese history dating back to a Chinese philosopher we know of by the name
of Confucius though his actual name was Kongzi. A recognizable part of his philosophy is the
five basic relationships (Ruler to Subject, Father to Son, Elder Brother to Younger Brother,
Husband to Wife, and Friend to Friend) in which each holds a responsibility to the other. His
main focus though was the ruler to subject relationship and how a ruler should act in accordance
with his subjects. Contrary to Confucian philosophy to a degree is the Zen Buddhist religion
which is present in both China and Japan. They each have a different variation of Zen Buddhism
due to cultural context and understanding. Core concepts of Buddhism that are important include
a detachment from a material reality and pursuing enlightenment or spiritual purification through
reincarnation rooting from the mother of Buddhism or Hinduism. However, Japan differs in

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terms of ancestor worship and has several additional variations of the Buddha. The most
important one being the Dainichi Buddha known as the cosmic Buddha. The evidence that will
be discussed later hints at a merger between aspects of both Confucian philosophy and Buddhist
religion though in actuality the difference between the two could be no greater in that they share
only very few common elements.
In addition, another key point I wish to stress is that Confucianism is not a religion but a
philosophy without the presence of a god or gods. In this manner, something like a Buddhist relic
or artifact can be viewed by a Confucian philosopher from a different standpoint. There are also
elements that stay static in the private spiritual life of an individual and do not change over time.
The private space are these elements that do not change internally like traditions or values
associated with spirituality and also there is a physical private space where such things are
practiced whether be in a yard or even a room in the house or public building like a temple room
for example. The public space can be seen as a place where there is something suggested or
forced onto an individual or community by other individuals or groups like maybe a court, fancy
restaurant, etc…. Much like the notion of the separation of church and state. We also look at this
term as conformity in the western sense.
How have others studied events surrounding the Edo period?
Historians debate in the way they approach the cultural construct of the Edo period.
There are three main structures they look at in attempt to wrestle with complex historical
questions. These three structures are religion, politics, social class/hierarchy, as well as
ideological conflict. For example, Japanese Historian Tetsuo Najita in his book titled “Visions of
Virtue in Tokugawa Japan” written in 1987 argues that the class system present in society during
the Edo period is rooted in the ideals of Confucianism. Take for example this quote “Out of the

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very Confucianism which defined their lowly status, they sought a philosophy defining their own
moral and practical worth.”3 Naijita also looks at an idea present in Buddhism when pursuing its
role in the shaping of the social fabric and culture of the Edo period. He makes the observation
that; “The Buddhist belief in universal human capacity for compassion, for example was used to
counter the claim that merchants were somehow incapable of such action because of their
work.”4 This shows a conflicting relationship between traditional Confucian and Zen Buddhist
thought in the mind of a merchant and a difference between personal belief and public identity
linked to status. In contrast, Mencius a pupil of Confucius focused more much on the general
ideas of human nature appealing more to Zen Buddhism.
Contrary to Najuta Historian Robert N. Bellah approaches from the perspective of the
history of religion in Tokugawa Japan in his book titled Tokugawa Religion: The Cultural Roots
of Modern Japan. Bellah says that “the Tokugawa period as one of significant change as well as
basic stability.”5 He states “Though some of the elements of the traditionalistic religions
remained and inspired magical, other-worldly action, there were also influential sects which
emphasized practical activity in this world.”6 Breaking down this quote into two parts one can
see Bellah’s argument is that Ritualistic behavior was still practiced in the private lives of
individuals though practical behavior was present alongside the ritualistic behavior. This ties in
well with Mencius, who was mentioned earlier, and his philosophy of universal human
compassion which differed from Confucian traditional approach. Zen Buddhism religion agreed
with Mencius philosophy on this concept. The Chu-His philosophers or Neo-Confucians also
3 Najita,Tetsuo. Visions of Virtuein Tokugawa Japan University of Chicago Press,Chicago and London (1987),18
4 Najita,Tetsuo. Ibid,22
5 Bellah Robert N. Tokugawa Religion:The Cultural Roots of Modern Japan.The Free Press New York (1985)
6 Ibid

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looked more to Mencius ideas and his approach in which he gained, arguably, an even greater
following overall than Confucius himself. From this statement we can see some commonalties
between the philosophy of one of Confucius’s pupils and Zen Buddhism religion but not quite
Confucius and his original philosophy or traditional Confucianism as we tend to think more of.
Historian Keneth A. Marcure looks from a more top down perspective arguing the change
in philosophical structure was intended for political and economic control/gain. He highlights a
few points in his article titled “The Danka System” in which he describes the relationship and
tribute that a peasant would have to pay to a Buddhist statue if he or she did not comply with the
rules. Based on a primary source titled The Great Sun God of the East by Ogyu Sorai this
behavioral demonstration could be looked at as a public display of power rather than private
matter of practice linked to Buddhist religion. The question to ask is if the statue actually meant
anything to the ruler in power or was it a form of coercion using cultural elements present in the
Edo period transformed in some way by Confucian philosophy?
In chapter XVIII “Rediscovery of Confucianism”, Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1
composed by Ryusaka Tsunoda, Wm. Theodore de Bary, and Donald Keene one of the three
composers disagrees with Bellah’s point of view when they describes their understanding of the
life of an individual named Yamaga Soko and how Soko lived during a time of conflicted
tradition between Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism in which the composer makes this
statement “Considering the purpose to…. lived in a period of feudal transition, rather than Neo-
Confucianism, whose social concerns were those of a highly developed civil bureaucracy in a
centralized state.” The main argument this composer proposed was that Neo-Confucianism did
not have as much impact on society during the Edo period as changes in the feudal structure did.

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In Part. II Ch. II of a book titled Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan by
Masao Maruyama translated by Mikiso Hane, Masao argued that each filial relationship was
linked to heaven and earth by means of yang over yin or in more lengthy description he quotes
this “ In other words, “the righteousness that governs the relationships between high and low,
and the noble and the base, “ie the ruler’s relation to his subjects, the father’s to his sons, and the
husband’s to his wife, is justified by authority that heaven exercises over the earth, and yang over
yin”.7 I find this a bit confusing for someone of a higher intellectual audience as he does not
footnote the terms yin and yang to explain their meaning. In addition this is also an issue in that
from Japan’s perspective yin and yang are part of Confucianism but the terms derive from the
original Chinese religion of Daoism which drastically differs from Confucian philosophy8 in
actuality.
What Does the Culture Speak? (Primary Sources)
What the people and culture of the time spoke about this subject though shows
understanding the relationship between religion and its relationship with Confucianism to be
even more complex. Societal structure changed socially, economically, and institutionally from
the Early Edo Period ~1615-1730 CE to the Late Edo Period ~1730-1865 CE. This can be seen
when looking at various artifacts, relics, letters, mementos, and interviews during the Edo period.
7
Maruyama, Masao translated by Hane, Mikiso “Ch. II Part. II Chu His Philosophy and the Idea of Natural
Order”, Studies in the Intellectual History of Tokugawa Japan, University of Tokyo Press (1974), p. 196
8 Daoism, also spelled Taoism, indigenous religio-philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese life for
more than 2,000 years. In the broadest sense,a Daoist attitude toward life can be seen in the accepting and yielding,
the joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character, an attitude that offsets and complements the moral and duty-
conscious,austere and purposefulcharacter ascribed to Confucianism. Daoism is also characterized by a positive,
active attitude toward the occult and the metaphysical (theories on the nature of reality), whereas the agnostic,
pragmatic Confucian tradition considers these issues ofonly marginal importance, although the reality of such issues
is, by most Confucians, not denied. Daoism. (2015). In Encyclopedia Britannica
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/582972/Daoism

8. 7
These documents tell us that the Edo period was an era of societal change and “progress” but the
changes did not come without giving up something in return.
Buddhist sculptures are some of the most common forms of sculpture to be found all
around Japan even today, and during the Edo period this was no different. The Dainichi Noyral ,
Kodo) is very much a public sculpture to be found in places like lecture halls and temples and
reflected in the sculpture are various elements of Buddhism and the base measuring in at 180cm
(70 7/8 in) by itself reflects a great degree of emphasis on the importance of the teachings of the
Buddha. In addition, one would notice not only its size but also in the subject matter itself some
of the practices of basic beliefs of Buddhism and the personal meaning of these beliefs to the
individual. Look at not the center of the sculpture but in the recessive space of the sculpture and
one would notice many smaller undetailed figures that look like people.
The small undetailed figures are called Bodhisattvas or those who are pursuing and are on
different levels of enlightenment in terms of attaining the title Buddha. They are followers and
learners of his teachings. In our “Western” mindset they would be the equivalent of monks,
priests, pastors, and any of those pursuing to be like Jesus Christ. Look though at the emphasis of
expression in the face and the position of the hands in which we see the actual identity of this
Buddha is known in Japan as the Dainichi or Cosmic Buddha. The face specifically eyes are
straight forward piercing and stern absent of emotion since in the teachings of the Dainichi
Buddha one must not attach themselves to the things of this world but this is not the only

9. 8
expression you would see in a Bodhisattva so why the seriousness of this particular sculpture of
one in comparison to the laughing Buddha of China.9
This sculpture in particular may have likely been used for cultivating of spiritual
understanding as that is the very nature of the Dainichi Buddha. Seeing as this piece was crafted
in the Early Edo period, there still appears to be personal meaning behind its presence regardless
of the location otherwise why not choose another Buddha like the teaching or historical Buddha10
instead? Therefore even though the piece was in a public hall and enormous in size, the meaning
behind the piece still reflects the private space of an individual’s spiritual practice. The cosmic
connection to the heavens and internal improvement/purification are not forced or suggested but
rather chosen in pursuit of enlightenment.
Many more secular or institutionalized forms of art begin to develop in the late Edo
period. An example of this can be found in the popular mass produced wood block prints. In the
print of an Interior of a Bathhouse by Torii Kyonaga we see this very much more focused
perspective on individual or community life amongst Japanese women and their children. Filial
piety and responsibility are two core values seen in the Confucianism rather than internal
spiritual cultivation. Why do these values appear to become more of the center of attention in
Japanese art though rather than religion as we seen in the Dainichi Buddha sculpture in the early
9 “As not only interesting in itself,but also importantas an explanation of the transformation of the tall,well -
formed Maitreya of Indian,of Japanese,and of early ChineseBuddhist art,into the Laughing Buddha' who, with his
protrudingstomach and jolly smilehas greeted the visitor to almostevery Buddhisttemple in China from Ming
times up to the present day.” Chapin,Helen B. “The Ch’An Master Pu-Tai”Journal of the American Oriental Society
Vol. 53, No. 1 (Mar., 1933), 47
10 The Buddha who is the founder of the Buddhistreligion is called Buddha Shakyamuni “Shakya”is the name of
the royal family into which he was born, and “Muni” means “Able One.” Buddha Shakyamuni was born as a royal
princein 624 BC in a placecalled Lumbini,in what is now Nepal. His mother’s name was Queen Mayadevi and his
father’s name was KingShuddhodana. Gyoto, --Geshe Kelsang.Introduction to Buddhism: An Explanation of the
BuddhistWay of Life Tharpa Publications USA(2008)

10. 9
Tokugawa period? If you look closely enough at the print it can be argued that the
institutionalized Confucian values may just be more emphasized because of the setting being a
public bathhouse and present is an image of a mother taking care of her child.
Look up in the middle between the top quadrants and one will see that in the public
bathhouse there is a painting of natural imagery such as birds and water. In addition, the
collective female nude is present in which if we viewed this in a broader way still resembles a
detachment to the material surroundings. The expressions on the women’s faces are similar in
that they are flat and still relaxed as if this was just part of their daily life during the Edo period.
For Japan this is a normal behavior and a mere reflection of the teachings of the Buddha
therefore it appears that the Buddhism influence became less emphasized in composition rather
than the symbols or emotions/behaviors reflected in the subject matter.
After pondering over the question of how both schools of thought interacted in Tokugawa
period through artwork and culture, one must also look at each school of thought through an
individual’s eyes and consider how this new way of thinking impacted them during the time
period. Diary entries, letters, and scholarly arguments of the time period can be found all over
Japan even today and have been preserved or reprinted. Let’s look at two documents that display
argumentative conflicts inside the Japanese culture of the Tokugawa period to give hint as to
how new changes in philosophy were disagreed upon and people’s response to the changes
taking place. The first of these two documents is Muro, Kyuso’s Defense of Neo-Confucian
Orthodoxy and the second is Ogyu Sorai’s appreciation of Tokugawa Ieyasu titled “The Great
Sun God of the East” in which the title was a name originally given to Ieyasu by the Tendai
albot.
The question is how did Zen Buddhism and Confucianism play a role in the way people

11. 10
lived their lives if the two conflicted with each other only having limited agreement? In Kyuso’s
Defense of Neo-Confucianism Orthodoxy he states “Thus the temper of thought in the Ming
underwent a change and after Yang Ming’s death such followers of his as Wang Lung-ch’I
turned in the direction of Zen Buddhism…By the end of the Ming the delirious effects of this
were such that scholars throughout the land became Confucians by day and Buddhist by night.”
This quote is heavily contextual depicting the internal conflict between Confucianism and Zen
Buddhism in the mind of people comparing both the case of China and Japan. The Ming Dynasty
was China’s dynasty that paralleled with Early Edo period in Japan lasting from 1368-1644
C.E.11 We can see a breakdown or transitioning phase to Confucian ideals and how it perhaps
affected individuals in terms of religion vs reason or tradition vs modernity in every aspect of
their personal life.
Kyuso later in this orthodoxy states, “Just as Han Yu rose up when Buddhism and
Taoism were flourishing and attacked the single-handedly (original text handidly), likening
himself to Mencius and swearing an oath by the gods of Heaven-and-Earth … And you, too, see
that my words are not listened in vain!” in which demonstrates this continuous pattern of
cultural, social, and moral change in which can be seen in the entirety of Japanese history. The
author is not Buddhist or Taoist but a strict Confucian thinker in terms of modern moral values
but it is interesting that he refers to an old Chinese Confucian thinker by the name of Han Yu12 to
11 Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, a man of humble origins who later assumed the reign title of Hongwu, the Ming
became one of the most stable but also one of the most autocratic of all Chinese dynasties.The basic governmental
structure established by the Ming was continued by the subsequent Qing (Manchu) dynasty and lasted until the
imperial institution was abolished in 1911/12. Ming Dynasty.(2015). In Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383846/Ming-dynasty
12
Han Yu, Wade-Giles romanization Han Yü, also called Han Changli or Han Wengong,courtesy name (zi) Tuizhi
(born 768, Heyang [now Mengxian], Henan province, China—died 824, Chang’an [now Xi’an], Shaanxi province),
master of Chinese prose,outstanding poet,and the first proponent of what later came to be known as Neo-

12. 11
support his argument against the Buddhist or Taoist persecution of Neo-Confucianism in Japan.
Then again the two countries share many aspects of their culture with each other so usually what
affects one also may affect the other.
Ogyu Sorai in his appreciation of Tokugawa Ieyasu titled “The Great Sun God of the
East” written during the Early Edo Period gives insight as to how Tokugawa Ieyasu himself
viewed such philosophy of the three schools of thought Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism
and his personal values. He makes a particular statement in this appreciation that “True the No
play, tea ceremony, and other pastimes were in vogue, but serious attention to literature and
Confucianism did not exist”13 This statement especially the part about not true attention to
literature appears as if the author is making a claim that what was present before whether be
Shinto, Buddhism, or Taoism depending on what the individual valued did not take literary arts
seriously or so he thinks. Perhaps he could mean education or written moral code or something
to that extent. The example he gave about the tea ceremony portrays that in his mind Japan may
have cared more for spirituality, ceremony, or ritual behavior than formal ordered code or law.
In terms of Tokugawa Ieyasu there are several statements in this appreciation of him that
reveal his personal values. Take for example this statement in which Sorai says “He also invited,
year after year, eminent Buddhist priests from Kyoto, Nora, and other Buddhist in the provinces
to lecture on and discuss their doctrines before him at his headquarters in Suruga.” In which
describes a Buddhist influence still of some kind on Ieyasu but nothing in particular. This may
Confucianism, which had wide influence in China and Japan. Han Yu. (2015). In Encyclopedia Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253996/Han-Yu
13
Ogyo Sorai, “The Great Sun God of the East”, Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1, Columbia University
Press (1958) P. 333

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make it difficult to determine Ieyasu’s exact values but gives us a vague idea of his interactions
with others of Buddhist values. However, Sorai later sates “Education is spreading from day to
day, and in the observance of the principle of the five human relationships between ruler and the
ruled, parent and child, etc. We excel the past”14 in that through this statement the author gives
us a glimpse into the changes in the education system that Tokugawa Ieyasu was implementing
through the five human relationships in which these five relationships15 are core to the Confucian
thought of filial responsibility, benevolence, and piety whether be the emperor and his subjects
or the father and his children.
Yamazaki Ansai in his commentary regarding education and Chu-His Confucianism says
this about how the cause of Confucianism implemented by philosopher Chu advanced education
further.
“The philosopher Chu, styled Hui-an, was conspicuously endowed with intellectual leadership. Following
in the line of the Sung philosophers Chou Tun-I and the Ch’eng brothers, he advanced the cause of
Confucianism in both elementary education and higher education. For the guidance of his students he
established these regulations, but they failed to gain wide acceptance in his own time because of
opposition from vile quarters…”16
Which presents the connection between China and Japan in terms that Confucianism specifically
Chu-His Confucianism and its more application to the public space rather than private spiritual
space and how Tokugawa Ieyasu promoted the reshaping of public institutions as the Edo period
14
Ibid, p. 334
15 Of the “Five Relationships” in Confucianism, the five bonds that men in Chinese society were to observe
and promote, it was the fifth, friendship that was unique. The others,those that bound father and son,ruler and
minister, husband and wife, older and younger brother, were overly concerned with the maintenance of China as a
guojia, literally a “state family” state modeled on the principles of family organization. Kutcher, Norman “The Fifth
Relationship: Dangerous Friendships in the Confucian Context” The American Historical Review published by
Oxford University Press Vol. 105, No. 5 (Dec 2000) 1615
16 Ansai,Yamazaki “Principles of Education”Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1, Columbia University Press
(1958) 355

14. 13
moved forward under the same philosophy that reshaped education in China during the Sung
(Song) dynasty.
In Yokohama’s private collection a scroll titled The Barrel-maker by Shiba Kokan
painted around the year 1789 in the late Edo period shows a drastic change in the culture’s focus
on spiritual or ritualistic matters in the form of public art. There does not appear to be any
spiritual elements or natural elements that stand out in this scroll. Natural elements are still
present in the artwork for the purpose of composition and scenery accuracy but there is no direct
focus on them. Rather there appears to be a focus on the people and their everyday work habits
and filial relationships with each other as Confucianism unmodified promotes.
Look by the barrel towards the very front and one can see two figures. They look like
they could be a parent and child or master and apprentice. Either way this is a key part to
understanding cultural and social changes happening during this time period. In addition there
are several more in the background like a mass assembly line of carpenters making barrels as the
wall scroll names such. From this picture one can draw a conclusion that Confucianism
encouraged the formation of a guild like system which is drastically different from the early Edo
period that had more emphasis on spiritual matters according to Ogyu Sorai’s letter of
appreciation “The Great Sun God of the East.”
Also in comparison to Sorai’s appreciation, let’s look at a sake (saki)17 bottle with a
painting on it from the early Edo period where there is an emphasis on natural elements
specifically mountains that deeply root in Zen Buddhist tales as well as this passage through a
gate from earth ascending through the mountain. An example of a Zen Buddhist tale that reflects
17 a mildly alcoholicJapanesebeverage made from fermented rice

15. 14
these elements is titled Tzu-ch’un. Tzu-ch’un is about a man who kept on receiving money from
a spirit in the streets and first two times he spent it on pleasures like drunkenness and
entertainment, but the last time when he received a giant bundle of money he spent it on a
hospitality center and other helpful institutions so therefore the spirit took him through a gate up
to the top of a mountain and tested him in various manner to see if the man had what it takes to
be an immortal, but the man could not separate himself from love so he was not able to achieve
immortality.18 Because of the elements the sake bottle shares with the story it can be seen as
linked to the private spiritual life of an individual. If not that then it still even more so reflects the
old Japan and the focus on pleasures, rituals, and other things outside of education and literature.
There is a very different perspective though it can be highly disagreeable as to how the
relationship between Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shinto was looked at by the eyes of an
individual. An old man whose name we do not know was interviewed by another man named
Tominaga Nakamoto during the Edo period. This interview was conducted in 1738 just barely
into the Late Edo period in which the old man has a more cynical view of all three schools of
thought when he makes this statement. “In the world today there are three religions: Buddhism,
Confucianism, and Shinto19. Some think they represent three different countries, India, China,
18 Unknown author. “Tzu-ch’un.” The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. Columbia University
Press (1994). 249
19 Shinto has long been regarded as a crucial element in Japanese reli- gion that gives it distinctiveness and
individuality. The common man's view of Shinto usually includes the following assumptions:Shinto bears the
unmistakable characteristics of a primitive religion, including nature worship and taboos against kegare (impurities),
but it has no systemof doctrine; it exists in diverse forms as folk belief but at the same time possesses certain
features of organized religion-for example, rituals and institutions such as shrines; it also plays an important role in
Japan's ancient mythology and provides a basis for ancestorand emperor worship. In short,Shinto is viewed as the
indigenous religion of Japan, continuing in an unbroken line from prehistoric times down to the present. Kuroda
Toshio, James C. Dobbins and Suzanne Gay, “Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion”, Journal of Japanese
Studies Vol. 7, No. 1 (Winter, 1981), 1

16. 15
and Japan; while others consider them essentially one, or else dispute with one another over the
truth or falsity of each.”20 This identifies two perspectives but based on the language this man
uses, many individuals today may agree with either statement. However, putting Confucianism
on the pedestal of a religion is a bit sketchy.
With that said, let’s look at some of his later statements and what he sees is happening in
this time of confusion and change. This statement in particular stands out among others. “What is
the Way of Truth, then that will be practical in present day Japan? It is simply this: Be normal in
everything you do. Consider today's work of primary importance. Keep your mind upright.
Comport yourself properly. Be careful in speech. Be respectful in manner and caring. Care for
and honor your parents.”21 He sees that all three Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shinto each to
some degree agree on these concepts and therefore tries to develop a generalized perspective
covering them. Based on the confusion of the time period this is not surprising. However,
generalizing the three together can be problematic based on what other sources have said in that
at times it appears as if they conflict with each other on various means.
He continues describing in more detail proposing this statement describing how he views
Confucianism in terms of its role and purpose. “The vice of Confucianism is rhetoric. Rhetoric is
what we call oratory. China is a country which greatly delights in this. In the teaching of the way
and in the education of men, if one lacks proficiency in speech, he will find no one to believe in
or follow him.”22 This is where the old man's argument begins to falter in terms of his thoughts
20 Tominaga Nakamoto, “Testament of and Old Man”, Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1, Columbia
University Press New York and London, 474
21 Ibid, p. 475
22 Ibid p. 478

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on Confucianism. The old man's thoughts on the relationship of the schools of thought during the
Edo period are mixed and though not quite clear and more so opinionated in manner there are
certain truths we can reveal from this man's words. His philosophy follows the statement made
earlier by Japanese Historian Tetsuo Najita in the book “Visions of Virtue in Tokugawa Japan”
written in 1987 in that not only merchants were seeking a philosophy defining their own moral
and practical worth but also some peasants and perhaps commoners as well if this old man fit
either class. The old man could be a merchant but there is no clear defining statement and the
interviewer did not make mention of the old man's social status nor profession which is another
falling point to this primary source.
From just what this man says one cannot draw clear conclusions about the question of
what was the true relationship between Confucian legalism and Buddhist faith but does depict a
certain conflict during this time externally and internally amongst many individuals in terms of
which was present at which time. Based on some of the statements the old man made it appears
as if both were intertwined into one another in some form or fashion around 1738 which is only a
little past the midway point into the Late Tokugawa period. The artifacts and relics of the culture
also show this in transition which matches up with up well in accordance to the diary entry.
However, this also in some ways disagrees with Kyuso’s Defense of Neo-Confucianism
Orthodoxy where both Confucianism and Buddhism were split in practice between day and
night. In addition, given the fact that this was an interview not precisely a letter or diary or
anything personal there can be interference by the interviewer in terms of language, class, or
other characteristics which can alter how the old man thinks in the current situation very similar
to that of Nat Turner's Confession that is commonly known amongst U.S. Historians.

18. 17
Rewinding time to a bit before the old man's testament we look at a document written in
1715 by Tokugawa Tsunaeda titles “Preface to the History of Great Japan” who is the head of
the Mito branch of the Tokugawa family. Given this description by the composer we can tell a
few things about this author. He is part of the ruling family in Japan during the Edo period, the
family is divided into several branches, and that means he has political and economic influence
though perhaps less so than what Tokugawa Ieyasu had earlier in the Edo period. His master
named Mitsukumi sets out to compile a story of Japanese history out of several documents. This
story is supposed to be that which defines what “Great Japan” is.
His opening statements describe his master’s struggle in this manner where he says
“Thereupon he resolved to compile a history of Japan. Official chronicles were hunted for far
and wide.”23 How is this important to the degree of influence Confucianism had towards the end
of the Early Edo period? Well it matches up with Ogyu Sorai’s quote I mentioned earlier in his
appreciation of Tokugawa Ieyasu “True the No play, tea ceremony, and other pastimes were in
vogue, but serious attention to literature and Confucianism did not exist.”24 If there was actually
any true attention to literature previous emperors would have sought out these chronicles long
ago, but rather these chronicles were according to Tsunbaeda kept in private centers of
spirituality and worship. In addition, “eminent personages”25 kept personal memoirs also
recording witnessed events from Japanese history. This also refers back to my point that there
23
Tokugawa Tsunaeda,“Preface to The History of Great japan”, Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1,
Columbia University Press New York and London, 1964, p. 364
24
Ogyo Sorai, “The Great Sun God of the East”, Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1, Columbia University
Press (1958) P. 333
25 Tokugawa Tsunaeda,“Preface to The History of Great japan”, Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1,
Columbia University Press New York and London, 1964, p. 364

19. 18
was this aspect of a private space in which was linked to centers of spirituality. These centers
were likely Zen Buddhist or the previous mainstream faith of Shinto where the chronicles were
present.
Tsunaeda gives his remarks in terms of the results of his master’s deeds later when he
states “The cause of education and the maintenance of social order will thus greatly benefit.”26
This also matches up well with Sorai’s recording of the results of Tokugawa Ieyasu’s deeds
“Education is spreading from day to day, and in the observance of the principle of the five
human relationships between ruler and the ruled, parent and child, etc. We excel the past”27
Therefore between the recording of “The Great Sun God of the East” depicting Tokugawa
Ieyasu’s deeds and the fruit of his reign as well as Tokugawa Tsunaeda’s recording of his master
Mitsukumi’s deeds in that each emphasized education and literature but still recognized and
interacted with spiritual priests in order to achieve this common goal of pushing forward
education and history of Japan we see from this perspective that spiritual centers and officials
were important to those even following Confucian values. Given the fact that Tokugawa Ieyasu
and Tokugawa Tsuaneda were in different branches of the family, but still part of the ruling
shogunate this shows that the centers did likely have a connection with government. However,
from these two documents there appears to be a limited role and still each was left to their own
space. One thing that is missing or very vague and perhaps the biggest problem with these
recordings of the shogunate’s deeds was as to how they actually acquired these documents. Was
it always peaceful or perhaps was there force involved at some point or coercion?
26 Ibid
27 Ogyo Sorai, “The Great Sun God of the East”, Sources of Japanese Tradition Vol. 1, Columbia University
Press (1958) , p. 334

20. 19
Conclusion
In conclusion there are many factors that make studying religion in the Edo period
complicated and its relationship to traditional Confucian philosophy. Societal and class divisions
lead to multiple perspectives concerning the importance of practical values and by the end of the
Edo period traditional Confucianism and 18th century rationalism increased in influence over
spiritual matters. Traditional Confucianism in short became more important than Zen Buddhism
in public behavior given the dynamic of time leading to conflict. Out of this conflict new forms
of Confucianism surfaced like Neo or Chu-His Confucianism which appealed more towards and
attempted in bringing a common ground between Zen Buddhists and those who studied
Confucian philosophy through looking at the pupils of Confucius like Mencius who interpreted
and added to this philosophy.
As a result, people like merchants started seeking out their own beliefs and values
becoming cynical and perhaps skeptical of each Zen Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and
Shintoism. In addition, there are individuals like the old man who thought that Confucianism had
gained such a following that it became more like a religion to them rather than just an added
philosophy on top of old traditions or existing alongside them. When compared to nearby
countries that shared religious and cultural elements (ie China for example…) there were very
similar changes occurring and there was a mass confusion of identity embodied within
philosophical standing and religion causing internal conflict.

21. 20
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