Work Force Participation Rate in India

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PREPARED BY-
NAME-JAY SAHA
M.A, 1st SEMESTER,
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

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1. Abstract
The economic prosperity of a nation depends on the quality of its workforce. The present study
attempts to describe the work force participation rates in India. This study illustrates the spatial
and temporal change in the work force participation of persons (males and females) in India,
highlighting important differences due to sex, age, place of residence. A striking feature has been
a rising trend in the rural female work force participation rates after liberalization (1991) but
declining trend in the last decade (2011). This work force distribution also presents data
regarding number of main and marginal workers. The time series data on work force distribution
by category of workers like cultivators, agricultural laborers, workers in rural Household
industries, etc. also presents a picture of structural change occurring in the economy. The
temporal analysis of total workers of India explains that the work participation rate has registered
continuous increase in the last three decades.
Key Words: Crude Work Participation Rate, Main Workers, Marginal Workers, Work Ratio,
Exponential Growth.
2. Introduction
Population, workforce and employment are closely interrelated and change in the size,
composition and distribution of the population will alter the demographic structure of the labour
force. On the other hand, the workforce participation rates vary according to the stages of
economic development, across cultures, age groups, and between sexes. Indian economy has
been predominantly agricultural which contributes about one third to the total economy and
employs more than half of the workforce. The agriculture is understandably not able to absorb a
significant number of additional workers.
The working population and work participation rate highlights the occupational
distribution of a region. The information is essential for calculating state domestic product at
factor cost popularly known as “State Income” for important tertiary sectors by adopting
statistical methods of interpolation/extrapolation.
The work force distribution also presents data regarding number of main and
marginal workers. With the commencement of welfare schemes of the government, the
percentage of marginal workers to total workers substantially increased from 9 in 1991 to 24.8 in
The economic prosperity of a nation depends on the quality of its workforce. The present study
attempts to describe the work force participation rates in India. This study illustrates the spatial
and temporal change in the work force participation of persons (males and females) in India,
highlighting important differences due to sex, age, place of residence. A striking feature has been
a rising trend in the rural female work force participation rates after liberalization (1991) but
declining trend in the last decade (2011). This work force distribution also presents data regarding
number of main and marginal workers. The time series data on work force distribution by
category of workers like cultivators, agricultural laborers, workers in rural Household industries,
etc. also presents a picture of structural change occurring in the economy. The temporal analysis
of total workers of India explains that the work participation rate has registered continuous
increase in the last three decades

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2011 in India. The time series data on work force distribution by category of workers like
cultivators, agricultural labourers, workers in rural Household industries, etc. also presents a
picture of structural change occurring in the economy.
Work is defined as participation in any economically productive activity with
or without compensation, wages or profit. Such participation may be physical and/ or mental in
nature. Work involves not only actual work but also includes effective supervision and direction
of work. It even includes part time help or unpaid work on farm, family enterprise or in any other
economic activity. All persons engaged in „work‟ as defined above are workers. The main point
to note is that the activity should be economically productive. Reference period for determining a
person as worker and non-worker is one year preceding the date of enumeration.
However, with modernization, urbanization and industrial development picking
up, there is likely to be a shift in the occupational structure of the Indian workforce. Moreover, a
major change in the economic policy has taken place in 1991 with the introduction of
liberalization of Indian economy. It was expected to bring a qualitative shift in the occupational
structure of the workforce. Many have argued that the economic reforms have virtually
stimulated economic growth during the last one decade. The economy has grown over 5 per cent
per annum during the 1990s. But the implication of economic reforms and the outcome of high
economic growth have however remained to be evaluated in terms of its impact on the level and
composition of workforce. This report presents an analysis of workforce data derived from
censuses for the period 1991 to 2011.
3. Review of Literature
Lauterbach (1977) in his discussion in recent Indian censuses, work is defined as participation
in any economically productive activity with or without compensation, wages or profit. Such
participation may be physical and/or mental in nature. Work involves not only the physical work
but also includes supervision and direction given to other workers. However, the concept of
„economically productive activity‟ has considerable value loaded connotations, and influenced
by the social desirability of what constitutes economically productive activity.
In Analytical Report on Primary Census Abstract, P-179 & 181, the work force distribution
also presents data regarding number of main and marginal workers. The time series data on work

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force distribution by category of workers like cultivators, agricultural laborers, workers in rural
Household industries, etc. also presents a picture of structural change occurring in the economy.
The temporal analysis of total workers of India explains that the work participation rate has
registered continuous increase in the last four decades. In India, only 36.8 percent of total
population was economically active in 1981 which has increased to 39.8 percent in 2011. In
India, total female work participation rate is more than half of total male work participation rate
and in urban areas of India it is less than a third.
The economic prosperity of a nation depends on the quality of its workforce.
Several questions can be answered through an analysis of labor force statistics from the point of
view of social welfare and such studies provide the base on which national plans for social and
economic development may be formulated and therefore considered important for policy makers
and planners
According to Asha A Bhende (1985), those workers who had worked for the major part of the
reference period (i.e, six months or more) are termed as main workers and those workers who
had not worked for the major part of the reference period are termed as marginal workers. A
person who did not work at all during the reference period is treated as a non-worker. The non-
workers broadly constitute students who did not participate in any economic activity paid or
unpaid, persons who were attending to daily household chores like cooking, cleaning utensils,
looking after children, fetching water etc. and are not even helping in the unpaid work in the
family farm or cultivation, dependents such as infants or very elderly people not included in the
category of workers. Pensioners, those who are drawing pension after retirement and are not
engaged in any economic activity are treated as non-workers. Also beggars, prostitutes and
persons having unidentified source of income and with unspecified sources of subsistence and
not engaged in any economically productive work during the reference period are included in the
category of non-workers.
Sundaram and Tendulkar (2004) reported that the worker population ratios are lower for males
but higher for females in poor household despite higher child-women ratios and dependency
burden. The low share of regular wage/ salary earning workers remained unchanged for the rural

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working poor, the only change was the rise in the share of manual workers at the cost of self-
employment during the 1990s.
F. Jaumotte (2004) has made about Work Participation that, a man or a woman is considered as
a worker if he or she is in the working age of 15 to 59 years and works for more than half the
duration of the reference period of one year, similar to the definition of main worker in Census of
India from 1981 onwards. In this study, the unemployed or those who works for a short period of
six months or lesser which forms the part of the labor force are not included in the workforce.
Sundaram (2001) coined that the worker population ratios have decreased in younger age
groups because of increasing student population ratios in recent decades. The total workforce
engaged in agricultural and allied activities has reduced. Also, there has been reduction in the
size of workers in personal services by over 1.2 million in the aggregate. It represents low
productivity, low income per worker sector. This reduction in the size and share of the personal
services shows a positive development in the employment situation in the 1990s. The changes in
the growth of workforce at the state level show a mixed trend in the 1990s, but over all there has
been a decline in the growth of employment in 1990s.
Jose (1989) found that Participation in labor force varies among cultures, across age-groups and
between sexes. Census or labour force surveys in different settings across the globe highlights
relatively low labor force participation rate of women vis-à-vis men, and significant variation in
female participation rate among countries.
In UN:1976 report, it is found that, Population, workforce and employment are closely
interrelated and change in the size, composition and distribution of the population will alter the
demographic structure of the labor force. In turn, a change in the size of the labor force, level of
employment and job opportunities will affect components of population change, particularly
fertility and migration.

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(UN: 1973) recommended international definitions, unemployed persons seeking paid jobs are
considered as the part of the labor force, but persons engaged in non-income producing activities,
like women engaged in domestic work in own home, are excluded from it.
Visaria (2003) has made Industrialization measured in terms of the work force engaged in
manufacturing sector or in non-agricultural activities shows that in spite of considerable progress
in rural areas in electrification, transportation and communication networks and agro processing
industries, the share of nonagricultural workforce remains almost stagnant until recently (Visaria:
2003). However, this trend awaits confirmation from the census 2001.
Shweta Borkar in his study Women Workforce Participation in India, Labor force participation
represents a woman‟s decision to be part of the employed or unemployed population as opposed
to being part of the economically inactive population (comprised of those not in work and not
seeking work).
Category of Workers: In 1981 census, workers were categorized into main and marginal
workers
 Main Workers: All those workers who had worked for the major part of the year
preceding the date of enumeration i.e. those who were engaged in any economically
productive activity for 183 days (six months) and more during the last year are termed as
main workers.
 Marginal Workers: All those workers who had worked any time in the year preceding
enumeration but did not work for a major part the year i.e. those who worked less than
183 days or less than six months were termed as marginal workers.
Category of Economic Workers: The 2001 census provided information on four categories of
workers only i.e. cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industries and other workers. The
first two are related to agricultural activities while the rest are treated as non-agricultural
workforce in this report.
I. Cultivators

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According to Census definition, cultivators included persons engaged in cultivation of land
owned or held from government or private persons or institutions for payment in money, kind or
share. It includes effective supervisions or direction in cultivation. A person who has given out
his/her land to another person or institution for cultivation, for money, kind or share of crop and
also does not even supervise or direct cultivation of land will not be treated as cultivators.
II. Agricultural Labourers
The agricultural labourers are defined as a person who works on another person‟s land for wages
in money or kind or share is regarded as agricultural labourers. He has no risk in the cultivation
but merely works on another person‟s land on wages. The agricultural laboueres are usually
more economically and socially vulnerable group in our society.
III. Household Industry
A household industry is defined as an industry conducted by one or more numbers of the
household at home or within the village in rural areas and only within the precincts of the house
where the household lives in urban areas. The larger proportion of workers in the household
industry should consist of household members. The industry should not be run on the scale of a
registered factory, which would qualify to be registered under the Indian Factory Act.
IV. Other Workers
All those who had worked in any field of economic activity other than cultivation, agricultural
labourers or workers in the household industry are classified as other workers.
Several of the findings mentioned above are by and large acceptable, but the
explanations for the trend and pattern of work participation rates are not easy to put forward due
to the diversity of situations, as well as work participation rates being influenced by market and
non-market factors like poverty and the prevailing norms of work by gender, age and social
status in different parts of India. This work specifically attempts keeping in view the following
objectives:
4. Objectives of the Study: The main objectives of this study are to-
 To analyze what kind of spatial variation present in Work Force Participation
Rate in India,
 To understand the temporal variation in Work Force Participation Rate in India
from 1991-2011,

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 To analyze age-sex, religion community specific Work Force Participation Rate
in India,
 To understand category wise economic work force participation rate in India,
5. Study Area:
The study is done based on whole India, which is the second largest country in terms of
population and seventh largest country in the world in terms of area. India is situated in the
southern part of Asia. It lies to the northern of the equator between 6°44‟ and 35°30‟ northern
latitude and 68°07‟ and 97°25‟ east latitude. Neighbour countries of India are Bangladesh,
Myanmar (in the east), Sri Lanka (in the south), Pakistan (situated in the west) and China (in
the north). Total area of India is 3.287 million square km. Total population of India was
almost 1.33 billion on 1st
January, 2017. India consists of 29 states and 7 territories having
average population density of 446 persons / km².current sex ratio of India is 940 and its
literacy rate is almost 74.04%. The total workers of India during 2011 were 481,888,868.
6. Data Source:
The present study is based on secondary data and the sources of these secondary data are Census
of India 1991, 2001 and 2011.
7. Methodology:
The present study is exploratory in nature and therefore relies on secondary data obtained from
published sources. The Research methodology of this study are-
7.1. Crude Work Participation Rate (CWPR): Crude work participation rate is defined as the
ratio of total workers to the total population multiplied by 100. The crude work participation
rates were calculated for the total, main, and marginal workers by rural and urban residence.
Crude work participation rates (CWPR) =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐞𝐫𝐬
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
7.2. Male Work Participation Rate: Male work participation rate is defined as the ratio of total
male workers to the total male population multiplied by 100. The male work participation rates
were calculated for the total, main, and marginal workers by male in rural and urban residence.

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Male work participation rate =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐚𝐥𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐞𝐫𝐬
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐚𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
7.3. Female Work Participation Rate: Female work participation rate is defined as the ratio of
total female workers to the total female population multiplied by 100. The male work
participation rates were calculated for the total, main, and marginal workers by female in rural
and urban residence.
Female work participation rate =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐅𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐞𝐫𝐬
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐅𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
7.4. Exponential Growth Rate: Growth rate of workers has been calculated by using
exponential growth rate method.
Exponential growth rate =
𝟏
𝐭
× 𝐈𝐧(
𝐏𝐭
𝐏𝟎
)
Where t P = Population at time t,
0 p = Population at time 0
t = time period between 0 and t
7.5. Work Participation Rates in the Working Age group: The following indicator of working
age group has been used in this study:
Percentage of Workers in 15-59 age groups=
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐖𝐨𝐫𝐤𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓−𝟓𝟗 𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩𝐬
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐏𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓−𝟓𝟗 𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩𝐬
× 𝟏𝟎0
7.6. Worker Ratio: Worker ratio is defined as number of female workers per 1000 male
workers.
8. Result and Discussion: We have analyzed the trends and patterns of work participation
in India and states during the period 1991 to 2011 based on crude work participation rates by sex
and residence. The age structure of the workers, their growth rates by main and marginal
category workers in the total work force have also been analyzed for the period 1991-2011.

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8.1. Workers and Crude Work Participation Rate by Residence in India:
Table 1.Workers and Crude Work Participation Rate (Persons) by Residence in
India (1991-2011)
Source: Census of India, 1991, 2001 and 2011
Fig 1.Crude Work Participation Rate (Persons) by Residence in India (1991- 2011)
The temporal analysis of total workers of India explains that the crude work participation rate
has registered continuous increase in the last three decades. In India, only 37.46 percent of total
population was economically active in 1991 which has increased to 39.79 percent in 2011.
The number of total workers in the country has almost 53.40 percent increases
in the 20 years period from 1991 to 2011. Corresponding increase in rural workers and urban
workers is 40 percent and 104.5 percent respectively.
Census Area
Workers (Main+ Marginal) Crude Work Participation Rate (%)
Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
1991 314,131,370 249,028,944 65,102,426 37.46 39.99 30.17
2001 402,234,724 309,956,070 92,278,654 39.10 41.75 32.25
2011 481,888,868 348,743,092 133,145,776 39.79 41.83 35.31
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
1991
2001
2011
CrudeWorkParticipation
Rate(%)
Year
Total
Rural
Urban

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Table 2.Workers and Crude Work Participation Rate (Males) by Residence in
India (1991-2011)
Fig 2.Crude Work Participation Rate (Males) by Residence in India (1991-2011)
The male crude work participation rate in rural areas is higher than in urban areas. This trend has
been testifying for India from 1991 to 2011 with an exception in 2011 where crude urban work
participation rate is higher than rural crude work participation rate for India. Crude urban work
participation rate is concerned for India it was initiate less than 50 percent in 1991 but it better
improve in 2001 and 2011.
Census Year
1991 224363807 168598744 55405063 51.55 52.48 48.63
2001 275014476 198839153 76175323 51.68 52.11 50.60
2011 331939875 226837013 105102862 53.26 53.03 53.76
1991 2001 2011
Total 51.55 51.68 53.26
Rural 52.48 52.11 53.03
Urban 48.63 50.60 53.76
45.00
48.00
51.00
54.00
57.00
CrudeWorkParticipationRtae(%)

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Table 3.Workers and Crude Work Participation Rate (Females) by Residence in
India (1991-2011)
Fig 3.Crude Work Participation (Females) by Residence in India (1991-2011)
The female crude work participation rate is very low in contrast to male equivalent for total, rural
and urban population in India. In India, total female crude work participation rate is more than
half of total male work participation rate and in urban areas of India it is less than a third. In
1991, urban female crude work participation was low but after liberalization, the urban female
crude work participation rate is increase from 9.17% (1991) to 15.44% (2011).
Census Area
1991 89,767,563 80430200 9337363 22.25 26.67 9.17
2001 127,220,248 111116917 16103331 25.63 30.79 11.88
2011 149,948,993 121906079 28042914 25.52 30.03 15.44
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
1991 2001 2011
CrudeWorkParticipation
Rtae(%)
Year
Total
Rural
Urban

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8.2. Percentage of Main and Marginal Workers to Total Workers in India:
Table 4.Percentage of Main and Marginal Workers to Total Workers in India
(1991-2011)
Source: Census of India 1991, 2001, 2011
Fig 4.Percentage of Main Workers to Total Workers by Residence in India (1991-
2011
Fig 5.Percentage of Marginal Workers to Total Workers by Residence in India
(1991-2011)
Census
Year
INDIA
Percentage of Main Workers Percentage of Marginal Workers
1991 91 89.3 97.8 9 10.7 2.2
2001 77.8 73.9 90.8 22.2 26.1 9.2
2011 75.2 70.5 87.6 24.8 29.5 12.4
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1991 2001 2011
PERCENTAGEOF
MARGINALWORKERS
TOTOTALWORKERS
Year
Total
Rural
Urban
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1991 2001 2011
PERCENTAGEOF
MAINWORKERSTO
TOTALWORKERS
Year
Total
Rural
Urban

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The analysis of total, rural and urban main workers to total workers in India shows a declining
trend over the three decades. Interestingly, reverse trends are observed in all the categories of
marginal workers in same decade as they have actually witnessed a sharp rise.
8.3. Work Participation Rates in the Working Age group:
Table 5.Work Participation Rates (Main+ Marginal) in Working Age-Group 15-59
by Residence in India
Fig 6.Work Participation Rates (Main + Marginal) in Working Age-Group 15-59
by Residence in India
The analysis of urban workers in 15-59 age groups to total population in 15-59 age group in
India shows a rising trend over the three decades. Similarly, in rural workers in 15-59 age groups
in India shows a rising trend over the 1991 and 2001 decades but in 2011 surprisingly decreases
the rural workers in 15-59 age groups.
Census
Area
Workers in 15-59 age groups Percentage of Workers in 15-59 age groups
1991 280022053 219179984 60842069 60.24 65.14 47.41
2001 357830777 272138085 85692692 61.10 66.83 48.02
2011 426952323 305044105 121908218 58.48 63.03 49.53
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
1991
2001
2011
PercentageofWorkers
Year
Total
Rural
Urban

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Table 6.Age-Sex Specific work Force Participation Rates (Main+ Marginal) in
India (2011)
Source: Census of India, 2011
Fig 7.Age-Sex Specific Work Force Participation Rates (Main+ Marginal) in India
(2011)
Age Group
Male Female
Population
Engaged in
work Force
Work Force
participation
rate (%)
population Engaged in
Work Force
Work Force
participation
rate (%)
5-9 66300466 1366072 2.060 60627660 1167566 1.926
10-14 69418835 4262843 6.141 63290377 3332182 5.265
15-19 63982396 19697680 30.786 56544053 10518700 18.603
20-24 57584693 37998528 65.987 53839529 17465832 32.441
25-29 51344208 44833473 87.319 50069757 19626438 39.198
30-34 44660674 41949242 93.929 43934277 18838081 42.878
35-39 42919381 41171830 95.928 42221303 19237000 45.562
40-49 69683500 67012276 96.167 65072939 29560263 45.426
50-59 45299278 41684341 92.020 42916031 17358639 40.448
60-69 31646075 22087511 69.795 32472615 9388071 28.911
70-79 14142102 6924239 48.962 14299243 2294807 16.048
80+ 5283695 1843802 34.896 6005310 654912 10.906
Age not stated 2372881 1108038 46.696 2116921 506502 23.926
15-59 375474130 294347370 78.394 354597889 132604953 37.396
60+ 51071872 30855552 60.416 52777168 12337790 23.377
0.000
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
80.000
90.000
100.000
WorkForceParticipationRate
(%)
Age Group
Male
Female

16
The above diagram shows that Age-Sex Specific Labour Force Participation Rates (Main+
Marginal) in India (2011). In the child age group of 5- 14, the male engaged work force
participation rate was 8.2 % but female work force rate was 7.18%. The male engaged work
force in the adult age group i.e. 15-59 was 78.39%, but in the female adult age group this rate
was only 37.39%. So there is a male- female disparity in the 15-59 adult work force participation
rates in India. Similarly, the old work force participation rate i.e. in the 80+ age group there is a
disparity between male and female.
8.4. Crude Work Participation Rate of States & Union Territories in India:
Table 7.Work Participation Rate - Top and Bottom Five States & Union
Territories of India (2011)
States/Union
Territories
Total States/Union
Territories
Rural States/Union
Territories
Urban
TOP
Himachal Pradesh 51.9 Nagaland 54 Daman & Diu # 53.6
Sikkim 50.5 Sikkim 53.3 Dadra & Nagar
Haveli #
45.5
Daman & Diu # 49.9 Himachal Pradesh 53.3 Sikkim 41.9
Nagaland 49.2 Andhra Pradesh 51.5 Manipur 41.4
Chhattisgarh 47.7 Chhattisgarh 51.3 Mizoram 41
BOTTOM
Lakshadweep # 29.1 NCT Of Delhi # 31.1 Lakshadweep # 28
Uttar Pradesh 32.9 Lakshadweep # 32.9 Bihar 28.6
NCT Of Delhi # 33.3 Uttar Pradesh 33.4 Jharkhand 29.3
Bihar 33.4 Bihar 34 Uttar Pradesh 31.2
Jammu & Kashmir 34.5 Jammu & Kashmir 34.2 Rajasthan 32.3
Fig8.Work Participation Rate -Top Five States & Union Territories of India (2011)
45 50 55
Nagaland
Sikkim
Himachal Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Chhattisgarh
Work Participation Rate (%)
Rural
0 20 40 60
Daman & Diu #
Dadra & Nagar…
Sikkim
Manipur
Mizoram
Urban

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Fig 9.Work Participation Rate -Bottom Five States & Union Territories of India
(2011)
The analysis of 2011 total work participation rate of India shows that Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim,
Daman and Diu, Nagaland and Chhattisgarh have emerged as the top five work participation rate
States/Union Territories of India whereas, Lakshadweep, Uttar Pradesh, NCT of Delhi, Bihar and
Jammu & Kashmir were among the bottom five states/UTs. The highest work participation rate
is observed in Himachal Pradesh (51.9%) and lowest in Lakshadweep (29.1%).
With regard to rural work participation rate, Nagaland, Sikkim, Himachal
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh have emerged as the top five states/UTs whereas
NCT of Delhi, Lakshadweep, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu Kashmir are the bottom five
states/UTs. The highest rural work participation rate is observed in Nagaland (54.0%) and lowest
in NCT of Delhi (31.1%).
Daman & Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Sikkim, Manipur and Mizoram states/UTs
are among the top five in urban work participation rate in India. In comparison Lakshadweep,
Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan are among the bottom five states/UTs. The
highest urban work participation rate is observed in Daman & Diu (53.6%) and lowest in
Lakshadweep (28%).
25 30 35
NCT Of Delhi #
Lakshadweep #
Uttar Pradesh
Bihar
Jammu & Kashmir
Rural
25 30 35
Lakshadweep #
Bihar
Jharkhand
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Urban

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Fig 10.State wise Comparison in Crude Work Participation Rate for Total male &
Female Workers in India, 2011
Figure 10.shows the work participation rates of males in the states and union territories in 2011.It
may be seen from the map that crude work participation rate is the highest in Daman & Diu
(above 60 percent). Almost all states of north and northeastern regions, the work participation
rates of males is found to be below 50 percent. Except Kerala, all the southern states show more
than 55 percent of male work participation rates in 2011.
Figure10.shows the crude work participation rates of females in the states and
union territories in 2011. Except Himachal Pradesh, in most of the states of northern India, the
female work participation rate is low compared to western and south India (except Kerala and
Gujarat). In northeastern states, except Assam and Tripura have much higher participation rates
among females. The work participation rate of females is found the lowest in Delhi followed by

19
Delhi, whereas it is the highest in Himachal Pradesh followed by Nagaland, Manipur, and
Chhattisgarh.
Table 8.Gender Wise Work Participation Rate by Residence in India, 2011
States
Crude Work Participation Rate (%)
Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female
JAMMU & KASHMIR 46.33 20.79 52.68 14.46
HIMACHAL PRADESH 59.04 47.40 55.72 19.88
PUNJAB 54.94 14.34 55.51 13.18
CHANDIGARH 62.18 14.24 56.34 16.05
UTTARAKHAND 49.07 32.94 50.98 11.29
HARYANA 50.06 20.83 51.15 12.11
NCT OF DELHI 49.27 9.72 53.08 10.60
RAJASTHAN 51.71 42.68 50.75 12.03
UTTAR PRADESH 47.35 18.30 48.94 11.28
BIHAR 46.67 20.16 44.90 10.44
SIKKIM 61.03 44.63 57.52 24.80
ARUNACHAL PRADESH 48.50 39.50 50.91 21.31
NAGALAND 55.68 52.26 47.95 25.87
MANIPUR 52.01 42.73 49.87 33.17
MIZORAM 53.91 41.86 50.89 31.05
TRIPURA 55.35 26.28 56.97 16.00
MEGHALAYA 47.04 34.97 47.68 23.59
ASSAM 53.06 23.69 56.79 14.86
WEST BENGAL 57.19 19.35 56.84 15.35
JHARKHAND 50.75 34.96 46.72 10.07
ODISHA 56.53 29.69 54.08 14.12
CHHATTISGARH 56.36 46.29 53.09 17.42
MADHYA PRADESH 54.30 39.25 51.66 15.14
GUJARAT 57.15 31.95 57.18 11.35
DAMAN & DIU 58.23 15.86 75.12 14.47
DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI 56.77 33.39 66.51 14.66
MAHARASHTRA 56.71 42.52 55.16 16.78
ANDHRA PRADESH 58.41 44.65 54.14 19.14
KARNATAKA 59.76 38.79 57.81 20.81
GOA 55.54 22.64 57.48 21.48
LAKSHADWEEP 52.28 12.55 44.56 10.51
KERALA 53.61 20.24 51.76 16.03
TAMIL NADU 60.04 41.22 58.54 21.78
PUDUCHERRY 54.23 21.05 54.41 16.06
ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS 59.13 17.87 60.35 17.71

20
Fig 11.Gender Wise Comparison in Crude Work Participation Rate by Residence
in India (2011)
Fig 9.shows the Gender Wise comparison in Crude Work Participation Rate by Residence in
India (2011).The overall study of the gender wise crude participation rate in rural area the male-
female crude participation rate is vary all over the rural India. In the state of Lakshadweep,
Daman & dui, NCT of Delhi, Punjab, Chandigarh, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh there is a
much variation between male and female participation. But in the urban area of India there is
much variation between male and female work participation. Except Manipur and Mizoram, all
the states and union territories of urban India there is a inequality between male and female.

21
8.5. Sex Ratio vs. Work Ratio in India, 2011
Table 9.Sex Ratio vs. Work Ratio (Main Workers) in various age groups in Rural
& Urban India (2011)
Age
Group
Rural Urban Total
Sex Ratio worker ratio Sex Ratio worker
ratio
Sex Ratio worker
ratio
5-14 919 683 896 503 913 634
15-29 928 390 928 232 928 336
30-59 973 381 930 223 958 323
15-59 952 384 929 226 944 327
60+ 1036 319 1027 209 1033 292
Total 949 381 929 227 943 327
Fig 12.Sex Ratio vs. Main Worker Ratio by Residence (Rural) in India, 2011
Fig 13.Sex Ratio vs. Main Worker Ratio by Residence (Urban) in India, 2011
The fig 12 and 13 shows the relation between sex ratio and main worker ratio by residence both
rural and urban in India during 2011. The fig 12 depicts that, with increasing the sex ratio, the
y = 0.070x2 - 141.5x + 70976
R² = 1
0
200
400
600
800
900 950 1000 1050
WorkRatio(per1000)
Sex Ratio (Per 1000)
Worker
Ratio
Poly.
(Worker
Ratio)
y = 0.062x2 - 122.9x + 60257
R² = 1
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
850 900 950 1000 1050
WorkRaio(per1000)
Sex Ratio (Per 1000)
Worker
Ratio
Poly.
(Worker
Ratio)

22
main female-male worker ratio decreases in rural area, when sex ratio 919 (919 female per 1000
male) in the age group 5-14 then main work ratio 683 (683 female per 1000 male), again when
sex ratio 952 in the 15-59 age group, work ratio was 384. So, with increasing from child to adult
& old age group and also with increasing sex ratio, the female-male main worker ratio decreases.
Similar relation was found in the urban area between sex ratio and urban main worker female-
male work ratio (fig 13).
8.6. Religion Community specific Crude work participation Rate in India:
Table 10.Religion Community Specific Work Participation Rate by Sex in India,
2011
Religion Community
No. of Workers(Marginal+ Main) Work Force Participation Rate
Persons Males Females Total Male Female
Hindu 396584840 268621532 127963308 41.04 53.91 27.35
Muslim 56105799 43701886 12403913 32.57 49.51 14.77
Christian 11658513 7274731 4383782 41.91 52.90 31.16
Sikh 7567189 6068418 1498771 36.32 55.43 15.16
Buddhist 3643142 2293647 1349495 43.15 53.39 32.54
Jain 1581602 1314798 266804 35.53 57.71 12.27
Other religious
communities
3849637 2103272 1746365 48.50 53.22 43.82
Fig 14.Religion Community Specific Work Force Participation Rate by Sex in
India (2011
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh
Buddhist Jain
Other religious communities
WorkParticipation
Rate(%)
Religion Community
Total
Male
Female

23
The above fig 14.shows the religion community specific work participation rate in India (2011).
The total male work participation rate is higher in the Jain (57.71%) religion community and
female work participation rate is higher in the Buddhist (32.54%) religion community. The
female work participation is low in the Jain community followed by the Muslim religion
community.
8.7. Exponential Growth of Workers (Main +Marginal) by Residence in India:
Table 11.Exponential Growth Rate of Workers (Main+ Marginal) by Residence
for Males and Females in India, (1991-2011)
Source: Census of India, 1991, 2001, 2011
Fig 15.Exponential Growth Rate of Workers (Main+ Marginal) By Residence for
Males in India, (1991-2011)
No. of Workers (Main+ Marginal)
Exponential
Growth Rate (%)
Area YEAR Male Percent Female Percent Person Male Female
RURAL 1991 168598744 67.70247 80430200 32.29753 249028944
2001 198839153 64.15075 111116917 35.84925 309956070 1.65 3.23
2011 226837013 65.04416 121906079 34.95584 348743092 1.32 0.93
URBAN 1991 55405063 85.57768 9337363 14.42232 64742426
2001 76175323 82.54924 16103331 17.45076 92278654 3.18 5.45
2011 105102862 78.93819 28042914 21.06181 133145776 3.22 5.55
TOTAL 1991 224003807 71.39077 89767563 28.60923 313771370
2001 275014476 68.37164 127220248 31.62836 402234724 2.05 3.49
2011 331939875 68.88308 149948993 31.11692 481888868 1.88 1.64
0
2
4
Rural
Urban
TOTAL
1.65
3.18
2.051.32
3.22
1.88
Exponential
Growth(%)
Male 1991-
2001
Male 2001-
2011

24
Exponential growth rate of workers (Main+ Marginal) in Rural India for Males during 1991 to
2001 period was 1.65 % and during 2001 to 2011 period the rate is decreases (1.32%). In urban
area the exponential growth for males in 1991-2001 periods was 3.18% and it is increases during
2001- 2011 period (3.22%).
Fig 16.Exponential Growth Rate of Workers (Main+ Marginal) by Residence for
Females in India, (1991-2011)
Exponential growth rate of workers (Main+ Marginal) in Rural India for Females during 1991 to
2001 period was 3.23 % and during 2001 to 2011 period the rate is decreases (0.93%). In urban
area the exponential growth for females in 1991-2001 periods was 5.45% and it is increases
during 2001- 2011 period (5.55%).
8.8. Category of Economic Workers (Main+ Marginal) in India:
Table 12.Category Wise Work Participation Rate for Main and Marginal Workers
in India, 2011
Category wise
Workers
No. of Workers Work Force Participation Rate
Main
Workers
Marginal
Workers
Total
workers
Main
Workers
Marginal
Workers
Total
workers
Cultivators 95942413 22866367 118808780 26.46 19.16 24.65
Agricultural Labourers 86168706 58164984 144333690 23.77 48.75 29.95
Work in Household 12332802 6005366 18338168 3.40 5.03 3.81
0
2
4
6
Rural
Urban
TOTAL
3.23
5.45
3.49
0.93
5.55
1.64
Exponential
Growth(%)
Female 1991-
2001
Female 2001-
2011

25
Fig 17.Category Wise Work Participation Rate Fig 18.Category Wise Work Participation Rate
for Main Workers in India, 2011 for Marginal Workers in India, 2011
Fig 19.Category Wise Work Participation Rate for Total Workers (Main +
Marginal) In India, 2011
Industry
Other Workers 168121650 32286580 200408230 46.37 27.06 41.59
Total Workers 362565571 119323297 481888868 100 100 100
19%
49%
5%
27%
25%
30%
4%
41%
Cultivators
Agricultural
Labourers
Work in Household
Industry
Other Workers
27%
24%
3%
46%

26
The above fig 19 shows that, category wise economic workers in India, 2011. In 2011 the
cultivator was 25%, agricultural labourer was 30%, and work in household industry was 4% and
other worker was 41%.The marginal cultivators were low because of higher agricultural
labourer. In main workers the cultivator was 27%, higher from marginal workers (19%). The
marginal agricultural labourer was 49%, higher from the main agricultural labourer. Work in
household industry is almost similar to all main and marginal workers.
8.8. Temporal change in Category of Economic Workers in India by Sex,
(2001-2011)
Table13.Category Wise Work Force Participation Rate for Total Males in India,
(2001-2011)
Fig 20.Temporal Change of Category Wise Work Force Participation Rate for
Males in India (2001-2011)
Census
Year Workers
Category Wise Work Force Participation Rate (%)
Cultivators Agricultural
Labourers
Workers in
Household Industry
Other
Workers
2001 275,014,476 31.1 20.8 3.2 44.9
2011 331,939,875 24.9 24.9 2.9 47.2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2001 2011
WorkParticipationRate(%)
Year
Cultivators
Cultivators
18
20
22
24
26
2001 2011
Year
Agricultural
Labourers
Agricultural
Labourers

27
Males in India (2001-2011)
At all India level in the year 2001, the percentage of male cultivators to total male workers was
31.1 which decreased to 24.9 percent in 2011. Regarding male agricultural labourers at all India
level in the year 2001, the percentage of male agricultural labourers to total male workers was
20.8 which increased to 24.9 percent in 2011. The overall low status of agricultural labourers is a
good indicator showing to some extent affluence level in farming activities. Regarding
household industry workers (males) at all India level in 2001 the percentage was 3.2 which
decreased to 2.9 percent in 2011. The above information regarding household industry workers
reiterates the fact that more initiatives are required to be taken to develop household industry in
rural areas. Regarding other workers (males) at all India level, 44.9 percent workers were
engaged in 2001 which enhanced to 47.2 percent in 2011.
0
50
Cultivators
Agricultural Labourers
Workers in
Household Industry Other Workers
31.1
20.8
3.2
44.9
24.9 24.9
2.9
47.2
WorkParticipation
Rate(%)
Category of Economic Workers
2001
2011
43
44
45
46
47
48
2001 2011
Year
Other Workers
Other
Workers
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
2001 2011
Year
Workers in
Household Industry
Workers
in
Househol
d Industry

28
Table 14.Category Wise Work Force Participation Rate for Total Females in India,
(2001-2011)
Source: Census of India, 2001, 2011
Females in India (2001-2011)
At the all India level in 2001, the percentage of female cultivators to total female workers was
32.9 percent which has decreased to 24.0 percent in 2011. Regarding agricultural labourers at all
India level in 2001, the percentage of female agricultural labourers to total female workers was
38.9 which enhanced to 41.1 percent in 2011 concerning female household industry workers at
all India level in 2001, the percentage was 6.5 which decreased to 5.7 in 2011. Regarding other
workers at all India level in 2001, 21.7 percent female workers were engaged in other
miscellaneous works which increased to 29.2 in 2011.
Census
Year
Category Wise Work Force Participation Rate
Workers Cultivators Agricultural
Labourers
Workers
in
Household
Industry
Other
Workers
2001 127,220,248 32.9 38.9 6.5 21.7
2011 149,948,993 24 41.1 5.7 29.2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Cultivators Agricultural Labourers Workers in
Household Industry
Other Workers
WorkParticipation
Rate(%)
2001
2011

29
Table 15.Workers and Percentage of different categories of Workers in India and
EAG states: 2001 and 2011
Name of the State
2001
Crude Work Participation Rate (%)
Workers Cultivators Agricultura
l Labourers
Workers in
Household Industry
Other
Workers
India 402,234,724 31.7 26.5 4.2 37.6
Madhya Pradesh 25,793,519 42.8 28.7 4 24.5
Uttarakhand 3,134,036 50.1 8.3 2.3 39.3
Rajasthan 23,766,655 55.3 10.6 2.9 31.2
Uttar Pradesh 53,983,824 41.1 24.8 5.6 28.5
Bihar 27,974,606 29.3 48 3.9 18.8
Jharkhand 10,109,030 38.5 28.2 4.3 29.1
Odisha 14,276,488 29.8 35 4.9 30.3
Chhattisgarh 9,679,871 44.5 31.9 2.1 21.5
Source: Census of India, 2001, 2011
Fig 23.Percentage of different categories of Workers in India & EAG states: 2001
2011
India 481,888,868 24.6 30 3.8 41.6
Madhya Pradesh 31,574,133 31.2 38.6 3 27.2
Uttarakhand 3,872,275 40.8 10.4 3 45.8
Rajasthan 29,886,255 45.6 16.5 2.4 35.5
Uttar Pradesh 65,814,715 29 30.3 5.9 34.8
Bihar 34,724,987 20.7 52.8 4.1 22.4
Jharkhand 13,098,274 29.1 33.9 3.5 33.5
Odisha 17,541,589 23.4 38.4 4.5 33.7
Chattisgarh 12,180,225 32.9 41.8 1.5 23.8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
CULTIVATORS: EAG
STATES
2001 2011
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
WorkParticipation
Rate(%)
AGRICULTURAL
LABOURERS: EAG STATES
2001 2011

30
Percentage of different categories of workers in India and EAG states in 2001 and 2011 shows
that highest percentage of cultivators is found in Rajasthan and lowest in Bihar. The highest
proportion of agricultural labourers is in Bihar and lowest in Uttarakhand. In case of household
industry workers Uttar Pradesh emerges as leading state whereas Chhattisgarh is at the bottom.
The highest percentage of other workers is found in Uttarakhand and the lowest percentage in
Bihar in 2001 and 2011.
9. Major Findings:
1. The increase in female workforce is the result of spectacular increase in marginal
workforce in both rural and urban areas, and due to a rise in main workforce in urban
areas. On the other hand, main workforce among males has declined very steeply in rural
areas, and has not changed in urban areas. Thus, in spite of spectacular increase in
marginal workers among males both in rural and urban areas, the overall work
participation rates among males remained static during 1991-2011.
2. The number of total workers in the country has almost 53.40 percent increases in the 20
years period from 1991 to 2011. Corresponding increase in rural workers and urban
workers is 40 percent and 104.5 percent respectively.
3. The male crude work participation rate in rural areas is higher than in urban areas. This
trend has been testifying for India from 1991 to 2011 with an exception in 2011 where
crude urban work participation rate is higher than rural crude work participation rate for
India
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Other Workers: EAG STATES
2001 2011
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Work in Household Industry: EAG
STATES
2001 2011

31
4. In 1991, urban female crude work participation was low but after liberalization, the
urban female crude work participation rate is increase from 9.17% (1991) to 15.44%
(2011).
5. The analysis of total, rural and urban main workers to total workers in India shows a
declining trend over the three decades. Interestingly, reverse trends are observed in all the
categories of marginal workers in same decade as they have actually witnessed a sharp
rise.
6. The analysis of urban workers in 15-59 age groups to total population in 15-59 age group
in India shows a rising trend over the three decades. Similarly, in rural workers in 15-59
age groups in India shows a rising trend over the 1991 and 2001 decades but in 2011
surprisingly decreases the rural workers in 15-59 age groups.
7. Almost all states of north and northeastern regions, the work participation rates of males
is found to be below 50 percent. Except Kerala, all the southern states show more than 55
percent of male work participation rates in 2011.
8. Except Himachal Pradesh, in most of the states of northern India, the female work
participation rate is low compared to western and south India (except Kerala and
Gujarat). In northeastern states, except Assam and Tripura have much higher
participation rates among females.
10. Conclusion: The present study attempts to describe the work force participation rates in
India. This study illustrates the spatial and temporal change in the work force participation of
persons (males and females) in India, highlighting important differences due to age-sex, place of
residence. A striking feature has been a rising trend in the rural female work force participation
rates after liberalization but declining trend in the last decade. The urban female crude work
participation was low but after liberalization, the urban female crude work participation rate is
increases. It can be observed that the participation rate first declines at lower age groups but
starts to increase in the prime age group and then eventually low for higher age groups. The
analysis of total, rural and urban main workers to total workers in India shows a declining trend
over the three decades. Interestingly, reverse trends are observed in all the categories of marginal
workers in same decade as they have actually witnessed a sharp rise.

32
References:
1. Bhende, A.A, (1985): „Principles of population studies‟, Bombay: Himalaya Publishing House
2. Jaumotte, F (2004): “Labour Force Participation of Women: Empirical Evidence on the Role
of Policy and Other Determinants in OECD Countries,” OECD Economic Studies No. 37.
3. Borkar, S. (2003) “Women Workforce Participation in India- A Study”
4. Bhagat, R.B & Das, K.C, „Levels, Trends and Structure of Workforce in India: Census Based
Study 1981-2001‟, International Institute for Population Sciences Govandi Station Road, Deonar
Mumbai
5. Mukhopadhyay, S & Tendulkar, S.D. (2006) “Gender Differences in Labour Force
Participation in India: An Analysis of NSS data”, Institute of Social Studies Trust. New Delhi
6. Verick, S. “Women‟s labour force participation in India: Why is it so low?”
7. Sundaram.K, Tendulkar. Suresh D. (2004) “The Poor in the Indian Labour Force – Scenario
in the 1990s”, Economic and Political Weekly, 39 (48): 5125-5132.
8. Census of India,( 1991, 2001, 2011), Primary Census Abstract.
9. Mazumdar S. & Guruswamy M.,(2006) “Female Labour Force Participation in Kerala:
Problems and Prospects”, Population Association of America Westin Bonaventure, Los
Angeles, California.
10. Sanghi S.,Srija A., & Vijay S. S.(2015) “Decline in Rural Female Labour Force
Participation in India: A Relook into the Causes”
11. Sharma A. & Saha S.(2015), “Female Employment Trends in India: A Disaggregated
Analysis” The NEHU Journal, Vol XIII, No. 2

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