Cause and effect analysis provides us with the means of specifying the causes of an event, condition or situation, or alternatively, of determining the consequences that can result from some action or series of actions.

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Unit 6
Cause and Effect Analysis
Overview
Why did two teenage boys take up arms and ammunition against their
schoolmates in Columbine? What were the effects of the bomb dropped on
Hiroshima during World War II? What are the implications of Free Trade for the
developing economies of the Caribbean? Whenever our focus is on the causes,
the effects, the implications or the consequences of a specific action or series of
actions, the method of Cause and Effect Analysis provides us with a tool for
tracing and analysing the trail of events that have led to a specified cause or that
result from a specified event.
The ability to identify the causes and/or the effects of a given activity is useful in
several different contexts. In the medical field, Cause and Effect analysis
provides the basis for addressing such issues as the causes HIV/AIDS; the link
between environment factors and stress; the correlation between life expectancy
and substance abuse. In the field of Social Sciences, Cause and Effect analysis can
look at reasons for the drop in the price of shares, or the consequences of rising
costs of living.
Whenever we wonder what has caused something to happen and further try to
assess reasons or implications associated with that occurrence, we engage in the
expository method of Cause and Effect analysis. At the tertiary level however,
this engagement with the causes and effects of specified actions should not be the
result of guesswork but the end product of a carefully thought-out process. This
is particularly important in the world of work, where the conclusions that we
draw can have serious implications for our credibility and in many cases for the
lives of others.
Overall, as you become familiar with this method, you will come to realize that it
is an important tool of critical thinking and evaluation.
In this unit, the general features, contexts and strategies for producing an
effective Cause and Effect Analysis essay are examined. A number of activities
are also provided to strengthen your mastery of this expository method.

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Unit 6 Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit students should be able to:
1. Identify the main features of Cause and Effect Analysis;
2. Assess topics for which Cause and Effect Analysis provides a suitable
method;
3. Produce appropriate outlines utilizing Cause and Effect Analysis;
4. Evaluate introductions and paragraphs of Cause and Effect Analysis
essays;
5. Critique samples of Cause and Effect Analysis essays;
6. Organize/structure an essay according to criteria of Cause and Effect
Analysis.
This unit is divided into three sessions:
Session 1: Understanding and Using the Method of Cause and Effect
Analysis
Session 2: Developing the Cause and Effect Outline and Thesis
Session 3: Developing the Introduction and Assessing the Cause and Effect
Analysis Essay

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Session 1
Understanding and Using the Method of
Cause and Effect Analysis
Introduction
In this session we will examine the main features of and strategies associated
with this method of exposition.
Objectives
After studying this session you will be able to:
1. Identify the main features of Cause and Effect Analysis;
2. Determine appropriate strategies to employ in organizing material for a
Cause and Effect Analysis essay;
3. Apply Cause and Effect Analysis as a method to discuss given topics.
Main features of Cause and Effect Analysis
Cause and effect analysis provides us with the means of specifying the causes of
an event, condition or situation, or alternatively, of determining the
consequences that can result from some action or series of actions. Thus, the
engineers in the Ministry of Works will use this method to investigate perennial
flooding in a particular area. This type of analysis will also be used to find ways
of avoiding undesirable outcomes. For example, we can avoid the disastrous
after-effects of a natural disaster if we think ahead and identify what those after-
effects are likely to be, based on what we know about the disaster itself. We are
thus better able to prepare ourselves to minimise the negative impact of those
effects. On the other hand, the method cam also be used to maximise the
consequences that we do want. For example, by using it, we are able to assess
how increased exercise contributes positively to increased longevity.
Essentially, as a writer, when you use this method, you are either identifying the
causes (or reasons) for an outcome or outcomes, or you are starting off with the
some action, event, situation or condition, and suggesting what state or condition
they might lead to

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Figure 6.1: The cause-effect relationship
Effect 1
Effect 2
Effect 3
Cause 1
Cause 2
Cause 3
Strategies to employ in effective Cause and Effect Analysis
In Cause and Effect analysis it is important to pay attention to the causes as well
as to the effects in the process that is specified. Several interrelated strategies are
required when using this method.
Brainstorm when cause(s) unclear, then search for evidence
In many instances the cause of a particular event may not be immediately
apparent. In such situations, one generally relies on the technique of
brainstorming to generate a core of possible causes. If, for example, there is a
plane crash, investigators will, in the first instance use this technique to identify
possible causes, even before they locate the ‘black box’. Thus, they may they may
suggest poor visibility, changing weather conditions, sabotage on board the
aircraft, or pilot error as possible contributors to the outcome. Having made
CAUSE
EFFECT

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these suggestions, they will then piece together evidence from the wreckage to
confirm or reject the probable causes they had previously suggested.
Evidence is an important aspect of effective cause and effect analysis. Credible
analysis or conclusions cannot rest on ‘gut feelings’ or ‘intuition’. When
considering probable causes of an occurrence, it is necessary to evaluate the
evidence at hand to support the analysis made. What evidence do you have to
support your claims about possible causes? Do you have any factual information,
any examples, any research findings, statements from any witnesses to support
your claim?
Consider all relevant evidence to decide which explanation is the
most appropriate one
Because in Cause and Effect Analysis, direct links are being made between the
causes identified and the particular consequence/effect specified, it is extremely
important that as the writer, you ensure that the links made can withstand
scrutiny. All relevant evidence must therefore be assessed before a conclusion is
drawn.
A few months ago the world looked on in amazement, shock and embarrassment
at the Chinese scientist who, in an effort to gain fame and glory, manipulated
data to prove that he had perfected the process of cloning. Manipulating data is a
tempting prospect to some, whether in the world of work or even in the world of
study. Students often find themselves tempted to yield to the pressures, such as
impending deadlines, and take short cuts. One’s integrity must never be
compromised. Ensure that each piece of evidence that you cite in connection
with a cause-effect analysis leads consistently to the conclusions that you have
drawn.
However, causes and effects are seldom cut and dried. It is important to note
that, at times, while a single piece of evidence may be insufficient in itself, when
combined with others, it may contribute to a specific result. It would be
simplistic to say for example, that the ruling party lost the elections because it
failed to pave roads. More than likely, the dissatisfaction of the electorate may be
attributable to several causes, such as mismanagement of public funds, loss of
credibility, poor infrastructural development. The non-paving of the roads is one
element of a more complex set of factors and cannot be treated separately.
The job of the expository writer, particularly in a 500-750 word essay, would be
to discover which factors mattered the most.

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Avoid jumping to conclusions
When listing possible causes, it is important not to draw conclusions too quickly.
I remember for example, walking through Harlem, and noticing a number of
police cars whizzing by. Because I was in Harlem and very conscious of the
reputation of the area, I immediately concluded that some murder or robbery
had taken place higher up the road. I became very apprehensive, but had no
choice but to continue walking, since it was the route to the nearest subway
point. To my surprise I subsequently found out that that the reason so many
police cars were passing by, was that I was walking near to a Police Station. In
reasoning from cause to effect or vice-versa it is necessary to consider more than
one possibility before ‘jumping’ to a conclusion. Similarly in writing the cause
and effect analysis essay, it is good practice to assess the evidence in hand before
drawing conclusions
Ensure that your sample is representative enough
Another pitfall to avoid in utilizing Cause and Effect analysis is that of using a
sample that is too small to support the conclusions you want to make. It would
be inaccurate for example, to draw a conclusion that offshore mining is having a
negative effect on the fish population after observing the body of one dead fish
on the seashore.
Limit your scope to one that can be reasonably addressed
In the context of 500-750 words it is not feasible to trace the reasons for the break-
up of the West Indian Federation to factors inherent in the system of slavery. If
the number of possible causes are extensive, for a 500-750 word essay, limit
yourself to the three or four that have had the most significant and direct
influence on the situation in question.
Do not confuse expository methods
Because Cause and Effect Analysis is concerned with the reasons why something
has occurred it may be tempting to confuse it with process analysis which may
also be employed to understand an occurrence. However, it is important to bear
in mind that while Process Analysis answers the question of how something
occurs, Cause and Effect Analysis confines itself to the question of why
something has occurred. Put another way, Process Analysis would answer the
question of how the fertilization of an egg takes place. Cause and Effect Analysis
would answer the question of why fertilization takes place or what are the
implications of the fertilization process.
Use the vocabulary of cause and effect analysis
It is important to be able to recognise as well as utilize the appropriate
vocabulary that signals a focus on the cause and effect process. Causes can be
alternatively termed as reasons or factors for. Similarly effects are synonymous
with consequences or implications. Causal chains are often referred to in cause
and effect analysis as well. This term refers to the fact that one factor may set off
a chain of reactions culminating in a particular effect. Because one thing has
trigged of another and so on, it is referred to as a causal chain.

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Sequence information carefully
As in process analysis, the sequence of activities, be they causes or effects must
be listed in a sequence that allows the reader to carefully follow the way in which
the causes/effects listed have led to or resulted from a specified outcome. If
several causes are relevant to a particular consequence or action, assign each a
position of importance. It may be helpful to arrange causes/effects in
chronological order if positioning information based on significance is not useful.
Use the five-step model of questions, as appropriate
Some writers suggest that in Cause and Effect analysis one method that works is
applying a five-step model of questions as follows:
1. Identify the specified cause or effect
2. Identify the possible causes or effects
3. Locate the event in time and space: where/when the particular event
occur
4. Address the method: how did the event take place
5. Assess its importance: what is its significance.
All of these steps may not be applicable to every situation of cause and effect but
they underscore the keen attention that has to be paid to developing the material
for the Cause and Effect analysis essay.
Applying Cause and Effect Analysis
A Cause and Effect approach is usually indicated in a question that requests
information on implications, consequences, effects or causes. A Cause and Effect
approach can also be utilized to narrow a broad topic given where appropriate.
A broad topic such as ‘Abortion’ can be narrowed to The implications/consequences
of abortion for females under the age of 15, for example. To reinforce the foregoing: if
a question specifically asks for implications, consequences, effects or causes then
Cause and Effect analysis is specifically being requested. If on the other hand, a
broad or general topic is given, then it is up to the individual writer to determine
if Cause and Effect Analysis may be suitably applied to the topic.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What are the specific and relevant causes or effects that should be highlighted in
addressing the following questions or question areas?
• Corruption in government: its impact on national development
• Effects of Crime on the Caribbean Tourist Industry
• Obesity
• Consequences of gum disease
• Causes of “ethnic cleansing”
• Drug Abuse
• The implications of “brain drain” for the Caribbean
• Effects of abuse on child development
• Impact of sand mining in a named country
• Diet and health

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Summary
In this session some of the main features of Cause and Effect Analysis were
defined. General features, specific guidelines and practice topics were also given.
In the next session, ways in which the Cause and Effect Analysis outline and
thesis can be developed will be explored.

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Session 2
Developing the Cause and Effect Outline and
Thesis
Introduction
In the last session the main features of Cause and Effect Analysis were given and
the necessary steps involved in assessing relevant material shared. In this session
we will focus on choosing points that will form the foundation of the Cause and
Effect Analysis essay.
Objectives
After studying this session you will be able to:
1. Analyze Cause and Effect questions;
2. Identify relevant points for the Cause and Effect outline;
3. Assess different outlines for a Cause and Effect essay;
4. Evaluate different thesis statements for a Cause and Effect essay;
5. Create an outline for a Cause and Effect essay.
Analyzing the Cause and Effect question
As previously stated, some questions for Cause and Effect analysis are
specifically indicated through the presence of terms such as “implications”,
“causes”, and “consequences”. For other questions, a cause and effect approach
can be developed from the narrowed focus. A question area such as Obesity for
example, can be specifically narrowed to a more specific question such as The
effects of obesity on longevity or Causes of obesity. If you are trying to decide if cause
and effect analysis is the method you should be using, then consider the
following questions:
• Does the question area explicitly make use of terms such as
“consequence”, “implication” or “cause?
• If cause and effect is indicated, can you identify three to four main causes
or effects that can logically be seen to be significant to the specified action
or event?
• Would it be necessary to apply a system of chronological order or relative
importance to your findings?
• Can the consequence or effect, as well as its place, method and
significance be analyzed?

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Analyzing relevant points for the Cause and Effect Outline
In this section some examples of student Cause and Effect essays on the topic
Why do women stay in abusive relationships? will be assessed for the suitability of
the points raised for development into an outline.
Why do women stay in abusive relationships?
(A) Fear, financial dependency, faithfulness
(B) Socio-economic conditions, fear of consequences, cultural mores
(C) Poor self-esteem; suicide, broken homes
In (A), the points fear, financial dependency, faithfulness are offered as possible
reasons why women stay in abusive relationships. To what extent can these be
accepted as logical reasons or causes for women’s acceptance of abuse? Let us
examine the merit of each in turn.
Fear is often forwarded as a reason why women stay in abusive relationships
and there is evidence in the form of research done as well as the testimony of
abused women to support this. Women often find themselves afraid of their
partners to the extent that fear of his reaction is enough to keep them locked in
an abusive situation.
Fear is often accompanied by financial dependency as another reason why
women do not leave relationships where they feel threatened. Mortgage
payments, costs of educating children, lack of marketable skills often underlie
the financial dependency that keeps women in abusive relationships. Similarly,
faithfulness, evident in the commitment of some women to their marriage vows,
may also be a possible reason why women remain in abusive situations. Through
supporting evidence all three points offered here can successfully be shown to be
direct causes of women remaining in abusive relationships.
In (B), socio-economic conditions, fear of consequences, cultural mores are
offered as reasons why women remain in abusive relationships. These points can
be supported along the same line of evidence as (A) from the standpoint that
socio-economic conditions will refer to the same issues of financial dependence,
lack of marketable skills, and employment outside of the home as a cause of a
woman’s unwillingness to leave. Fear of consequences will additionally include
factors such as poor self-esteem, which may cause a woman to see herself as
worthless outside of a relationship. Lack of sympathy from the legal system
which may cause a court to give custody to the male who can provide financially
rather than the unemployed spouse, can also be some of the reasons why women
stay in abusive relationships.
In (C) poor self-esteem, suicide and broken homes are offered as reasons why
women stay in abusive relationships. However, while in (A) and (B) the factors
highlighted can be seen as reasons or causes in (C) there seems to be a mixture of
causes and consequences in the points raised. Poor self-esteem for example can
be seen as a reason or contributing factor to a woman remaining in an abusive
relationship, but suicide and broken homes on the other hand are more likely to
be consequences of remaining in an abusive relationship rather than causes.

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In writing the Cause and Effect analysis essay it is very important that as a
writer, you understand and adequately address the major terms in the question.
A strict focus on the topic is necessary to ensure first of all that the question is
interpreted correctly. Thus, you need to ensure that you do not interpret ‘causes’
as ‘consequences’ or vice versa. Further, you must assess each point for its
relevance to the question. If the essay topic asks for ‘causes’ then each ‘cause’
that you identify must be clearly linked to the effect specified.
Assessing outlines for a Cause and Effect Essay
Two possible avenues for developing the cause and effect analysis essay on the
topic Why do Women Stay in Abusive Relationships were suggested in the last
section:
(A) Fear, financial dependency, faithfulness
(B) Socio-economic conditions, fear of consequences, cultural mores
In this section we will explore the ways in which these two suggestions can be
further developed into an outline. See Unit 4 if you need a refresher on the
criteria for developing the topic to sentence outline. As we have said previously,
pay special attention to ensure that you develop between the sentence, the topic
area and the essay question asked in order to achieve the necessary coherence in
the outline.
The following outline displays the information as developed by a student for
development in the body of the essay:
1. Fear, financial dependency, faithfulness
Topic Sentence
Fear
Financial Dependency
Faithfulness
Women who are separated from their abusive partners
are five times more likely to be killed than if they stay.
Women are compelled by society to rely on men for
money and financial support.
Some religious groups may pressure women to stay in
an abusive marriage – “till death do us part”.
The next suggestion for developing an outline on Why Women Stay in Abusive
Relationships was developed by another student in the following manner:
2. Socio-economic conditions, fear of consequences, cultural mores

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Topic Sentence
Socio-economic
conditions
Fear of consequences
Cultural mores
Women who are not employed outside of the home are
usually economically dependent on their abusive
cohabitee.
A woman’s fear of the consequences of leaving the
abusive relationship can cause her to stay.
Cultural mores influence women to remain in abusive
relationships.
Each outline must now be assessed in terms of its suitability for development
into an appropriate Cause and Effect analysis essay.
In suggestion (A) the points presented on the topic side of the outline can be
reasonably seen as relevant to the question however the development of the
points on the sentence side do not logically follow. Let us examine each in turn.
The first point is fear. This is developed as, ‘Women who are separated from
their husbands are five times more likely to be killed than if they stay’. One of
the criteria of an efficient topic and sentence outline is that the main point must
be evident in the topic and subject area. In the sentence outline given above, the
term fear is not mentioned. As a matter of fact, the topic and the corresponding
sentence are two mutually exclusive statements. The fact that women separated
from their husbands are more likely to be killed does not necessarily mean that
these women are fearful. Rather it could be reasoned that despite the statistics
these women have bravely decided to leave their situations in search of a better
life. There is thus a faulty causal relationship proposed between the topic and the
developed sentence.
The second point is financial dependency. This is developed as, ‘Women are
compelled by society to rely on men for money and financial support’. Firstly,
the distinction being made between money and financial support is not clear.
This seems instead to be a repetitive statement. Secondly, the statement taken in
its entirety is an over-generalization. In cause and effect analysis, one of the
criteria established is that there must be a clear, consistent linkage between the
specified cause and the result. This is not sustainable in this scenario because in
every case where a woman is dependent on a man for financial support, the
reason is not that society compels her to do so. Many other reasons may be valid.
So, once again, the point raised in the topic area is not suitably developed in the
corresponding sentence.
The third point is faithfulness. Here the developed sentence asserts that, ‘Some
religious groups may pressure women to stay in an abusive marriage – till death
do us part’. This sentence begins in an interesting way. It cites some religious
groups as being responsible for women remaining in abusive relationships. Yet,
there are other women who do not belong to religious groups who remain
faithful to their partners, in spite of being abused in the relationship. The
developed sentence therefore does not account for all the members mentioned in
the larger class. On this account alone, the statement can be seen as faulty cause
and effect reasoning. Additionally there is also the fact that staying in an abusive
relationship does not automatically transform into faithfulness. There are many

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examples of abused wives who find comfort outside of the marital home while
maintaining a physical presence in the home. This last point thus joins the others
in not being logically developed from the topic area.
In (B): Socio-economic conditions, fear of consequences, cultural mores are offered as
suggestions for women remaining in abusive relationships. We must now assess
if the development of the points in the sentence is a logical one.
The first point is presented as socio-economic conditions. This point is
developed as ‘Women who are not employed outside the home are usually
economically dependent on their partner’. The focus in the developed sentence
on the home and working conditions provides the context for the socio-economic
conditions mentioned in the topic area. By including the term usually, this point
does not categorically state that all unemployed women are economically
dependent on their partner but rather that a significant proportion of them are.
Economic dependence is thus presented as a credible reason why women stay in
an abusive relationship. The developed sentence follows logically from the topic
area stated.
The second point is fear of consequences. This is developed as, ‘A woman’s fear
of the consequences of leaving the abusive relationship can cause her to stay.” A
clear and explicit expansion of the topic area is evident in the completed
sentence. The relevance of this point to the consequence specified in the question
area, namely a woman remaining in an abusive relationship is also explicit. The
second point is also credible in terms of the cause and effect analysis requirement
of the question.
The third point is cultural mores: ‘Cultural mores influence women to remain in
abusive relationships’. There is once again a distinct relationship between the
point of the topic area and that of the developed sentence. In terms of its
connection to the specific essay question given, evidence can be provided to
show the influence of culture on behaviour and as such a clear causal
relationship can be established.

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ACTIVITY 6.2
Assess the following outline on the Causes of Conflict within a Home using the criteria
given in the unit for assessing the cause and effect outline. Identify and correct any error
of language. Rephrase or change points if necessary so that the focus of the question is
addressed.
Topic Sentence
Infidelity
Absence of love
Irresponsibility
Financial instability
An ungodly home
The main cause of conflict between spouses
in a home is unfaithfulness.
In a home where there is love, problems and
difficulties seem small.
Spouses failing to hold his or her
responsibility causes conflict in the home.
Lack of finances lead to conflict aspect in
examination preparation
A family that prays together, stays together
Developing the thesis statement of the Cause and Effect essay
In generating the thesis statement for the Cause and Effect analysis essay one of
the first criteria to be borne in mind is whether the essay will focus on
causes/reasons for or effects/consequences of. The answer to that question
determines the kind of information and indicates the necessary focus of the
expository essay. An essay on the causes of drug abuse, cannot list in the thesis
the consequences of drug abuse. This may seem obvious but under examination
conditions, students neglect to read their questions carefully and make
unnecessary mistakes. The first step in generating the thesis statement then, is to
ensure that you have zeroed in on the appropriate focus for the question.
Secondly, in the thesis statement you need to indicate clearly how the causes or
effects that you have specified lead to the focus of the question asked. If for
example the question asks for the effects of manufacturing industries in the
Caribbean, frame your thesis in such a manner that it is clear in your thesis that
you are zeroing in on specific effects of manufacturing industries in the
Caribbean. In the following examples, we will assess how well these pointers
work. Remember that there must be harmony among the elements of the outline:
the major terms that appear in the sentence outline must be repeated in the topic,
the general subject area and the thesis statement.
We will return to outline (B) of the preceding section to generate a suitable thesis
statement. Recall that the points given were, Socio-economic conditions, fear of
consequences, cultural mores.
Thesis: Socio-economic conditions, fear of consequences and cultural mores are
prevailing issues that allow women to continue to live in abusive relationships.

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Topic Sentence
Socio-economic
conditions
Fear of consequences
Cultural mores
Women who are not employed outside of the home are
usually economically dependent on their abusive
cohabitee.
A woman’s fear of the consequences of leaving the
abusive relationship can cause her to stay.
Cultural mores influence women to remain in abusive
relationships.
An application of the three-way test reveals the following analysis of the points
presented:
Sentence Topic Subject area Thesis
Women who are not
employed outside of the
home are usually
economically dependent
on their abusive
cohabitee.
Socio-
economic
conditions
Reasons why
women stay in
abusive
relationships
Socio-
economic
conditions
A woman’s fear of the
consequences of leaving
the abusive relationship
can cause her to stay.
Fear of
consequences
Reasons why
women stay in
abusive
relationships
Fear of
consequences
Cultural mores influence
women to remain in
abusive relationships.
Cultural mores Reasons why
women stay in
abusive
relationships
Cultural mores
ACTIVITY 6.3
It is also possible to generate a thesis statement for outline (A) utilizing the broad points
presented. Apply the three-way test to assess the extent to which the addition of a thesis
embracing all points of the outline will or will not correct the weakness of this outline.
Thesis: Three of the reasons that lead women to stay in abusive relationships include
fear, financial dependency and faithfulness to religious vows.
Topic Sentence Outline
Fear
Financial
Dependency
Faithfulness
Women who are separated from their abusive partners
are five times more likely to be killed than if they stay.
Women are compelled by society to rely on men for
money and financial support.
Some religious groups may pressure women to stay in
an abusive marriage – “till death do us part”.

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Summary
We began this session with an assessment of the points put forward for writing a
cause and effect analysis essay on a specified topic. We then turned our attention
to developing outlines using the information provided in these points. In that
context, we highlighted some of the critical ways in which an outline must be
assessed to ensure its suitability for developing into an effective cause and effect
essay. We also emphasized the need for an explicit connection between causes
and effects.
Finally, we looked at different ways of developing the thesis statement of the
Cause and Effect Analysis essay. As with the thesis statement in general, explicit
links must be made between the question area, the outline and the thesis. We
noted further that the thesis for the Cause and Effect Analysis essay emphasizes
the direct relationship between the effects or causes identified and a specific end
result. In the next session we will be focussing on strategies for developing the
introduction and the body of the Cause and Effect Analysis essay.

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Session 3
Developing the Introduction and Assessing
the Cause and Effect Analysis Essay
Introduction
The introduction of the Cause and Effect Analysis essay provides the context in
which the steps or stages of the particular process to be described will be
discussed and presents the specific focus of the paper as encapsulated in the
thesis statement. In this session we will evaluate some examples of Cause and
Effect Analysis introductions and discuss the criteria that make them most
effective.
Objectives
At the end of this session you will be able to:
1. Identify the components of the Cause and Effect Analysis introduction;
2. Evaluate sample Cause and Effect introductions;
3. Assess sample Cause and Effect analysis essays.
The components of the Cause and Effect Analysis introduction
The Cause and Effect analysis introduction must provide the context for
examining the specific causes and effects requested in the question area. As has
already been established, the definition of any specialized terms is important, as
well as an explanation of the significance of the sequence to be analysed. In this
section, we will analyse some examples of effective Cause and Effect analysis
essays. The example of an introduction as given below is not to be slavishly
followed. In other words do not sit down and count the number of sentences in
your introduction and panic if you have produced an introduction with more
sentences than the one given below. The important point to grasp is that the
introduction of the essay, whatever the expository type, must accomplish certain
things. In addition, depending on the topic, some students may need more
sentences, and probably more lines to do this. (Less would be problematic!). Try
however to confine your introduction to six to ten lines.
Topic: The Implications of Teenage Pregnancy
Teenagers today are quite determined to exercise some measure of independence. One of
the measures some teenagers may take is the decision to become sexually active. One of
the implications of this action is that some teenagers are eventually faced with the issue of
pregnancy. Teen pregnancy has is own set of problems, the consequences of which
include emotional problems, poor decision making or choices and the emerging need to
provide for self and child.

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Note the following points:
• The introduction begins by establishing the context in which the
discussion to follow will take place: the need of teenagers to assert their
independence. No definition of teenagers is given here and that is quite
appropriate if taken from the standpoint that the understanding of who
or what a teenager is generally acknowledged.
• The second sentence begins to narrow to the focus of the question by
naming a specific measure that teenagers may take to assert their
independence.
• The third sentence brings the entire question into focus through the
linking of the idea of the independence of teenagers and the implications
of sexual activity specifically pregnancy. This then smoothly leads into
the thesis statement that states the main consequences or implications to
be addressed in the body of the essay.
ACTIVITY 6.4
Evaluate the following student introductions. List the strengths and weaknesses of each
introduction, identify the thesis statement and correct any error of grammar or sentence
construction.
Introduction 1: The Effects of Food Additives on the Human Body
Food additives are chemicals which are used to improve taste, appearance and quality of
food products. They have been around for centuries, in forms such as pickling (with
vinegar), salt or in bacon and sulphur dioxide in some wines. In the twentieth century with
the introduction of food processing many more additives have been introduced, that are
now know to have both positive and negative effects on the human body. The major
effects of food additives on the human body are weight loss, allergic reactions,
development of disease and psychological hunger.
Introduction 2: Consequences of Divorce
Divorce, or the disolution of a marriage, is the legal ending up of a marriage before the
death of one of the spouses. This is not to be confused with annulment, which renders a
marriage void, having no legal effects, while retaining the effects of marriage such as
support, child custody and the sharing of a marital home. Divorce results in financial,
emotional, social and psychological consequences.
Introduction 3: Why Children Misbehave
There is a cut off age for which a person is considered to be a child. This would be the
age when the person has the legal right to vote. I would consider children to be at an age
of 18 yrs and less. When children misbehave they tend to show lack of respect for
themselves. And for others. Children that misbehave also shows no discipline in terms of
their behaviour. The reason for children misbehaving are as a result off, poor parenting,
children’s sign of them wanting affection, peer pressure and the behaviour of adults.
Assessing the Cause and Effect Essay
In this section we will focus on assessing different examples of expository essays
using the Cause and Effect method. Before doing so however, there are some
additional guidelines to consider as you write your own cause and effect essays

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and assess those of others. The examples given with each of the guidelines below
are intended to show what you must not do. All the examples used, except one,
are excerpts from different students’ essays on the topic Implications of teenage
pregnancy.
Ensure your thesis indicates the correct focus
The social implications of teenage pregnancy are direct results of varying factors such as,
lower level of education attained, crime and poverty, sexually transmitted diseases and a
myriad of emotional issues which all have a negative impact on society.
Do not put all the points you can think of in your thesis
Teenage pregnancy has a profound impact on teen mothers in particular as their
academic opportunities are hampered, their employment opportunities are limited, they
are often subject to poverty and the long term effect of society in general is the breakdown
of the family structure.
Do not dispense advice
Keep your child on a leash; let them know actions have consequences.
Consequences must be part of a logical process presented in a
grammatically acceptable form
The implications to teenaged pregnancy are abortion, adoption or keep the child.
Some Jamaican women will stay in abusive relationships because of financial
stability, social class or prestige, misplaced values, environmental or cultural
influences which lead them to suffer from loneliness and become mentally or
emotionally disturbed.
ACTIVITY 6.5: Sample Process Analysis Essays
The following section includes samples of student essays attempting the method of
Cause and Effect Analysis. Assess each outline and essay for the extent to which it
adheres to the rules given for writing a cause and effect paper in this unit. Remember to
include an assessment of the language, that is, the grammar, punctuation and spelling.
Sample Essay 1: Consequences of Divorce
Thesis: Depression, resentment towards parents, and teenage pregnancy are
consequences of divorce in a nuclear family.

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Topic Sentence
Depression
Resentment
towards parents
Teenage
pregnancy
Children of the divorcing parents succumb to feelings of
hurt, sadness and lonliness.
Additionally, children’s lack of understanding, leads to
resentment towards their parents.
Moreover, the lack of attention and limited communications
between parents and their children lends to teenage
pregnancy.
Marriage is a sacred bond between two persons who love and care for each
other, and as a result, the law confirms and recognises this union. However,
many marriages fail for various reasons, as a result, the married couple opt for a
divorce. A divorce is the legal separation of the two persons. However, divorce
has serious consequences when children are involved. Family members become
disoriented and disenchanted with each other, as members of the family exit.
Depression, resentment towards parents and teenage pregnancy are
consequences of divorce in a nuclear family.
Children of the divorcing parents succumb to feelings of hurt, sadness and
loneliness. This occurs because some children believe they are the cause of the
divorce; whilst the other children understand the reasons for the divorce, they
still wants the family to live together as a unit. When these children looses
mental control of the situation, they enter into a depressed mode. They begin to
feel hurt, anger, sadness and loneliness. This depressed mode causes distrust
towards everyone and in some cases it may cause children to adopt misleading
friends, in which the child can later become a juvenile delinquent.
Additionally, children’s lack of understanding leads to resentment towards their
parents. Some children may be too young to understand the reasons leading to
the divorce, and as a result they begin to resent the parents. The children may
have the belief that the parents are not trying or did not try to save the marriage.
They may also bear the belief that one parent caused the divorce. Hence, when
the young minds do not comprehend the reasons for the divorce, they begin
developing feelings of hate towards one or both parents.
Moreover, the lack of attention and limited communication between parents and
their children gives lead to teenage pregnancy. Some divorces gives lead to
single parent families. When this occurs, the affected children looses the attention
and affections required. In such instances, the affected children tend to seek the
attention and affection outside the family, and this leads to teenage pregnancy.
Limited communication between the parents and child adds to this consequence.
The child has no one to talk to and confide with, and as a result, the do’s and do
not’s are not established.
Divorce affects the entire family. It becomes necessary to understand its’ effects,
especially when children are part of the family. If the children are not made to
adequately understand the reasons surrounding the divorce, the affected
children can suffer a mood of depression and in some cases develop resentment
towards the parents. A divorce also deters the required attention and limits

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communication between the parents and children. As a result, the affected
children seek this level of communication and affection outside the family, which
gives result to teenage pregnancy.
Sample Essay 2: The Impact of Terrorism on the Caribbean
Thesis: Terrorism has impacted on the Caribbean by several ways such as increase in
immigration laws, decline in the tourist industry, as well as heightened security
measures at ports of entry.
Topic Sentence
Increase
immigration laws
Decrease in the
tourist industry
Heightened security
Several new immigration laws has been passed down
from international bodies to help deal with terrorism.
Additionally, the influx of tourist to the Caribbean has
declined tremendously.
In order to make the citizens comfortable an increase in
security has been implemented measures at ports of
entry.
The word “terrorism” first came into existence during the French Revolution
(1789-1799). The terrorist tries to destabilize the government by adopting the use
of weapon such as bombs, firearms, and chemical and biological weapons. A
terrorist act tends to sow panic among the citizen of a country. Terrorism is
caused by people who feel that they have a grievance borne out of apolitical act,
religious persecution, cultural domination and economic instability. Terrorism
has impacted on the Caribbean on several ways such as increase in immigration
laws, decline in the tourist industry as well as heightened security measures at
ports of entry.
Several new immigration laws has been passed down from international bodies
to help deal with terrorism. These new immigration laws calls for security
personnel’s to be placed on airlines to assist with the smooth running on flights.
Caribbean nationals entering developed countries are subjected to numerous
search and interrogation. After the bombing of New York’s , world Trade center
on September 11 2001, Caribbean nationals who entered in United States with
Muslim names were subjected to several security checks some were even
deported. Caribbean government also have to ensure that the new immigration
law that were passed down from the international bodies are instituted and
adhere to. Terrorism has also cause developed country to request that Caribbean
countries put stricted measures in place to deal with terrorism. This therefore
has resulted in Caribbean government passing new laws on dealing with
terrorism.
Additionally, the influx of tourist to the Caribbean has declined tremendously.
This is so because national from some developed countries fear for their lives as
they are away from the safety of their home country. People involve in the
tourist industry such as the craftmakers and hoteliers have all experienced loss of
earning since there is a decline in the amount of tourist entering the Caribbean.
Barbados, has experience a decrease in its foreign exchange.

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In order to make the citizens comfortable an increase in security measures at
ports of entry has been implemented. Caribbean countries need to put these
measures in place because they can be easily targeted. Since the Caribbean is
surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea it is very easy for terrorist
to use these countries to get at other countries. The Caribbean government also
have to make its citizenry feel comfortable and safe thereby these security
measures had to be put in place. Also the Caribbean had to heightened its
security at ports of entry in order to maintain ties with the developed countries
who are targets of terrorism. If these measures were not put in place then the
Caribbean would be deemed a haven for terrorism and trading agreement as
well as political affiliation would be severed.
An act of terrorism does not have to take place in a country for the country to feel
its impact. The act of terrorism has a rippling effect and Caribbean countries are
small and under develop therefore any act of terrorism against developed
countries would impact on the Caribbean. Since most Caribbean people have
relative living and working in these developed countries an act of terrorism on
these countries would have devastating effects
Sample Essay 3: Reasons for Alternative Telecommunications Service Providers
in Trinidad and Tobago.
Thesis: Telecommunications service providers provide means through which people can
communicate and having an alternative, will allow for technological development,
improved services and generally a wider range of choices.
Topic Sentence
Services provided by
present telecommunications
service provider
Public entitled to a choice
Competition between both
providers
Monopolistic characteristics
of original service provider
is eliminated
Increased technological
growth
Conclusion
Services provided by the initial
telecommunications service provider may prove
unsatisfactory, whilst a new one may have
improved and offer newer services.
Public should be allowed a wider range of choices
in rates so as to better suit their lifestyle.
Competition between both service providers may
lead to lowered rates and improved services
which will benefit the public
Having only one service provider means that
services and rates they provide have to be
accepted by customers, however having an
alternative will eliminate this.
More than one telecommunications service
provider will allow for greater technological
growth since there will be new developments in
the telecommunications area through fresher and
new ideas.
There are many positive reasons for an alternative
telecommunications service provider.

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Telecommunications service providers provide all the means through which
people communicate such as mobile services, landlines and the internet. In
Trinidad and Tobago, the initial and sole provider for a long period of time was
the Telecommunications Service of Trinidad and Tobago (TSTT). However,
recently there was the establishment of an alternative, IGICEL. Allowing for the
establishment of an alternative service provider means that there will be greater
technological growth, lowered rates with competition, and generally a wider
range of choices for customers.
Being the sole telecommunications provider for a long time, people may find its
services unsatisfactory. There will be a high demand for an alternative which
they would hope can bring improved services. The alternative
telecommunications service provider may have improved services provided by
the present service provider and may also have newer services as ell. Due to
their unsatisfactory feelings towards initial service providers, demand will be
high for an alternative.
An alternative telecommunication service provider will mean that there is a
wider range of choices. The public is then allowed to chose from different rates
and plans to find one to better suit their lifestyle. The public deserves to be able
to have a choice so that they can find one suited to them rather than having to be
dependent on only one. Alternative telecommunications service providers allow
for a much deserved wider range of choices.
The introduction of an alternative telecommunications service provider means
that there will be competition between the old and new one. Both will be forced
to adjust their prices so as to attract more customers than the other. This will
lead to lower rates and plans and increasing improvement of services in their
attempt to stay ‘on top’. The competition can only bring about benefits, however,
if it is healthy and not degrading to the other service providers. Competition
between service providers is beneficial to the public in that it allows for
improvement of services so as to ensure satisfaction of customers.
Being the lone telecommunications service provider for a long period of time
meant that that service provider established a monopoly in that country. This
would mean that they had all control over telecommunications services in the
country. It would also imply that services and rates for these services that they
provided would have to be accepted by the public since there is no choice.
However, the establishment of an alternative telecommunications service
provider means that these monopolistic characteristics would be eliminated.
Customers would no longer have to settle for the given rates and services. Since
there is an alternative one, the original one would be forced to improve their
services so as not to lose customers. Introduction of an alternative service
provider creates a duopoly rather than a monopoly and customers do not need
to be satisfied any longer with rates provided by one.
Trinidad and Tobago is advancing at a rapid technological rate and an increase
in the number of telecommunications service providers will allow for more
development in this area. Newer telecommunications service providers means
newer ideas in the telecommunications field. This field is responsible for all
means of communication. Newer and fresher ideas and strategies presented by
the newer telecommunication service providers can prove very beneficial to the
technological development of the country.

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There are a number of reasons why an alternative telecommunications service
provider should be introduced. Alternatives are not only beneficial to the
customers, but to the nation as a whole. They allow for a wider range of
improved services to chose from, lowered rates, elimination of monopoly,
greater choice and increased technological growth.
Summary
In this session we examined the criteria for developing the introduction to the
Cause and Effect analysis. Examples were also provided to practise the skills of
developing good introductory paragraphs. Some additional guidelines were
given for assessing and writing the cause and analysis essay and sample essays
were provided for evaluation and discussion.
Wrap up
In this unit we focussed on the expository method of Cause and Effect analysis.
Some important points covered were:
• Cause and Effect analysis explores the reasons for/implications
associated with a particular occurrence.
• The ability to assess evidence critically is extremely important in drawing
logical conclusions in Cause and Effect analysis.
• Causal links play a significant role in establishing sound Cause and Effect
conclusions.
• Consider more than one possibility before jumping to conclusions.
• Cause and Effect answers the question of why, while Process analysis
answers the question of how.