1. 1. C++ Scope Resolution Operator::
2. Pointers
C++ Scope Resolution Operator::
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The :: (scope resolution) operator is used to qualify
hidden names so that you can still use them. You can
use the unary scope operator if a namespace scope or
global scope name is hidden by an explicit declaration
of the same name in a block or class. For example:
int count = 0;
int main(void) {
int count = 0;
::count = 1; // set global count to 1
count = 2; // set local count to 2
return 0;
}
 The declaration of count declared in the main()
function hides the integer named count declared
in global namespace scope.
 The statement ::count = 1 accesses the
variable named count declared in global
namespace scope.
 You can also use the class scope operator to
qualify class names or class member names.

2.  If a class member name is hidden, you can use it
by qualifying it with its class name and the class
scope operator.
Example:
The declaration of the variable X hides the class type
X, but you can still use the static class member count
by qualifying it with the class type X and the scope
resolution operator.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class X
{
public:
static int count;
};
int X::count = 10;// define static data member
int main ()
{
int X = 0; // hides class type X
// use static member of class X
cout << X::count << endl;
}

3. C++ Scope Resolution Operator ::
PURPOSE
C++The :: (scope resolution) operator is used to
qualify hidden names so that you can still use
them.
You can use the unary scope operator if a
namespace scope or global scope name is
hidden by an explicit declaration of the same
name in a block or class.
Namespaces
Namespaces allow to group entities like classes,
objects and functions under a name.
In this way the global scope can be divided in
"sub-scopes", each one with its own name.
The format of namespaces is:
namespace identifier
{
entities
}
Where identifier is any valid identifier and
entities is the set of classes, objects and
functions that are included within the
namespace.

4. For example:
namespace myNamespace
{
int a, b;
}
In this case, the variables a and b are normal
variables declared within a namespace called
myNamespace.
In order to access these variables from outside
the myNamespace namespace we have to use
the scope operator ::
For example, to access the previous variables
from outside [myNamespace=] we can write:
general::a
general::b
The functionality of namespaces is especially
useful in the case that there is a possibility that
a global object or function uses the same
identifier as another one, causing redefinition
errors.

5. For example:
// namespaces
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
namespace first
{
int var = 5;
}
namespace second
{
double var = 3.1416;
}
int main () {
cout << first::var << endl;
cout << second::var << endl;
return 0;
}
EXAMPLE OUTPUT:
5
3.1416
In this case, there are two global variables with
the same name: var. One
is defined as an int within the namespace first
and the other one in defined
as a double in the namespace called second. No
redefinition errors happen
thanks to namespaces.

6. The 'using' Keyword
The keyword using is used to introduce a name
from a namespace into
the current declarative region. For example:
// using example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
namespace first
{
int x = 5;
int y = 10;
}
namespace second
{
double x = 3.1416;
double y = 2.7183;
}
int main () {
using first::x;
using second::y
cout << x << endl;
cout << y << endl;
cout << first::y << endl;
cout << second::x << endl;
return 0;
}
EXAMPLE OUTPUT:
5
2.7183
10
2.7183

7. Notice how in this code, x (without any name
qualifier) refers to first::x
whereas y refers to second::y, exactly as our
using declarations have
specified. We still have access to first::y and
second::x using their
fully qualified names.
The keyword using can also be used as a
directive to introduce an entire
namespace:
// using example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
namespace first
{
int x = 5;
int y = 10;
}
namespace second
{
double x = 3.1416;
double y = 2.7183;
}
int main () {
using namespace first;
cout << x << endl;
cout << y << endl;
cout << second::y << endl;
cout << second::x << endl;
return 0;
}

8. EXAMPLE OUTPUT:
5
10
3.1416
2.7183
In this case, since we have declared that we
were using namespace first, all direct uses of x
and y without name qualifiers were referring to
their declarations in namespace first.
using and using namespace have validity
only in the same block in which they are stated
or in the entire code if they are used directly in
the global scope.
For example, if we had the intention to first use
the objects of one namespace and then those of
another one, we could do something like:

9. // using namespace example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
namespace first
{
int x = 5;
}
namespace second
{
double x = 3.1416;
}
int main ()
{
// Here are two blocks
{
using namespace first;
cout << x << endl;
}
{
using namespace second;
cout << x << endl;
}
return 0;
}
EXAMPLE OUTPUT:
5
3.1416

10. What Are Pointers?
Reference:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cplusplus/cpp_pointers.htm
 C++ pointers are easy and fun to learn.
 Some C++ tasks are performed more easily with
pointers, and
 other C++ tasks, such as dynamic memory allocation,
cannot be performed without them.
As you know every variable is a memory location and every
memory location has its address defined which can be
accessed using
ampersand (&) operator which denotes an address in
memory. Consider the following which will print the address
of the variables defined:#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
int var1;
char var2[10];
cout << "Address of var1 variable: ";
cout << &var1 << endl;
cout << "Address of var2 variable: ";
cout << &var2 << endl;
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces result something as follows:
Address of var1 variable: 0xbfebd5c0
Address of var2 variable: 0xbfebd5b6

11. What Are Pointers?
 A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of
another variable.
 Like any variable or constant, you must declare a
pointer before you can work with it.
 The general form of a pointer variable declaration is:
type *variablename;
Here, type is the pointer's base type; it must be a valid C++ type and
variablename is the name of the pointer variable.
The asterisk you used to declare a pointer is the same asterisk that you use for
multiplication.
However, in this statement the asterisk is being used to designate a variable as
a pointer. Following are the valid pointer declaration:
int *ip; // pointer to an integer
double *dp; // pointer to a double
float *fp; // pointer to a float
char *ch // pointer to character
The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether
integer, float, character, or otherwise, is the same, a long
hexadecimal number that represents a memory address. The
only difference between pointers of different data types is
the data type of the variable or constant that the pointer
points to.

12. There are few important operations Using Pointers in C++:
Which we will do with the pointers very frequently:
(a) We define pointer variables
(b) Assign the address of a variable to a pointer and
(c) Finally access the value at the address available in the pointer variable.
This is done by using unary operator * that returns the value of the variable
located at the address specified by its operand. Following example makes use
of these operations:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
int var = 20; // actual variable declaration.
int *ip; // pointer variable
ip = &var; // store address of var in pointer variable
cout << "Value of var variable: ";
cout << var << endl;
// print the address stored in ip pointer variable
cout << "Address stored in ip variable: ";
cout << ip << endl;
// access the value at the address available in pointer
cout << "Value of *ip variable: ";
cout << *ip << endl;
return 0;
}

13. When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces
result something as follows:
Value of var variable: 20
Address stored in ip variable: 0xbfc601ac
Value of *ip variable: 20
C++ Pointers in Detail:
Pointers have many but easy concepts and they are very
important to C++ programming. There are following
few important pointer concepts which should be clear
to a C++ programmer:
Concept Description
C++ Null Pointers
C++ supports null pointer, which is a
constant with a value of zero defined in
several standard libraries.
C++ pointer arithmetic
There are four arithmetic operators
that can be used on pointers: ++, --, +, -
C++ pointers vs arrays
There is a close relationship between
pointers and arrays. Let us check how?
C++ array of pointers
You can define arrays to hold a number
of pointers.
C++ pointer to pointer
C++ allows you to have pointer on a
pointer and so on.
Passing pointers to
functions
Passing an argument by reference or by
address both enable the passed
argument to be changed in the calling
function by the called function.
Return pointer from
functions
C++ allows a function to return a
pointer to local variable, static variable
and dynamically allocated memory as
well.

14. C++ NULL Pointers
 It is always a good practice to assign the pointer NULL to
a pointer variable in case you do not have exact address
to be assigned.
 This is done at the time of variable declaration. A pointer
that is assigned NULL is called a null pointer.
 The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero
defined in several standard libraries, including iostream.
Consider the following program:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
int *ptr = NULL;
cout << "The value of ptr is " << ptr ;
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it
produces following result:
The value of ptr is 0
To check for a null pointer you can use an if statement as follows:
if(ptr) // succeeds if p is not null
if(!ptr) // succeeds if p is null

15. C++ Pointer Arithmetics
 As you understood pointer is an address which is a
numeric value. Therefore, you can perform arithmetic
operations on a pointer just as you can a numeric value.
 There are four arithmetic operators that can be used on
pointers: ++, --, +, and -
ptr++
 the ptr will point to the location 1004 because each time
ptr is incremented, it will point to the next integer
.
 This operation will move the pointer to next memory
location without impacting actual value at the memory
location.
 If ptr points to a character whose address is 1000, then
above operation will point to the location 1001 because
next character will be available at 1001.

16. Incrementing a Pointer:
 We prefer using a pointer in our program instead of an array
because the variable pointer can be incremented, unlike the
array name which cannot be incremented because it is a
constant pointer.
 The following program increments the variable pointer to
access each succeeding element of the array:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int MAX = 3;
int main ()
{
int var[MAX] = {10, 100, 200};
int *ptr;
// let us have array address in pointer.
ptr = var;
for (int i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
cout << "Address of var[" << i << "] = ";
cout << ptr << endl;
cout << "Value of var[" << i << "] = ";
cout << *ptr << endl;
// point to the next location
ptr++;
}
return 0;
}

17. Pointers and arrays are strongly related.
In fact, pointers and arrays are interchangeable in many cases.
For example, a pointer that points to the beginning of an array
can access that array by using either pointer arithmetic or
array-style indexing. Consider the following program:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int MAX = 3;
int main ()
{
int var[MAX] = {10, 100, 200};
int *ptr;
// let us have array address in pointer.
ptr = var;
for (int i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
cout << "Address of var[" << i << "] = ";
cout << ptr << endl;
cout << "Value of var[" << i << "] = ";
cout << *ptr << endl;
// point to the next location
ptr++;
}
return 0;
}

18. When the above code is compiled and executed, it
produces result something as follows:
Address of var[0] = 0xbfa088b0
Value of var[0] = 10
Address of var[1] = 0xbfa088b4
Value of var[1] = 100
Address of var[2] = 0xbfa088b8
Value of var[2] = 200
MORE EXAMPLES
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int MAX = 3;
int main ()
{
int var[MAX] = {10, 100, 200};
int *ptr[MAX];
for (int i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
ptr[i] = &var[i]; // assign the address of integer.
}
for (int i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
cout << "Value of var[" << i << "] = ";
cout << *ptr[i] << endl;
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following
result:
Value of var[0] = 10
Value of var[1] = 100
Value of var[2] = 200
You can also use an array of pointers to character to store
a list of strings as follows:
#include <iostream>

19. using namespace std;
const int MAX = 4;
int main ()
{
char *names[MAX] = {
"Zara Ali",
"Hina Ali",
"Nuha Ali",
"Sara Ali",
};
for (int i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
cout << "Value of names[" << i << "] = ";
cout << names[i] << endl;
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:
Value of names[0] = Zara Ali
Value of names[1] = Hina Ali
Value of names[2] = Nuha Ali
Value of names[3] = Sara Ali