Conquering Space: Human Challenges of Colonizing Other Worlds

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THE HUMAN CHALLENGES OF CONQUERING SPACE AND COLONIZING
OTHER WORLDS
Fernando Alcoforado*
This article aims to present the human challenges of the conquest of space and the human
colonization of other worlds. These challenges are described below:
1- Production of rockets that reach speeds close to that of light to travel to the limits of
the Universe
2- Production of technologies capable of protecting human beings in space travel
3- Identification of other Earth-like worlds capable of being habitable by humans
4- Enabling human beings to survive in space and in habitable places outside Earth
1- Production of rockets that reach speeds close to that of light to travel to the limits
of the Universe
The first great human challenge is the production of rockets that are capable of reaching
speeds close to the speed of light (300.000 Km/s), given the need to promote intergalactic
travel by human beings to the limits of the Universe and even to parallel universes. This
action is imposed due to the need for human beings to colonize other worlds in the solar
system or outside it and, even in parallel universes, to avoid their extinction with the
occurrence of catastrophic events such as the eruption of volcanoes that could lead to the
extinction of human beings. as has already occurred in the past, the cooling of the Earth's
core with the impairment of the Earth's magnetic field that protects us from threats from
space, the collision of asteroids, comets, planets in the solar system and orphan planets
with planet Earth, the emission of gamma rays by supernova stars that may lead to the
extinction of life on Earth as it has already occurred in the past, the continued distancing
of the Moon from the Earth and its catastrophic consequences on the Earth's climate, the
death of the Sun, the collision between the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies and the
end of the Universe.
Humanity's great scientific and technological challenge is represented by the need to carry
out space and interstellar travel at speeds corresponding to the speed of light (300,000
km/s). At this speed level, it would be possible to reach the Moon in 1.3 s, the Sun in
8min20s, Pluto in 5h21s and it would take 100,000 years to go from end to end in our
galaxy, 163,000 years to go to the nearest galaxy and 93 billion years to traverse the
visible Universe. For that purpose, we would need a spacecraft traveling at an insanely
high speed to reach our neighbors - something close to the speed of light. In addition to
not having rocket technology that develop speeds close to that of light, interstellar travel
would be unfeasible even if we had these rockets because with speed close to that of light
there would be negative consequences for the lives of human beings and the spacecraft
themselves [5].
What would happen to a person's body on a trip at the speed of light? For every cubic
centimeter of interstellar space, scientists believe there are about two atoms of hydrogen.
This scarce gas can harm humans traveling close to the speed of light. Based on Albert
Einstein's theory of relativity, it is believed that hydrogen in interstellar space would be
transformed into intense radiation that could, in seconds, kill the crew/passengers of the
spacecraft and destroy electronic equipment. Since hydrogen atoms have only one proton
in the nucleus, they could expose the spacecraft's crew/passengers to dangerous ionizing

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radiation that would break chemical bonds and damage DNA. The fatal dose of radiation
for humans is 6 Sieverts. The crew of a spacecraft close to the speed of light would receive
the equivalent of 10,000 Sieverts in just one second, which would also weaken the
structure of the spacecraft and damage electronic equipment [5].
The speed of 300,000 km per second would greatly facilitate space exploration. It would
take four years and three months to reach the Alpha Centauri system, the closest planetary
system to Earth. At first, these trips will be made by probes and robots, due to man's
physical and psychological limitations. A journey at that speed to another habitable planet
would take tens of thousands of years. Even if the traveler survived, the psychological
impact of long isolation could drive him insane. This means that manned missions would
still be restricted to our immediate “neighborhood”, that is, the solar system. Einstein
proved that the faster someone moves, the smaller the flow of time for the traveler will
be because there would be a contraction of time. Minutes for a person traveling at the
speed of light can equal years for someone on Earth. If a person travels at the speed of
light and reaches a star that is 150 light years away, the problem is that when he returns
to Earth, more than 300 years will have passed here. This is one of the main dilemmas of
interstellar travel [5].
The space rocket currently used is a machine that moves by expelling a stream of gas at
high speed behind it. Its purpose is to send objects (especially artificial satellites, space
probes and rovers) and/or spacecraft and men into outer space with a speed greater than
40,320 km/h to overcome the Earth's gravitational attraction and reach altitudes greater
than 100 km. above sea level. A rocket consists of a structure, a jet propulsion engine and
a payload. The structure serves to house the fuel and oxidizer tanks and the payload. These
rockets also need to carry an oxidizer to react with the fuel. This mixture of superheated
gases is then expanded into a diverging tube, the Laval Tube, also known as the Bell
Tube, to direct the expanding gas backwards and thus propel the rocket forward [1].
Under current conditions, for every 2 kilograms of people and objects or payload, 130
kilograms of rocket are needed, which restricts the amount of astronauts and material sent
on each flight and exponentially increases the cost of missions. Most current rockets carry
a payload of 1.5% of their full size. By payload we mean people and objects [4].
A new engine under development by two American engineers, however, proposes an
alternative to optimize the amount of oxidants carried by rockets and reduce the cost of
launches. This is the Fernis air-aspiration propulsion system, a technology that combines
characteristics of a conventional rocket engine and a jet engine. There are, however, other
types of rocket engines, such as thermal nuclear engines, which overheat a gas to high
temperatures, using the heat generated by nuclear reactions, especially through the
process of nuclear fission, where nuclear fuel is bombarded with neutrons, leading to the
fission of the nucleus of atoms. That gas is then expanded in the Laval Tube just like in
chemical rockets. This type of rocket was developed and tested in the United States during
the 1960s, but was never used. The gases expelled by this type of rocket can be
radioactive, which discourages its use within the Earth's atmosphere, but can be used
outside it. This type of rocket has the advantage of allowing efficiencies that are much
higher than those of conventional chemical rockets are, since they allow accelerating the
exhaust gases to much higher speeds. Currently, it is Russia that stands out in the
development of thermal nuclear engines [1] [2] [3].
NASA's space shuttles were the first reusable space vehicles in history. They replaced the
gigantic Apollo rockets and, for 30 years, were the most sophisticated man-made
spacecraft. The orbiter vehicle (OV) looked like an airplane, it had wings, tail, landing

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gear and 3 powerful RS-25 engines. With 37 meters in length and 18 meters in wingspan,
it weighed 78 tons and was capable of carrying 7 astronauts and up to 27.5 tons of cargo
(for low orbit). To get it all off the ground and into orbit, the space shuttle had a gigantic
external fuel tank with 760 tons of liquid hydrogen and oxygen, and two auxiliary rockets
with 500 tons of solid fuel each. It was launched vertically, like a conventional rocket.
The space shuttle's 3 engines and two auxiliary rockets operated together to overcome the
first kilometers of atmosphere. After the initial boost, the booster rockets were ejected
and parachuted into the ocean to be rescued and reused. Shortly afterwards, the external
tank was also ejected, but it was not reused, as it burned on atmospheric re-entry. After
carrying out its missions in orbit, the space shuttle returned to Earth in spectacular
fashion. The space shuttle had two additional thrusters at the back of the vehicle. With
the ship turned in the opposite direction of displacement, these thrusters were activated
to reduce its orbital speed and force re-entry into the atmosphere. The vehicle was then
repositioned at a specific angle (40°) in order to generate the necessary drag to brake it.
A heat shield, at the bottom of the structure, protected the craft from the heat of re-entry,
which could reach nearly 2,000 degrees. After the critical phase, the space shuttle glided
like an airplane, making zigzag maneuvers to further reduce its speed until the moment
of soft landing on one of NASA's airstrips. During most of the process, the astronauts on
board were just passengers. The on-board computer controlled the entire process
automatically. Only at the last moment of landing did the pilot take action to land the
spacecraft [8].
In all, NASA has developed 6 space shuttles: Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger,
Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavor. Enterprise was used only for testing and did not reach
Earth orbit. The others completed nearly 32,000 hours of missions and took 355
astronauts from 16 countries into space. During the time they were in operation, between
1981 and 2011, the space shuttles performed 135 missions. They put the Hubble
Telescope into orbit, participated in the construction and maintenance of the International
Space Station, launched numerous satellites, and conducted scientific experiments in
Earth orbit. But, unfortunately, two of these missions did not end successfully. An
accident on Challenger's launch in 1986, and another on Columbia's reentry in 2003,
claimed the lives of 14 people and put NASA's space shuttle program in jeopardy. It had
become the deadliest space program in history. Eight years later, on July 21, 2011,
Atlantis soared into the American sky and landed at the John Kennedy Space Center for
the last time. It was the end of the glorious era of the space shuttle. With the retirement
of the Space Shuttle, NASA decided to outsource its launches. That opened up a market
for private companies like SpaceX, Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin [8].
A revolutionary engine that could advance astronautical technology is the Scramjet
engine that is capable of hypersonic speeds of up to 15 times the speed of sound. NASA
successfully tested such an engine in 2004. Another possible advance in rocket engine
technology is the use of nuclear propulsion, in which a nuclear reactor heats a gas,
producing a jet that is used to produce thrust. Another idea is to build a sail-shaped rocket
that would be accelerated by the solar wind that would allow greater speed and travel
greater distances. The European Space Agency (ESA) decided to bet on a technology that
has been dreamed of since the beginning of space exploration. It is a spacecraft capable
of taking off from an airport, like an ordinary plane, becoming a traditional rocket as soon
as it overcomes the limits of the denser atmosphere and enters orbit. The concept
spacecraft was named Skylon, and the hybrid engine that will equip it is called Saber,
which is an unprecedented hybrid engine capable of "breathing" air while in the
atmosphere, like a jet engine, becoming a rocket when reaches the space [1] [2] [3].

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For humans to carry out long-distance space missions, it is necessary to find more
advanced forms of rocket propulsion to reach distances of hundreds or thousands of light-
years, given that, according to scientists, current chemical rockets are limited by their
maximum speed of the exhaust gases. Other alternatives proposed by scientists would
consist of the use of nuclear thermal propulsion, of a solar/ion engine as a new form of
rocket propulsion, as well as the creation of a fusion reactor in which a rocket extracts
hydrogen from interstellar space and liquefies it . NASA wants to test a nuclear-powered
rocket by 2027. Advanced nuclear thermal propulsion technology will allow the
spacecraft to be faster, have a shorter travel time, and will also enable more agile cargo
delivery to a new lunar base and robotic missions even more distant. With the help of this
technology, astronauts will be able to travel to and from deep space faster than ever
before. The new propulsion has the potential to enable manned missions to Mars.
According to NASA, a thermal rocket powered by nuclear energy can be three to four
times more efficient than conventional ones and reduce the travel time to the red planet,
that is, from 8 months to 2 months [4].
Ion engine took a ship to the edge of the Solar System. The probe is the first space
exploration mission to use an ion engine instead of conventional thrusters, powered by
chemical reactions. The ion propulsion system will be adopted in the next generation of
NASA spacecraft. The thruster uses electrical energy to create magnetically charged fuel
particles, usually in the form of xenon gas, and accelerates these particles to extremely
high speeds. Whether energy from the Sun or from the atom, it would be used to ionize
(or positively charge) an inert gas such as xenon or krypton. The accelerated ions would
be pushed out of the thruster, propelling the spacecraft forward. If at first the spacecraft
would advance slowly, over time the acceleration would be gradual and inexorable,
reaching a speed close to that of light, making it possible for a human being to reach
nearby stars, such as Alpha Centauri, 4.3 light years away [4] .
Bussard propulsion is another method of propulsion for spacecraft that could accelerate
to close to the speed of light, and would be a very efficient type of craft. The most obvious
fuel source, which was proposed by Bussard, is hydrogen fusion, as hydrogen is believed
to be the most common component element of interstellar gas. An electromagnetic field
could attract positive ions from the interstellar medium and force them into the ramjet
engine. Superfast space travel close to the speed of light would, however, be fatal for
humans according to a publication by Edelstein and Edelstein in Natural Science which
reports that the hydrogen in any aircraft capable of traveling at the speed of light would
also prevent it from making the trip to that speed because, as the ship's speed approached
the speed of light, interstellar hydrogen H would transform into intense radiation that
would quickly kill passengers and destroy electronic instruments. Furthermore, the loss
of energy from the ionizing radiation passing through the outside of the spacecraft would
represent an increasing increase in heat that would require large energy dumps to cool the
spacecraft. Even if it is possible to create a ship capable of traveling at speeds close to the
speed of light, it would not be able to transport people. There is a natural speed limit
imposed by safe levels of radiation due to hydrogen, which means that humans cannot
travel at more than half the speed of light unless they want a quick, immediate death [4].
The theory of general relativity places severe restrictions on interstellar travel. One of
them is the most obvious: nothing can be accelerated to speeds above the speed of light,
which is about 300,000 km/s. Even if we could travel at that speed, it would still take us
a long time to reach other stars and their respective planetary systems. The theory of
general relativity opened up new fields of science and allowed for ideas such as creating
a warp drive to travel to any corner of the universe. The concept of space warp is not new.

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It is a kind of engine that allows the spacecraft to travel faster than the speed of light. It
is a technology that would create a “bubble” in space-time. This bubble could create a
kind of bridge between two points in space. Travel to destinations located light-years
away from Earth will still remain out of our reach, but a space warp technology, if it ever
exists, could be the solution to realize interstellar travel [5].
2- Production of technologies capable of protecting human beings in space travel
The second major human challenge is the production of technologies capable of
protecting human beings in space travel. NASA is developing technologies to protect
humans on Mars, as well as powerful propulsion systems to get them to Mars and back
to Earth faster. These technologies to protect humans on Mars are as follows: 1) Inflatable
heat shield for landing astronauts on other planets. The largest rover to land on Mars is
the size of a car, and sending humans to Mars will require a much larger spacecraft. New
technologies will allow heavier spacecraft to enter the Martian atmosphere, get closer to
the surface and land close to where astronauts want to explore; 2) High-tech Martian
spacesuits. Spacesuits are essentially customized spaceships for astronauts. NASA's latest
spacesuit is so high-tech that its modular design is designed to be evolved for use
anywhere in space; 3) Martian house and laboratory on wheels. To reduce the number of
items needed to land on the surface of Mars, NASA will combine the first Martian home
and rover into a single rover complete with breathable air; 4) Uninterrupted power. Just
as we use electricity to charge our devices on Earth, astronauts will need a reliable power
supply to explore Mars. The system will need to be lightweight and able to function
regardless of its location or the climate on the Red Planet; and, 5) Laser communications
to send more information back to Earth. Human missions to Mars can use lasers to stay
in contact with Earth. A laser communication system on Mars could send massive
amounts of information and data in real time, including high-definition imagery and video
feeds. These technologies can mean the beginning of a process of development of new
technologies for the protection of human beings in space travel [4].
These technologies are not enough to protect humans in space travel to Mars and other
parts of the Universe. Astronauts will face three types of gravity fields during a mission
to Mars. The first six months of travel between Earth and Mars will be in zero gravity.
On the Martian surface, gravity will be approximately one-third of that experienced on
Earth. This transition in the acceleration of gravity affects spatial orientation, motor and
visual coordination and compromises the bone and muscle structure of space travelers.
Without gravity, the heart starts to work more slowly and bones lose minerals at a much
faster rate than on Earth -1% per month in space versus 1% per year on Earth. In addition,
due to the lack of gravity, body fluids tend to be "pushed" to the head. With increased
pressure, vision problems can be common. Dehydration and altered calcium
concentration can also increase the risk of kidney stones [6].
Although psychological pressures, distance from home and stressful work are considered
the main villains in changing the behavior of astronauts, research also indicates that some
skills, such as attention, physical coordination and ability to solve problems, are
compromised in space by issues directly linked to the behavior of the brain in space. For
the specialist in psychology and neuroscience Vaughan Bell, from University College
London and columnist for the English newspaper "The Guardian", one of the possibilities
for this slowness is that our blood supply evolved to function in the gravity suffered on
Earth. Thus, in space travel, with zero gravity, the efficiency with which oxygen is
delivered to the brain is affected. Research carried out by the Laboratory of
Neuropsychology and Biomechanics of Movement, at the Free University of Brussels

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observed something similar: the brain seems to work differently when it is in orbit. The
fall in the astronauts' mental capacity is not serious, but it exists, according to the data
[6].
According to NASA, microbes can change their characteristics in space, and
microorganisms that naturally live on your body are more easily transferred from person
to person in indoor environments like space stations. With hormone levels elevated due
to stress, astronauts' immunity drops and there is a greater propensity for allergies and
other illnesses. Finally, one of the most dangerous aspects of traveling to Mars is space
radiation. Only inside the space stations, astronauts are exposed to ten times more
radiation than on Earth, since here, the magnetic field and the atmosphere protect us.
Radiation exposure can increase the risk of cancer, damage the central nervous system,
cause nausea, vomiting and fatigue. Furthermore, it can cause degenerative diseases such
as cataracts, heart and circulatory problems. Human beings traveling to Mars as well as
traveling to the ends of the Universe need to be protected from all the threats described
[6].
3 - Identification of other Earth-like worlds capable of being habitable by humans
The third great human challenge is to identify other Earth-like worlds capable of being
habitable by human beings, designing and sending space probes to carry out research in
possible locations inside and outside the solar system. So far there is no evidence that
there is another place inside or outside the solar system conducive to Earth-like life.
Currently, there are efforts to colonize the planet Mars. However, from what is known
about Mars, this planet does not present the necessary conditions for human beings to
inhabit it because it does not have a magnetic field or atmosphere and biosphere similar
to those of Earth, as well as an average gravitational acceleration of about 38% at of Earth
harmful to human life. There is no evidence on Mars of having a structured global
magnetic field similar to Earth's that protects us from cosmic rays and solar winds and
this absence may have been largely responsible for the loss of the Martian atmosphere.
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, but has locally induced magnetism spots.
Mars does not have a global magnetic field to guide charged particles entering the
atmosphere, but it does have multiple umbrella-shaped magnetic fields, mostly in the
southern hemisphere, that are remnants of a global magnetic field that decayed billions
of years ago. Compared to Earth, Mars' atmosphere is very thin. Martian soil is slightly
alkaline and contains elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chlorine that
are nutrients found on Earth and necessary for plant growth [4].
Surface temperatures on Mars range from −143 °C (in winter on the polar ice caps) to
maximums of +35 °C (in equatorial summer). Mars has the biggest dust storms in the
Solar System. These can range from a storm over a small area to massive storms covering
the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun as its global
temperature increases. It is also known that liquid water cannot exist on the surface of
Mars due to the low atmospheric pressure, which is about 100 times weaker than that of
Earth. The two Martian ice caps appear to be made largely of water. The volume of water
frozen in the south polar ice sheet, if melted, would be enough to cover the entire surface
of the planet to a depth of 11 meters. There was the detection of the mineral jarosite
(hydrated sulfate of iron and potassium formed by the oxidation of iron sulfides), which
forms only in the presence of acidic water, demonstrating that water once existed on Mars.
The loss of water from Mars to space results from the transport of water into the upper
atmosphere, where it is dissociated to hydrogen and escapes the planet due to its weak
gravity. Mars has Earth-like seasons due to the similar inclinations of the two planets'

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rotation axes. The lengths of Martian seasons are about twice as long as those on Earth,
as Mars is farther away from the Sun, which makes the Martian year about two Earth
years long. The attempt to colonize the planet Mars may mean the beginning of the
process of developing space colonies for use by humans outside Earth [4].
4- Enabling human beings to survive in space travel and in habitable places outside
Earth
The fourth great human challenge is that of enabling human beings to survive in space
and in habitable places outside the Earth. In item 1 (Production of rockets that reach
speeds close to that of light to travel through the ends of the Universe) it was evidenced
that, even if it is possible to create a ship capable of traveling at speeds close to that of
light, it would not be able to transport people because there is a natural speed limit
imposed by safe levels of radiation due to hydrogen which means that human beings
cannot travel more than half the speed of light because there would be a quick, immediate
death. In item 2 (Production of technologies capable of protecting human beings in space
travel) it was evidenced that astronauts will face three types of gravity fields during a
mission to Mars. The first six months of travel between planets Earth and Mars will be
zero gravity, and on Mars the gravity will be approximately one third of that experienced
on Earth which seriously affect the health of space travelers. One of the most dangerous
aspects of traveling to Mars is space radiation because on space stations, astronauts are
exposed to ten times more radiation than on Earth, since over here, the magnetic field and
atmosphere protect us. Radiation exposure can increase the risk of cancer, damage the
central nervous system, cause nausea, vomiting and fatigue. Furthermore, it can cause
degenerative diseases such as cataracts, heart and circulatory problems.
According to NASA, sending humans on missions to Mars by 2030 faces major
challenges. The first challenge would be the difficulty for humans to stay on the surface
of Mars due to the almost non-existent atmosphere on Mars which, as a result of cosmic
radiation and solar wind, would be unprotected and could develop cancer. An alternative
would be for humans to stay underground on Mars. The second challenge is that the
geology of Mars makes it difficult to plant the plant species necessary for human survival.
The third challenge to human life on Mars is that there is too much fine dust from frequent
dust storms. Those who live underground on Mars have to go to the surface to clean the
dust on the rovers from time to time, because sandstorms prevent the batteries from being
recharged using solar energy. In addition, this dust, due to its extremely fine thickness,
easily infiltrates space suits and can affect the lives of astronauts. The fourth challenge to
human life on Mars is represented by the fact that the trip to this planet still takes about
eight months, which implies a large amount of fuel, food and support material for the
mission teams, unlike the Moon, for example. , which only takes 3 days. The fifth
challenge requires astronauts to be meticulously tested and chosen to withstand the
physical and social challenges that this trip entails. Finally, the sixth challenge results
from the fact that Mars always has a negative temperature that would require thinking
about creating a human genome capable of making human beings capable of withstanding
extreme conditions and surviving on Mars. There are no organic organisms on the surface
of Mars, but there may be in the subsoil and there is no guarantee that they will not
compete with the organisms that can be sent there from Earth [4].
The fact that there is no life on Mars demonstrates that the conditions for human beings
to survive there are not yet met. Mars 2030 still seems a distant reality and before thinking
about living there, we have to know more about this planet. The colonization of Mars and
other worlds in the Universe indicates that there is an extreme need to create more

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biologically evolved human beings with the use of science and technology to make them
challenge the limits imposed by nature and survive as a species today and in the future. It
is necessary to make the formation of supermen and superwomen occur, which can be
achieved from the use of science and technology (biotechnology, nanotechnology and
neurotechnology) to increase the cognitive capacity and overcome the physical and
psychological limitations of human beings. This situation can be achieved through
transhumanism, which is a philosophy that proposes to eradicate in any way the suffering
caused by disease, aging or even death of human beings, as well as to reach the maximum
potential in terms of human development [7].
With transhumanism what is sought is to make human beings capable of transforming
themselves with the use of science and technology to acquire abilities so greatly expanded
from the natural condition, in order to deserve the post-human label, leaving in the
background biological evolution. The idea of increasing the capacity of the human body
through science and technology is as old as humanity itself. From the moment that human
beings created tools and learned to use fire and promoted scientific and technological
advances over time, humanity has gone beyond its biological limitations. Evolution gave
humanity the most sophisticated intelligence of any animal on the planet that enabled
human beings to use it to, with the knowledge of science and technology acquired,
overcome their biological limitations. As an example of the use of science and technology
in this direction, we have the genetic manipulation of the human species that is possible
with the creation in the laboratory of new genes that can modify the genetic code to be
able, for example, to block the replication of viruses, making our cells immune to attack
[7].
Another example of the use of science and technology to overcome the biological
limitations of human beings is the use of artificial intelligence linked to computing that
can transfer the content of our mind (with memories of the past and traits of our
personality) to a hard disk, method known as mind uploading. As computing technologies
advance alongside biotechnology, there is a growing convergence between the two in the
form of neural interfaces that in the future may open the door to connecting the human
mind directly to an Artificial Intelligence in order to facilitate greater learning, mental
transfer and overcome neurological conditions. This is the idea of transhumanism, a
theory that believes that the use of science and technology can not only overcome the
biological limitations of the human species, but also help to create a new category of
evolved human beings even with the conquest of immortality [7].
In the contemporary era, there is a belief that it is possible to defeat death with the use of
science and technology. The belief that, if it is not possible to defeat death, it would be
possible to prolong life is based on the fact that man's life expectancy evolved from 30
years in 1500, 37 years in 1800, 45 years in 1900, 46.5 years in 1950 and 80 years in
2012. The achievement of a longer existence in the 20th century resulted from the
improvement of sanitary conditions in cities and the creation of public health services. In
addition, science discovered vaccines and antibiotics that made it possible to prevent
diseases and control epidemics. The increase in the educational level and income also
contributed to improve the quality of life and further increase longevity in the third or –
perhaps we can say – fourth age. The year 2045 will mark the beginning of an era in
which medicine will be able to offer humanity the possibility of living for a time never
seen in history. Organs that are not working can be exchanged for other, better ones,
created especially for us. Parts of the heart, lungs and even the brain could be replaced.
Tiny computer circuits will be implanted in the body to control chemical reactions that
take place inside cells. We will be just a few steps away from immortality. This is the

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prediction of a group of scientists known for being at the forefront of research that
permeates topics such as computer science, biology and biotechnology. Among them are
George Church, a professor at Harvard University, in the United States, Aubrey de Gray,
a gerontologist and biomedical specialist in anti-aging, and engineer Raymond Kurzweil,
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). They are the leaders of a kind of
new philosophy, called the Singularity [7].
In medicine, the heralds of immortality claim that it is nothing more than a real
consequence of an ongoing revolution that is already triggering the increase in human life
expectancy at unprecedented speed. Considering the speed of innovations, a person born
in 2050 will have a 95% chance of living a thousand years, according to Aubrey de Grey.
At this time, the aforementioned group of scientists is involved in the growth of the
Singularity University, already installed in Silicon Valley, in the United States. The
certainty of this group of researchers in the success of their research is supported by the
advances already obtained and those that will certainly come. In the opinion of these
researchers, based on the resources we currently have, a child born today could live at
least until he is 150 years old. One of the fields in which advances have been most notable
is stem cells. In the field of cardiology, experiments with 16 patients with heart failure,
all of whom had.
With transhumanism what is sought is to make human beings capable of transforming
themselves with the use of science and technology to acquire abilities so greatly expanded
from the natural condition, in order to deserve the post-human label, leaving in the
background biological evolution. The idea of increasing the capacity of the human body
through science and technology is as old as humanity itself. From the moment that human
beings created tools and learned to use fire and promoted scientific and technological
advances over time, humanity has gone beyond its biological limitations. Evolution gave
humanity the most sophisticated intelligence of any animal on the planet that enabled
human beings to use it to, with the knowledge of science and technology acquired,
overcome their biological limitations. As an example of the use of science and technology
in this direction, we have the genetic manipulation of the human species that is possible
with the creation in the laboratory of new genes that can modify the genetic code to be
able, for example, to block the replication of viruses, making our cells immune to attack
[7].
Another example of the use of science and technology to overcome the biological
limitations of human beings is the use of artificial intelligence linked to computing that
can transfer the content of our mind (with memories of the past and traits of our
personality) to a hard disk, method known as mind uploading. As computing technologies
advance alongside biotechnology, there is a growing convergence between the two in the
form of neural interfaces that in the future may open the door to connecting the human
mind directly to an Artificial Intelligence in order to facilitate greater learning, mental
transfer and overcome neurological conditions. This is the idea of transhumanism, a
theory that believes that the use of science and technology can not only overcome the
biological limitations of the human species, but also help to create a new category of
evolved human beings even with the conquest of immortality [7].
In the contemporary era, there is a belief that it is possible to defeat death with the use of
science and technology. The belief that, if it is not possible to defeat death, it would be
possible to prolong life is based on the fact that man's life expectancy evolved from 30
years in 1500, 37 years in 1800, 45 years in 1900, 46.5 years in 1950 and 80 years in
2012. The achievement of a longer existence in the 20th century resulted from the

10
improvement of sanitary conditions in cities and the creation of public health services. In
addition, science discovered vaccines and antibiotics that made it possible to prevent
diseases and control epidemics. The increase in the educational level and income also
contributed to improve the quality of life and further increase longevity in the third or –
perhaps we can say – fourth age. The year 2045 will mark the beginning of an era in
which medicine will be able to offer humanity the possibility of living for a time never
seen in history. Organs that are not working can be exchanged for other, better ones,
created especially for us. Parts of the heart, lungs and even the brain could be replaced.
Tiny computer circuits will be implanted in the body to control chemical reactions that
take place inside cells. We will be just a few steps away from immortality. This is the
prediction of a group of scientists known for being at the forefront of research that
permeates topics such as computer science, biology and biotechnology. Among them are
George Church, a professor at Harvard University, in the United States, Aubrey de Gray,
a gerontologist and biomedical specialist in anti-aging, and engineer Raymond Kurzweil,
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). They are the leaders of a kind of
new philosophy, called the Singularity [7].
In medicine, the heralds of immortality claim that it is nothing more than a real
consequence of an ongoing revolution that is already triggering the increase in human life
expectancy at unprecedented speed. Considering the speed of innovations, a person born
in 2050 will have a 95% chance of living a thousand years, according to Aubrey de Grey.
At this time, the aforementioned group of scientists is involved in the growth of the
Singularity University, already installed in Silicon Valley, in the United States. The
certainty of this group of researchers in the success of their research is supported by the
advances already obtained and those that will certainly come. In the opinion of these
researchers, based on the resources we currently have, a child born today could live at
least until he is 150 years old. One of the fields in which advances have been most notable
is stem cells. In the field of cardiology, experiments with 16 patients with heart failure,
all of whom had part of the heart tissue regenerated with stem cells taken from the organ
itself. The replacement of diseased organs by healthy ones is another of the reasons given
by scientists to justify the belief in a spectacularly long life. A trachea, bladder, urethra
and blood vessels have already been created and implanted in human beings. And there
are experiences with the implantation of more organs, including the heart and the liver
[7].
Transhumanism must contribute, not only in the sense of eradicating any form of
suffering caused by disease, aging or even death, but, above all, achieving the maximum
potential in terms of human development for humanity to survive by carrying out space
travel in search of their survival as a species in the Universe in which we live.
Transhumanism associated with artificial superintelligence are the resources that would
enable humanity to achieve this goal. Humanity needs to be prepared to acquire sufficient
biological capacity with the use of scientific and technological resources to live outside
the Earth and carry out space travel within the solar system, to reach another habitable
planet outside the solar system and, also, to seek a way out of a parallel universe before
the end of our Universe occurs. The ability of human beings to defy the limits imposed
by nature is absolutely necessary to ensure our survival as a species today and in the
future. Both immediate and future threats will not be successfully faced without the
advancement of science and technology, which is the passport for the survival of
humanity [7].
REFERENCES

11
1. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A escalada da ciência e da tecnologia ao longo da
história e sua contribuição ao progresso e à sobrevivência da humanidade. Curitiba:
Editora CRV, 2022.
2. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. How to protect human beings from threats to their
existence and avoid the extinction of humanity. Chișinău: Generis Publishing, 2023.
3. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua
sobrevivência. São Paulo: Editora Dialética, 2021.
4. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Rumo à colonização humana de outros mundos.
Available on the website
<https://www.academia.edu/101560183/RUMO_%C3%80_COLONIZA%C3%87%C3
%83O_HUMANA_DE_OUTROS_MUNDOS>.
5. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Os cinco grandes desafios humanos para realizarem
viagens espaciais e interestelares. Available on the website
<https://www.academia.edu/53287851/OS_CINCO_GRANDES_DESAFIOS_HUMA
NOS_PARA_REALIZAREM_VIAGENS_ESPACIAIS_E_INTERESTELARES>.
6. BAIO, Cintia. Clique Ciência: O que acontece com o corpo de quem for para
Marte. Available on the website <https://www.uol.com.br/tilt/ultimas-
noticias/redacao/2017/06/13/clique-ciencia-que-mudancas-podem-ocorrer-no-corpo-de-
quem-for-a-marte.htm>.
7. ALCOFORADO, Fernando. Mundo rumo à singularidade humana. Disponível no
website
<https://www.academia.edu/43517794/MUNDO_RUMO_%C3%80_SINGULARIDA
DE_HUMANA>.
8. LUCENA, André. Há 10 anos se encerrava a gloriosa era dos ônibus espaciais.
Disponível no website <https://olhardigital.com.br/2021/07/26/colunistas/ha-10-anos-se-
encerrava-a-gloriosa-era-dos-onibus-espaciais/>.

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