PREVENTING PUBLIC TRANSPORT CRIME IN EL SALVADOR

PREVENTING PUBLIC TRANSPORT CRIME IN EL
SALVADOR

SALVADOR
June 2015
SolucionES Project
Cooperation Agreement No. AID-519-A-12-00003
Document prepared by:
Mangai Natarajan (John Jay College of Criminal Justice, The City University of New York), Ronald
Clarke (Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey), Carlos Ponce (National consultant), Carlos
Carcach (ESEN), Margarita Beneke de Sanfeliú, Dolores Polanco, Mario Chávez and Mauricio Shi,
(Center for Research and Statistics, FUSADES)
(503) 2248-5724
www.fusades.org
DISCLAIMER
This publication was possible thanks to the support of the people of the United States of America through the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The views and opinions expressed in this
document are the author's and do not necessarily reflect those of USAID or the Government of the United
States.
This study had the support of Escuela Superior de Economía y Negocios, ESEN.

CONTENT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... i
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Public transport in El Salvador .................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Crime in El Salvador................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Crime in the bus system............................................................................................................ 3
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Research objective .................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Research questions ................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Research activities..................................................................................................................... 5
3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................... 5
3.1 Theoretical framework.............................................................................................................. 6
3.2 Advantages of the focus on crime opportunity theory............................................................. 6
4. SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN SAN SALVADOR AND ADJACENT
METROPOLITAN AREAS....................................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Purpose ..................................................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Methodology............................................................................................................................. 8
4.3 Summary of findings ................................................................................................................. 9
5. FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS WITH STALKEHOLDERS.................................................................... 10
5.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Methodology........................................................................................................................... 10
5.3 Main sources of disorder ........................................................................................................ 11
5.4 Main forms of crime................................................................................................................ 15
5.5 Preventive suggestions suggested by focus groups participants............................................ 17
6. TRANSPORT CRIME: A REVIEW OF THE INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE......................................... 18
6.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 Methodology........................................................................................................................... 18
6.3 General findings ...................................................................................................................... 19
7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PREVENTING CRIME, DISORDER AND FEAR ON EL SALVADOR’S BUS
SYSTEM.............................................................................................................................................. 20
8. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 25
9. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 26
APPENDIX: PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN EL SALVADOR............................................................................. 34

ACRONYMS
AEAS Salvadoran Bus Owners Association
AETMISAL Association of Salvadoran Transportation Minibuses
ANEP Private Sector National Association
ATP Association of Public Passenger Transport
CASIT Salvadoran Chamber of Shipping Industry
CIE Center for Research and Statistic/FUSADES
COTRANS Special Contribution for the Stabilization of Prices for Public Transport Service of
Passengers
CTT Tecleña Chamber of Transportation
ESEN Escuela Superior de Economía y Negocios
FASEMI Federation of Employers of minibuses
FECOATRANS Federation of Transport Unions
FEPADE Business Foundation for Educational Development
FUNDE National Foundation for Development
FUSADES Salvadoran Foundation for Economic and Social Development
FUSAL Salvadoran Foundation for Health and Human Development
IML Institute of Legal Medicine
IUDOP University Institute of Public Opinion
MOP Ministry of Public Works
OSAC Overseas Security Advisory Council
PNC National Civil Police
RAM Rapid Assessment Methodologies
SITRAMSS Integrated Transport System in the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VMT Vice-ministry of Transport

i
PREVENTING PUBLIC TRANSPORT CRIME IN EL SALVADOR
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The main goal of this study is to gain a sufficient understanding of transport crime in El Salvador in order
to identify preventive solutions that can potentially enhance users’ safety and perception of safety within
the system. Even though victims of these crimes can be the transport system itself or its users, this work
focuses on the crimes and incivilities committed against users.
Public transport crime in El Salvador is a serious problem; however, international literature on preventing
public transport crime suggests that it could be greatly reduced by a thorough application of situational
crime prevention methods. This approach articulates a broad range of specific measures that make crime
more difficult, riskier, less rewarding, less tempting, and less socially acceptable. The practical advantage
of this approach is that, while the authorities responsible for the transport system have almost no scope
for altering predisposing factors, they can powerfully influence the situational factors that promote
crime. These situational factors are also much easier to alter than predisposing factors, and the changes
made, unlike those made to alter predispositions, can achieve immediate results.
Due to the lack of official systematic statistics about crime committed in the transport system, this study
uses Rapid Assessment Methodologies (RAM) to obtain the data needed to assist decision-making about
appropriate interventions. RAM provides a balance between approaches that are methodologically and
logistically feasible and helps identify populations, places, and high-risk sectors, that need to be
intervened to obtain greater benefits. Specifically, we undertook: a) a systematic observation of public
transport in San Salvador and adjacent metropolitan areas; and b) focus groups discussions with stake-
holders (users, drivers, owners, and police officers). The results of these exercises were interpreted
based on the review of international literature on crime prevention in public transport, in order to draw
lessons for El Salvador. In addition, a significant amount of data was gathered through meetings with key
stakeholders and a comprehensive review of the relevant legal framework.
Key findings show that the public transport system is perceived as chaotic and one that promotes great
competition for users. The main sources of disorder are related to the concession system, poor condition
of units, chaotic conditions of bus stops, the lack of enforcement of laws and regulations, inadequate
supervision by authorities, inappropriate behavior of drivers and, in some cases, the users themselves.
A series of crimes that occur on buses and at bus stops, committed by a variety of actors, were identified.
Among the most common crimes reported are: sexual harassment against women, thefts and robberies,
extortion to bus owners, and collusion between operators and criminals.
Public transport crime is a very serious problem, but it could be substantially reduced through a sustained
effort based on situational crime prevention. Specifically, two sets of preventive measures are required:
First, general measures related to the operations of the bus system as a whole, which will help to create
a more orderly and secure transport environment, which can be implemented immediately. For example:

ii
a) Change the prevailing perception of chaos and disorder to improve the perception of safety
through restructuring the public transport system; revising and amending route concession policies,
procedures, and regulations; and enhancing laws and regulations related to bus units, bus stops,
routes, and terminals, to project an image of formality and cohesiveness.
b) Transform Salvadoran public transportation into a law-abiding system by: enhancing the
Salvadoran state’s capabilities of enforcing laws and regulations within the public transportation
system, conducting background checks on all applicants to become operators, enhancing the
perceived level of surveillance and guardianship, redesigning and regulating boarding and exiting
procedures at terminals and bus stops, discouraging unacceptable behaviors and stimulating
expected behaviors, among others.
c) Reduce fear among public transport users by: installing an electronic system to provide real-time
information about waiting times for passengers at bus stops; designating “female-only” buses on
crowded bus routes; removing and prohibiting in buses decals, signs, and other images with sexually
explicit or vulgar content; implementing measures to increase natural surveillance; etc.
Second, measures designed to reduce opportunities for specific crimes occurring on buses or bus stops;
for this purpose detailed data is required about the number crimes committed in the transport system,
who are the perpetrators, what weapons they use, the typical methods or modus operandi. However
detailed data of this kind is not presently available in El Salvador. Therefore, the recommendation is to:
a) Enhance El Salvador's capabilities to monitor, research, and evaluate crime and security within
public transportation, through the creation of a Research and Planning Unit, responsible for
conducting annual user surveys to determine the magnitude and particularities of crimes; and
continuous assessments of the likely value and impact of preventive measures implemented.
The introduction of these recommendations require a considerable effort and the participation of the
government, private sector; and the society. They require a considerable investment as well; however,
rewards will be substantial. Not only would crime in the public transport system be reduced, but the
evidence suggests that this will result in a diffusion of benefits for the country.

1
SALVADOR
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, insecurity, violence, and crime have become a major problem in El Salvador and a
constraint to development and economic growth. Moreover, the available evidence confirms the
existence of a very serious problem in the public transport system.
Crimes committed in public transportation environments, such as inside buses or at bus stops or
terminals, include a wide assortment of offenses, which can be grouped according to the characteristics
of the targeted victims and the type of rewards sought by the offenders (Clarke & Smith, 2000). The
objectives of these crimes may be the transport system itself (through fare evasion, vandalism, theft /
robbery of parts and gasoline, extortion, murder, and other forms of violence against the owners and
employees, etc.); or its users (as in robbery; theft,; assaults, whether physical, sexual or otherwise; etc.).
Even though the problem is widespread and affects different actors, this paper focus on crimes and
antisocial behaviors against users of the public transportation system.
Crime related to public transport contributes to form negative perceptions regarding security in general
(Ferraro, 2007; Villalta, 2011). Some 68% of Salvadorans reported feeling somewhat unsafe or totally
unsafe on public transport (IUDOP, 2013). Considering that a significant part of society uses public
transport, crime and fear of crime in that environment influence the deterioration in quality of life and
welfare of citizens. Therefore, reducing the number of crimes committed in public transport has the
potential to have a large impact on the country, through the dissemination of its benefits at the national
level.
Currently, official statistics that provide data collected systematically on different crimes committed in
public transport are limited. This study was designed to gain sufficient understanding of this issue in order
to identify practical solutions to increase the perception of safety as well as contribute to the prevention
of crime, disorder and fear of crime that users are exposed while using public transport.
For this document, three activities were undertaken: a direct observational study of the public transport
system; focus group interviews with passengers, bus drivers, police, and owners of bus companies; and
an extensive review of the international literature on measures that have succeeded in reducing crime on
buses, at bus stops and in terminals. The study used the theoretical framework of the situational crime
prevention approach.

2
This report is structured in eight chapters including an introduction to aspects of the public transport
system in El Salvador and the crimes that occur in it. In chapters two and three, we present the objectives
of the study and the theoretical background that guides this research, respectively. Chapters four and five
present the main findings of the systematic observation at different bus routes and focus group interviews
with key stakeholders. The next chapter gives a brief description of the international experiences in
preventing crime on public transport. Finally, the last two sections of the report consist of a summary of
the main recommendations to prevent crime, disorder, and fear in public transport and some general
conclusions.
1.1 Public transport in El Salvador
Public transport is essential to the vitality and economic well-being of today’s world. In many countries
public transport system provides the principal means for the population, especially the less affluent, to
travel to work, for recreation, for shopping and for gaining access to the many services and facilities of
everyday life. According to the Vice Ministry of Transport (VMT), around 80% of citizens use the public
transport system.
In El Salvador public transport operates under a concession arrangement, where the State is the owner of
routes but these are operated entirely by buses owned by private bus companies; these bus companies
are authorized by the Vice-Ministry of Transport (VMT) to provide service on specific routes. The VMT is
under the Ministry of Public Works and is charged with guiding, coordinating and regulating transport
policies. Public transport system is regulated by a series of legal instruments, in particular: Law of Land
Transport, Traffic, and Road Safety (1995); General Regulations of Land Transport (RGTT) (2002); and the
Law on Procurement Public Administration (2000).
Annex 1 presents a compilation of laws and regulations governing the Salvadoran public transport system;
articles related to the main findings of this study are included.
Two kinds of buses provide service: a) 7,403 “buses” serving 935 routes and, b) 4,099 “microbuses”, i.e.,
vehicles up to 20 passengers, serving 274 routes (VMT, 2013). Most of these serve the departments of
San Salvador and La Libertad, mainly in the municipalities forming the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador.
There are three types of routes: a) urban, which begin and end in the same municipality; b) interurban,
which start and end in different municipalities located in the same department; and c) interdepartmental,
which begin and end in different departments. (Table 1)
Table 1. Number of public transport routes and vehicles, 2013
Type of
unit
Routes Vehicles
Urban Interurban Interde-
partmental
Total Urban Interurban Interde-
partmental
Total
Bus 209 384 342 935 1,243 3,046 3,114 7,403
Microbus 122 114 38 274 1,066 2,237 796 4,099
Source: Vice ministry of Transport

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1.2 Crime in El Salvador
According to the World Bank1
, crime and violence threaten social development and economic growth in
El Salvador and negatively affect the quality of life of its citizens. After a sharp and sustained increase in
the levels of violent crime since 2000, the murder rate peaked at 71 homicides per 100,000 in habitants
in 2009, declining slightly to 69 in 2011. These figures are significantly high, especially when contrasted to
those of localities with similar geographical areas and populations, like Massachusetts, that reports a rate
of 2.6 homicides per 100,000. In March 2012, the Government of El Salvador negotiated a reduction of
homicides with gangs that decreased the number of reported murders to 40 per 100,000 by the end of
2013; nonetheless, this rate is still high by international standards. The United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime’s Global Study on Homicide 2013 (UNDOC, 2014) indicates that despite an overall decline in the
country’s violent crime rates, especially the homicide rate; the situation remains fluid and fragile. In 2014,
the homicide rate went up again, reaching 61.6 homicides per 100,000; so far, in 2015 it has increased
even more.
The report on El Salvador produced by the United States Department of State’s Overseas Security Advisory
Council (OSAC), reports that “the criminal threat in El Salvador is best characterized as unpredictable,
gang-centric, and violent acts that target both known associates as well as targets of opportunity” (OSAC,
2012). According to the National Police, in 2014 the known number of gang members was 35,122,
distributed among different street gangs.
1.3 Crime in the bus system
In El Salvador, official statistics on public transport crime are scarce or difficult to access, which hinders
research into the current situation of public transport crime in El Salvador and its associated factors. Being
unable to make an accurate diagnostic of crime related to public transport impairs the ability to assess
practices and experiences that might have proved successful at preventing public transport crime in other
countries, which, in turn, makes it difficult to foresee their likely success in El Salvador. However, the
available data confirms the existence of a serious crime problem in the transport system.
According to Instituto de Medicina Legal (IML) reports, 3.3% of all homicides perpetrated in El Salvador
between 2008 and 2013, occurred within a public transit vehicle, which amounts to 715 homicides. On
the other hand, victimization surveys conducted by ESEN (2013) and ANEP (2015) give additional
information. An estimated 20.6% of all thefts and robberies in El Salvador occurred in a bus, and an
additional 7.5% occurred at bus stops. Moreover, 41.1% of all crimes in El Salvador that involved the use
of a weapon occurred at bus stops; in 70% of these incidents, the perpetrators stole something that
belonged to the victims. Very few victims reported incidents of public transport crime to the authorities.
In 2012, only 17% of the victims reported an incident to the police (ESEN, 2013).
1
http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/elsalvador/overview

4
The OSAC of the US Department of State warns visitors to El Salvador to avoid public transportation, as it
has become too dangerous for city and country commuting. According to the advisory note, “passengers
on public buses are frequently robbed during the route, at roadblocks and at bus stops. Would-be muggers
and gang members have become so brazen in their attacks that they are known to keep a daily schedule,
riding city buses from one stop to the next, mugging and committing criminal acts with impunity” (OSAC,
2012).
An unusual form of crime that plagues the bus system in El Salvador is extortion committed by gang
members against bus drivers and bus owners. The OSAC advisory note reports that although the police
appear to be making positive strides against the threat of extortion in El Salvador, it persists as a very
common and effective criminal enterprise that “preys on the collective fear of the populace”. That fear,
according to the advisory note, is stoked by reports of “daily murders committed against extorted small
business operators and bus drivers.”2
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
2.1 Research objective
The overall goal of the present study is to gain a sufficient understanding of transport crime in El Salvador
in order to identify preventive solutions that can potentially enhance the users’ security and safety within
the system. The study has two specific objectives: first, to generate information about crime and disorder
in El Salvador’s public transport system and, second, to identify practical measures implemented in other
countries, which are adaptable to the surroundings and local culture, contributing to the prevention or
reduction of crimes and disorder in the Salvadoran public transport.
2.2 Research questions
This assessment aims to gather information about the following key questions:
a. How does the organization and structure of the bus system generate opportunities committing
crimes inside buses and microbuses, and at bus stops and in terminals?
b. What processes intervene in forming the perceptions of safety among public transport users?
c. Which are the critical aspects that should be addressed in order to reduce both the prevalence
and incidence of victimization inside public transport units and at public transport facilities?
2
According to a newspaper report, between 2005 and 2014, being late in delivering money or not bowing to pressure
from other criminals has cost the lives of 800 members of the transport system (employers and employees); this
could add another 38 victims reported between January 1 and June 5, 2015. El Diario de Hoy, Tuesday June 9, 2015.

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2.3 Research activities
In El Salvador little is known about the factors that affect crime against public transport users. As in many
developing countries, official statistics are scarce or difficult to obtain. This situation is even more critical
in the case of the public transport system, which also has no research on issues related to this
phenomenon. Currently there are limitations regarding the availability of systematic information on crime
and insecurity in public transport in El Salvador.
Rapid Assessment Methodologies (RAM) are valid research tools that have been successfully used in other
contexts that suffer from similar obstacles, to obtain information that contributes to the process of
defining appropriate interventions (Beeb 2001; Trotter et al, 2001; Stimson, et al, 2001; Fitch et al, 2004;
McDonald, 2005; Comiskey et al, 2012; Van Hout and Bingham, 2013). Due to the lack of information,
RAM assists in identifying high risk populations, places, or sectors that need targeted interventions that
will bring the most benefit. Those methods provide a balance between approaches that are
methodologically appropriate and logistically feasible (MacIntyre, 1999).
For the present study, two rapid assessment tools were used to overcome the lack of systematic
information: a) systematic observation of the public transport system in San Salvador and adjacent
metropolitan areas, and b) focus groups with key stakeholders.
The results of these exercises were interpreted based on a review of international literature on crime
prevention in public transport, in order to draw lessons for El Salvador. This research involved collecting
a significant amount of data through meetings with key stakeholders and a comprehensive review of the
relevant legal framework.
3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Although crime in the public transport system is a serious problem in El Salvador, the international
literature on crime prevention suggests that this could be reduced substantially through strategies and
tactics based on the crime opportunity theory, which is based on the situational crime prevention. This
academic perspective, which can be defined as the art and science of reducing opportunities to commit
crimes, is the basis of initiatives implemented abroad that have been successful in reducing crime in public
transport.
This premise articulates a broad range of specific measures that make crime more difficult, riskier, less
rewarding, less tempting, and less socially acceptable. This assessment was guided by an ample
framework of crime opportunity theory, which includes routine activities theory, crime pattern theory
and the rational choice perspective. These explanations of crime underpin situational crime prevention,
which, broadly conceived, includes Designing out Crime, Crime Prevention through Environmental Design,
Broken Windows Policing and Problem Oriented Policing. Many success stories have been internationally
documented to apply these approaches to specific forms of crime, findings that, in turn, have been
supported in the postulates of the theories of opportunity.

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3.1 Theoretical framework
The most important of these approaches is that people are situated decision makers. They decide to
commit crimes in order to bring themselves some benefit, not just financial but also for a wide range of
other motives – sexual pleasure, revenge, prestige, dominance, respect, etc. Their criminal decisions can
be influenced by changing the situational contexts in which these decisions are made – not just the
immediate contexts but the broader opportunity structure of the social and physical environment that
makes crime perpetration possible. The opportunity structure can be usefully studied only by focusing on
very specific kinds of crime – for example, mugging is too broad, even mugging on the bus transport
system is too broad, but mugging inside the bus is sufficiently crime-specific.
To understand the opportunity structure for any specific kind of crime, it is necessary to examine when
and where those crimes occur, in the expectation that the Pareto principle (80/20 rule) will define where
crime is most concentrated in the system, for example, particular bus stops and terminals, or particular
bus routes. It is also necessary to study the modus operandi or crime script – how the crime is committed,
step-by-step, who are the offenders, targets or victims, and the facilitating conditions at each step in the
process.
The above analyses will reveal a series of “pinch points” where preventive efforts might economically be
focused. This preventive effort can take one of five main forms: increase the difficulties of crime, increase
its risks, reduce its rewards, remove provocations and temptations, and remove excuses for
crime. International experience shows that adopting these preventive measures may result in
displacement, i.e. that the offenders will simply commit crime elsewhere, at a different time, adopt new
tactics, or turn their attention to other forms of crime, but not necessarily so. It is just as likely that the
result will be a “diffusion of benefits” so that nearby crime, not targeted by the crime prevention
measures, is also reduced.
This crime specific, problem solving preventive approach has proved to be much more useful in
preventive–oriented policies and programs than the traditional criminological approach that focuses
almost exclusively on the so-called root causes of offender motivation.
3.2 Advantages of the focus on crime opportunity theory
Using the lens of crime opportunity theory to examine bus crime in El Salvador has the particular
advantage that the theories falling under this umbrella term focus on the immediate situational causes of
crime. They do not cover the predisposing factors in crime arising from the psychological and sociological
backgrounds of the offenders, or the current conditions of society – poverty, discrimination, corruption –
all of which are commonly thought to fuel crime. The practical advantage of focusing on situational causes
is that, while the authorities responsible for the bus system in El Salvador have almost no scope for altering
predisposing factors, they can powerfully influence the situational factors that promote crime. These
factors are also much easier to alter than predisposing factors, and the changes made, unlike those made
to alter predispositions, can achieve immediate results.

7
These points can be illustrated by a concrete example. It is widely recognized that bus routes that serve
impoverished parts of a city are generally at higher risk of crime than those that do not. This might suggest
that crime on buses would be reduced by societal change, such as reducing unemployment and poverty,
but achieving these social changes is well beyond the capacity of those running the bus system. What
they can do instead, however, is to introduce additional security for the buses and bus stops in the high
crime areas through situational, opportunity-reducing measures. The literature confirms that such
measures can be highly effective.
There is good reason to believe, though this outcome cannot be guaranteed, that substantially reducing
the volume of crime on the bus system might bring a disproportionately large benefit to the country as a
whole. For example, a wide-ranging preventive program completed in the early 1990s to reduce
opportunities for crime at the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York City successfully eliminated crime
in the Terminal. It also had the result of greatly reducing crime in the large, formerly crime-ridden area of
New York City surrounding the Terminal. This ultimately contributed materially to the general reduction
of crime in New York City.
4. SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN
SAN SALVADOR AND ADJACENT METROPOLITAN AREAS3
This chapter describes the first rapid assessment tool used in the study to overcome a lack of systematic
data. Consistent with the whole journey approach, advocated in the literature on transport crime,
passengers´ experience of public transport was observed at three stages: (1) arriving at a terminal or a
bus stop in order to board a bus; (2) Boarding a bus or microbus; and (3) travelling a whole route or
segment of a route within a bus or microbus. This section addresses the environmental settings of the
public transport system that might generate conditions for the occurrence of crimes against users or to
affect the fear of crime and perceptions of safety among the users of the system.
4.1 Purpose
The main objective of the systematic observation of routes or segments of routes in San Salvador and
neighboring metropolitan areas was to provide data for the identification of crime prevention initiatives
that are both feasible and effective.
3
This chapter summarizes the report elaborated by Carlos Carcach as part of the study: Carcach, C. (2015).
Background paper 1: Systematic observation of public transport in San Salvador and adjacent metropolitan areas.
FUSADES.

8
4.2 Methodology
The systematic observation examined environmental factors associated with the different components of
the public transport system. In particular, it focused upon conditions that facilitate crimes committed
against public transport users or make users fearful of crime or feel unsafe in the following places:
 The external environment surrounding the bus stops and bus terminals, and
 The internal environment of buses and microbuses.
The general process underlying a person’s experience with using public transport was observed by
focusing in the following three stages:
1. Arriving at a terminal or a bus stop in order to board a bus.
2. Boarding a bus or microbus.
3. Travelling a whole route or segment of a route within a bus or microbus.
The routes were selected on the basis of information obtained from police officers deployed at the 911
System, which is a multi-purpose emergency call service under the responsibility of the National Civilian
Police (PNC) in San Salvador. The selected routes were those recording the largest numbers of emergency
calls or calls for service to the 911 System. In a sense, the observed routes can be considered as “Hot
Routes” or those with the potential to become “Hot Routes”.
An observation guide was designed, and eight observers were specially trained in the use of the guide and
in data collection procedures. Observers were organized into two person teams. Each team was assigned
a specific route over a whole day. They boarded several buses or microbuses of a specific route at different
points (i.e. terminal, formal bus stops, and informal bus stops) on each of the specified time slots. The
time slots were separated by periods of at least thirty minutes each, during which the two observers filled
in a single data collection form corresponding to the bus or microbus observed during the previous time
slot. At the end of each day, the completed forms were handed to a supervisor who checked them for
completeness and consistency. The data were coded, entered, and edited using SPSS Data Entry Builder
for analysis (See Background paper 1 for more details).
The systematic observation was undertaken in two phases, an exploratory observation between
November 13 and 30 2013, and a structured observation between August 27 and September 5 2014. A
total of 22 routes were observed: 18 bus and microbus routes were observed during six time slots over
five weekdays from Monday to Friday; one route was observed over nine time slots during one day by
three observers; and the three remaining routes were observed over one time slot each. This resulted in
120 observation occasions. These time periods enabled observation of different kinds of users and the
context they experience according to their routine activities and demographic characteristics.
As for bus stops, in general terms, they are located in residential areas, commercial areas, and places with
high pedestrian activity.

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4.3 Summary of findings4
a) External environment around bus stops
The infrastructure to provide comfort and shelter to users while they wait for a bus or microbus, is non-
existent or deficient. Only one third of the observed bus stops had such infrastructure. Where they
existed, the general condition of bus stops was poor, in particular the floor of the sidewalk used by
passengers and the quality of the lighting.
Bus stops are often over-crowded. Public transport is a space where large numbers of social interactions
take place, many involving strangers. Crowded bus stops may be places for incidents where passengers
may push each other out of the way without care or aggressively. They also provide anonymity to
motivated offenders. Crowding is a source of insecurity for women who are the largest group of users of
the public transport system.
Police presence in and around bus stops is insufficient. In almost half of bus stops there was no presence
of police officers or police patrols, which facilitates the occurrence of crimes in bus stops. One in twenty
bus stops recorded a crime incident or some form of antisocial behavior. Irrespective of their location, the
bus stops and the places around them are characterized by intense pedestrian activity and by the presence
of social incivilities (such as beggars, drunks, and vagrant people), graffiti on walls and buildings, and
informal commerce.
b) Internal environment of buses and microbuses
Almost two out of three buses or microbuses are not equipped with a ring bell, a feature that is essential
for passengers to announce their intention to leave the unit.
The most common forms of incivilities observed were the playing of loud music, especially by young bus
drivers, graffiti inside the buses, polarized windscreens and window glass, interior advertisement that
impairs visibility, and pictures or images with sexual or obscene content.
Verbal abuse, theft and robbery are the most common types of crimes against the person occurring inside
buses and microbuses.
4
One of the international consultants (MN) confirmed some of these findings during an informal sample of rides in
buses and microbuses. She noted that the open cash box for the driver’s use will produce opportunities for robbery
of bus drivers. In microbuses, the fare collectors have a small cloth bag where they keep change. Though convenient,
this also provides opportunities for robbery. Vendors are allowed to travel on the bus selling vegetables, fruit, snacks,
and medicines. This distracts passengers, which results in extensive opportunities for pickpocketing and other thefts.
She also noted that the bus interiors frequently carry graffiti and lewd pictures of women, and that many buses
played loud music regardless of the time of day, especially when the drivers were young. Many of the buses were
decrepit and of outdated design. The turnstiles in the buses could seriously aggravate waiting passengers as women
with babies and passengers with luggage struggled to get through them.

10
It was also observed that public transport units are driven at higher than normal speeds, have drivers or
fare collectors that treat passengers badly, have vendors and individuals with an appearance similar to
that of gang members stepping in along the route, and host crime or antisocial incidents. All of these
problems affect the security of passengers and create conditions for the occurrence of crimes inside the
buses.
Finally, stopping excessively at unauthorized stops is a common occurrence along bus and microbus
routes.
5. FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS WITH STALKEHOLDERS5
Focus group interviews are valuable in making a rapid assessment of problems and issues that require
deeper research. By themselves they cannot usually provide the in-depth knowledge required to guide
interventions, however, due to the particular sampling approaches and methodologies, this research
technique is an ideal tool to identify topics that require further exploration employing more structured
and complex investigation methods.
5.1 Purpose
The focus group discussions’ main goals were to: (1) identify the main sources of disorder, as reported by
passengers, drivers, police or owners; (2) describe the main forms of crime afflicting the system; and (3)
collect the main recommendations made by participants to prevent crime.
5.2 Methodology
Focus group interviews were undertaken with four different groups of participants: (1) passengers; (2)
bus drivers; (3) enforcers (transit and public safety police officers); and (4) bus company
owners/managers. A total of 156 individuals participated in the discussions (Table 2).
Table 2. Composition of focus groups
PARTICIPANTS PARTICIPANT PROFILES GROUPS MALE FEMALE TOTAL
Passengers
Employees 4 16 16 32
Unemployed 2 6 6 12
Retired 2 11 12 23
Students (university) 4 19 14 33
Operators Drivers 3 20 0 20
Police
Police officers (public safety) 2 7 5 12
Police officers (transit) 1 7 1 8
Owners
Interdepartmental routes 1 6 0 6
Urban bus routes 1 5 0 5
Urban microbus routes 1 4 1 5
Total 21 101 55 156
5
This chapter summarizes the report elaborated by Carlos Ponce as part of the study: Ponce, C. (2015).
Background paper 2: Summary report. Focus groups interview. FUSADES.

11
Most focus group discussions were held in FUSADES’ premises. Nevertheless, when needed, some were
held in other convenient places. Each discussion took about two hours. As required by the USAID ethical
board, informed consent was obtained from participants and they were assured of anonymity.
The objectives of the focus group discussions were thoroughly explained to facilitators before sessions
were held. They were also given a question guide to aid in the moderation of focus groups and to assure
that the discussion of specific topics regarding disorder and crime within public transportation was
initiated.
Participants were organized into separate focus groups and discussions; female focus groups were
moderated by a female facilitator to generate an environment in which participants felt comfortable
discussing gender-sensitive topics and sexual transgressions.
Focus group interviews covered a wide range of topics deemed relevant to understanding patterns of
transit crime and to identifying preventive solutions. The issues covered included: (1) Transit patterns; (2)
Crime victimization: type of crime, event and perpetrator characteristics, and police response; (3) Fear of
crime: past victimization and experiences, generated by other users or staff; signs of gang presence; and
vehicle, bus stop and journey characteristics; (4) Disorder and incivilities: vehicle, bus stop, and terminal
conditions; inconsiderate, dangerous, inappropriate or indifferent behaviors exhibited by other users,
staff, or police; (5) Quality of public transport: functionality, organization, and assistance; (6) Transport
authority policies or procedures in running the transport system.
Below are the aspects that participants identified as the main sources of disorder and the most common
types of crimes that affect the public transport system.
5.3 Main sources of disorder
In focus groups discussions, public transport was consistently depicted as chaotic. Users described the
public transport system as an environment in which traditional rules do not apply, and where certain
unacceptable behaviors are expected and even accepted. Disorder seemed to be as much a concern to
passengers as the crimes on the system. The main identified sources of disorder are listed below:
a) Allocation of bus routes
The system of allocating bus routes to bus companies was widely criticized as being at the heart of the
chaotic system, resulting in buses competing for passengers and plagued with a culture of illegality. The
VMT awards concessions to operate bus service on specific routes to individual bus companies. In many
cases, different bus companies share the right to operate buses on the same route, which results in a
competition for passengers. The race, thus, is not limited to individual buses, but also involves sets of
buses owned by different companies along specific routes. This competitive environment was said to
generate overcrowding, stimulate aggressive and dangerous driving, and cause passenger mistreatment
and unreliable service. These are some of the most frequent complaints.

12
The competition between buses of the same route also involves competing for a spot at bus stops, usually
saturated by buses of different routes. Passengers explained that, during peak hours, stops are
overflowing with people waiting for different routes. Long lines of buses, briefly stopping to pick up
passengers, make it difficult for people to identify those for their corresponding routes and forces them
to rush to where the bus stops to board it.
Passengers described an anarchic environment in which the strong prevail. Women, children, and the
elderly were acknowledged as the most vulnerable passengers. Scenarios most frequently cited by
participants involved people trying to get on or off the bus, aggressively congregating at the entrance or
exit. During these common and chaotic situations, men were said to push away women, women push
away seniors, and children were said to be tossed around by everyone else. These behaviors were
described by passengers as the norm inside the system and were said to spur verbal confrontations and
other disruptive outcomes.
b) Bus fares and payment of drivers
The bus fare was the most common issue cited by owners. They claimed that the Government keeps bus
fares low, far below the minimum suggested by various technical studies, to avoid political problems
involved in increasing the fare. The optimal bus fares proposed by proprietors, who claimed to be quoting
them out of research evaluations, diverged substantially from the current fare of $0.20, ranging from
$0.30 to $0.60.
Drivers explained that they are not paid a fixed salary by their employers or awarded any other benefits.
Depending on the company, they said they get to keep between 13% and 15% of the daily bus fare total.
They argued that, consequently, they average about twenty dollars a day. Some suggested that anything
below $140.00 a day in total bus fares, was not acceptable for owners and that repeatedly collecting less
than that amount, would get them replaced. Drivers claimed that, because of this, they must procure as
many passengers as they can, thus leading to overcrowding, dangerous driving, and illegal stops. Because
there is a fixed number of customers at bus stops at any given time, drivers claimed they must compete
for them with buses that run the same route or even other ones that do not.
Police acknowledged that the inappropriate driving style of bus operators is incited by bus owners’
practices. Specifically, they contended that owners set goals for bus drivers and that, in turn, operators
race to comply with those standards.
c) Condition of buses
Passengers portrayed the buses as generally being in terrible cosmetic and mechanical condition. They
particularly emphasized missing and damaged seats and handrails, holes on the floor, leaky roofs, broken
windows and direction indicators, graffiti, noisy engines, garbage accumulation, and excessive exhaust
smoke and crackling sounds.
Passengers said that bus drivers and fare collectors are allowed to personalize their buses and claimed
this was a further source of disorder. Users also complained of unofficial decals placed inside and outside
buses, that displayed religious, comedic, and, sometimes, vulgar quotes or images, or made reference to

13
sport teams. Female users complained that public transportation is filled with inappropriate sexual
content and specifically referred to sexually explicit music, language, and posters and decals as regular
accompaniments of the bus user’s experience.
Some buses have sophisticated stereo equipment installed which play loud music with explicit lyrics at full
volume during route runs. They added that, in some cases, this is complemented by strobe or black lights
inside the vehicle. This contributes to create a sensorial chaos and an intimidating and uncomfortable
environment.
d) Behavior of drivers
Users commented that the majority of drivers and fare collectors are people who have no respect for
traffic regulations, that they are rude, and are not interested in the welfare and comfort of the passengers,
also they drive recklessly and mistreat the users. Drivers said the grueling conditions and working hours
increase the probability of reacting inappropriately, they explained that they usually leave home between
three and four o'clock in the morning to be ready at five. As for the loud music, they argue that it helps
them stay awake during long hours.
Drivers recognized that they often look dirty and explained that this is because they handle cash from bus
fares all day long, are exposed to the streets’ polluted environment, and have to check buses’ mechanical
conditions every morning. They also acknowledge that passengers react negatively to their dirty
appearance. Drivers added that owners used to provide uniforms, but no longer do so.
Police explained that buses are driven dangerously, constantly breaking transit laws and public
transportation regulations, and claimed that this is a main source of disorder. Officers mentioned that the
most common transgressions involve using mobile telephones while driving, invading lanes, driving with
open doors, using worn-out tires, speeding, driving with a suspended or expired license, dangerous
driving, not signaling, and ignoring traffic signs.
Fare collection was another source of disorder where drivers and fare collectors exercise a great deal of
discretion, as discussed by focus group participants. Passengers asserted that operators sometimes
intentionally give back the incorrect amount of change and, other times, argue that they do not have
enough change, promising to give it the next time the customer boards the bus. Participants also alleged
that operators make them enter the bus avoiding the turnstile installed at the entrance or make them
board through the backdoor where there isn’t a turnstile, but charge the fare anyway. Not charging
attractive female passengers and gang members was described as a common practice.
e) Chaotic conditions at bus stops
Focus groups recognized that the absence of information about bus operations creates disorder.
Discussions painted the system as very complex, referring to particularities that make it difficult, and
sometimes impossible, for new passengers to navigate through routes they have never travelled before.
Participants noted that some important bus stops, for example, do not have proper infrastructure or
anything to identify them as such, and, thus, are only known by regular users. Moreover, even those

14
authorized bus stops that are clearly marked were said to lack any type of signage that display the routes
served or bus schedules.
Overcrowding was one of the most frequently cited signs of disorder and was associated with three issues.
First, several routes may stop at the same stop and, as a result, more people wait for their buses at the
same place at the same time. Second, the service cycle for some routes was irregular or involved long
waiting periods, which caused an overwhelming accumulation of passengers at bus stops. Third,
passengers linked overcrowding to street vendors, who were accused of taking over bus stops and,
consequently, making passengers sometimes wait for their buses on the street or in otherwise
undesignated areas.
f) Presence of vendors and panhandlers
Bus operators commonly allow street vendors, performers, and panhandlers to board buses. Focus group
discussions suggested that these are not unsuspecting bystanders to bus crimes, but in fact work in
coordination with robbers and thieves, boarding buses before them, identifying potential victims, and
relaying this information. These people were also said to sometimes take advantage of the cover provided
by their crafts and appearance in order to victimize passengers.
g) Negligent enforcement of laws and regulation
There was a general perception among participants that criminal structures have penetrated the State’s
public safety apparatus. Focus groups’ discussions about the authorities’ response to crime within public
transportation claimed that the VMT does nothing to reduce criminal activities or tend to victims.
Specifically, users stated that it should play a more active role in identifying crime hot spots and adjusting
bus routes accordingly.
Consistent with this attitude, police claimed that enforcement is constrained by the political influence
possessed by the public transportation industry and the corruption of public officials by individual bus
owners and owners’ associations. Officers claimed that bus owners call corrupt transit police
commanders, either directly or through a corrupt politician, to get out of tickets or to direct enforcement
efforts elsewhere. Participants also suggested that corrupt officials at the VMT issue permits to unsuitable
drivers. Additionally, officers stated that during electoral campaigns, politicians arrange massive pardons
for bus drivers and owners to secure their votes.
Owners suggested that the VMT is heavily influenced by the political interests of the ruling party.
Participants argued that the resulting measures adopted by this regulatory authority have weakened their
finances and, therefore, their capabilities to control disorder and incivilities within bus operations. Owners
claimed repeatedly that their businesses have progressively become unprofitable and that they could not
generate the necessary resources to provide proper maintenance for buses, repair mechanical and
cosmetic issues promptly and adequately, acquire newer vehicles, and improve the operators’ harsh
working conditions.

15
h) Inadequate policing
Passengers claimed that police officers are seldom around and, even if they are, do not respond to crime
as might be expected. They said that police personnel are often afraid to act against offenders because
they live in gang-infested neighborhoods and try to avoid retaliation. Furthermore, passengers claimed
that when the police detain offenders, cases are likely lost during later stages of criminal prosecution and,
thus, perpetrators are quickly freed.
Drivers complained that police ask for bribes in exchange for not writing transit violations, usually
demanding less money than the amount that the operator would have to pay for the fine. They also
claimed police officers detain criminals, but if their loot is valuable enough, they keep it, and let
perpetrators loose.
Police corruption and bribes were deemed as a salient issue by owners. Focus group discussions
frequently made reference to police officers who demanded money from proprietors in exchange for not
writing transit tickets. Many participants referred to this as an additional type of extortion against public
transportation. The problem was conveyed as widespread and serious.
5.4 Main forms of crime
Passengers recognized that travelling inside the bus is the most vulnerable and, thus, unsafe part of public
transportation. They explained that passengers are trapped inside the bus, while crimes at bus stops could
be more easily avoided. Consistent with this argument, debates about other issues often included
situations in which dangerous bus stops were avoided by passengers boarding or disembarking elsewhere,
even if that meant walking greater distances from their point of origin or to their destination.
A wide variety of crimes were reported to occur on the buses or at bus stops, committed by a wide variety
of offenders, in some cases including bus operators. Many of these crimes were said to be facilitated by
the chaotic conditions under which the buses operate, which favor opportunistic crimes by common
criminals such as bag snatching and pick-pocketing. Another group of generally more serious crimes are
committed by gang members.
a) Sexual crimes against women
Focus groups revealed that there is a widespread consensus among the different actors involved in public
transport, that women are the most vulnerable group of users. Passengers and police claimed that sexual
transgressions against women are very common in public transportation. They said that perpetrators
(sometimes including drivers and fare collectors) take advantage of overcrowding to touch and rub against
female passengers. Participants added that women rarely report incidents, because they do not know that
the occurrence is considered a crime or simply because the bureaucracy involved is overwhelming.

16
b) Robberies
Most accounts of robberies depict these as organized and planned, involving two or more offenders
working in coordination. Perpetrators, often gang members, look for potential victims at bus stops or
during the ride. Once targets have been identified, some of the offenders move in on their victims and
the rest relocate to strategic positions inside the bus, in support of their colleagues, to provide cover,
react against threats, prevent victims from fleeing, or handle operators. After the victims’ property has
been taken, perpetrators exit the bus.
c) Collusion between operators and criminals
Some passengers believed that criminals that operate in buses generally work in collaboration with drivers
and fare collectors. Different explanations were offered about this relationship. Fear of reprisals was the
most cited. Next most cited was that operators collaborate with offenders because they have to travel
the same route on the same bus every day, which makes them easy targets for retaliation for not
complying with demands. Moreover, drivers and fare collectors were also said to live in high-gang-activity
neighborhoods and, sometimes, are threatened by gang-affiliated neighbors to help them commit crimes
against passengers.
Some passengers claimed that gang membership among operators is quite common, a fact that was used
to account for their ties with criminals that victimize passengers. Participants argued that this cooperation
is so strong in some cases that drivers and fare collectors point out potential targets for robbery to
offenders. Stopping to allow criminals to get on and off the bus at low risk locations that diminish their
chances of getting caught, was also claimed to be a common practice among drivers. Operators look the
other way or even watch unresponsively through the rearview mirror while passengers are targeted.
Drivers argued that they have to comply with offender instructions and generally do not interfere during
or after victimization, because they fear retaliation. They are aware that this makes passenger think that
they collaborate with offenders, but the drivers claim they are easy targets for vengeful perpetrators.
d) Extortion
Extortion of owners was described as a serious problem mainly undertaken by gangs. Perpetrators
sometimes provide mobile telephones to initiate negotiations or use drivers as intermediaries.
Proprietors, however, said that the most common threat involved murdering operators and burning
buses. While this offense does not directly affect users, it does affect the finances of business, creating an
incentive to compete to increase the number of passengers and limit the ability to give proper
maintenance to units.
Some drivers claimed that they are extorted by gangs, who demand a daily fee of one dollar. They affirmed
that if they pay, gangs don’t bother them.

17
5.5 Preventive suggestions suggested by focus groups
participants
Through focus group discussions, participants gave their own suggestions to prevent the different types
of issues surrounding the public transport system.
a) Bus routes and concessions
Focus groups suggested that routes be redesigned in order to avoid different routes stopping at the same
bus stops and increasing the number of buses that work high-demand routes during peak hours. Users
argued that these measures would reduce overcrowding at bus stops and inside buses, because passenger
loads would be redistributed. Some passengers suggested that public transportation’s troublesome
competitive environment could be reduced by awarding the exclusive concession of routes to individual
companies. Passengers argued that more demanding requirements should be put in place for route
concessions. They explained that routes sometimes are awarded to companies or individual bus owners
that do not possess the administrative and financial capability to guarantee the proper operation of buses.
Hence, it was proposed that the requirements set forth for applicants who compete for the concession of
routes, be enhanced. Furthermore, focus group discussions called for buses to be repaired and better
vehicle maintenance practices to be standardized and enforced.
b) Bus service
Passenger focus groups recommended that operators receive training on safe driving, dealing properly
with customer, handling emergencies, and regulating order inside the bus. Passenger stressed the
importance of this issue by proposing that training be required by law.
These groups also mentioned that thought should be given to enhancing enforcement, improving
passenger information, and rethinking boarding and disembarking sequences. They also proposed
measures to reduce overcrowding and ban loud music inside buses. Focus groups suggested that
passengers traveling standing-up should be prohibited, the time a bus parks at a bus stop should be
established, and the maximum number of passengers allowed per bus should be better enforced.
Providing overhead compartments to store bags and backpacks away from thieves, was also mentioned
by participants.
c) Routine precautions
Focus group debates gave great importance to passengers being vigilant while using public transportation
to quickly identify threats and avoid dangers. Passengers explained that they scope other users before
boarding at the bus stop to detect any suspicious people or situation and, thus, determine if it is safe to
catch the next bus or not. They also said that when they enter the bus they examine other passengers’
demeanors and search for signs of danger, to decide where to sit or stand. Through their journey, users
assured they maintain this vigilant state and are prepared to flee if danger is perceived.

18
6. TRANSPORT CRIME: A REVIEW OF THE
INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE6
A review of the International literature on transport crime was undertaken in order to extract lessons for
El Salvador. The review covered crime related to trains, subways, trams, jitneys and, especially, buses. Not
included in this review were crimes related to taxis or to airline travel.
6.1 Purpose
This review is intended to identify effective crime prevention measures reported in the international
literature which might provide practical preventive suggestions for dealing with bus-related crimes in El
Salvador.
6.2 Methodology
Information was gathered from two main sources:
1. Academic literature published as books and journal articles was identified using John Jay’s library
system which contains multiple reference data sets including EBSCO, Criminal Justice Abstracts,
NCJRS and Google Scholar.
2. Gray literature, a valid source of information that is not commercially published and is typically
composed of technical reports, working papers, government and agency reports, and conference
proceedings. This literature was identified through the gray literature collection held by the Don M.
Gottfredson Library of Criminal Justice at Rutgers University.
About 500 studies were identified, 275 in the academic literature and 225 in the gray literature. Nearly all
the studies were published within the past 40 years, which means that the literature on transport crime
is relatively recent. Nearly all the studies were undertaken in developed countries. Most of the literature
is concerned with describing and explaining transport crime; few studies deal directly with prevention of
crime.
A large majority of the studies focused on trains and subways, with only 40 studies focused on bus crimes.
Another twenty articles and reports that focused on public transport crime prevention included some
mention of crime in buses. The suggestions for preventing crime on all forms of public transport are
summarized here. Those for preventing bus crime are itemized in the full report of the international
literature (see Background paper 3 for more details). Where appropriate, these suggestions are
incorporated in the policy recommendations and, to avoid repetition, are not reviewed here.
6
This chapter summarizes the report elaborated by Mangai Natarajan as part of the study: Natarajan, M. (2015).
Background paper 3: Public transport crime, a review od international literature. FUSADES.

19
6.3 General findings
Background:
 Public transport is vulnerable to all the commonplace crimes of everyday life, though these will
take specific forms depending on the transit context.
 There is growing concern about the security of public transport in South and Central American
countries, but very few studies or reports (for Chile, Brazil and Mexico) have been released on
public transport crime in the region.
 International studies, mostly undertaken in developed countries, date back three or four decades.
They provide much information about the nature and types of crime problems related to public
transport and about the prevention of these crimes.
 Public transport crime is frequently classified according to the target: (i) crimes against the system
(e.g. vandalism, graffiti, theft of fares collected and now terrorism); (ii) crimes against staff (e.g.
assaults on drivers or conductors) and (iii) crimes against passengers (e.g. robberies, assaults, and
sexual harassment of women).
 Each of these environments requires study in its own right. Preventive measures will differ among
these environments and among each specific crime identified within the classifications.
Crime:
 In most countries, the travelling public experiences less crime on public transit than in most other
public contexts.
 Any informality in a transport system invites crime (for example, staff without uniforms, and
“trust” systems for fare collection).
 Fear of crime is a major concern among passengers even when studies show relatively low levels
of crime on public transport. Passengers most fear waiting at the stop/station after dark and
walking home after dark, with about 60% of women and 20% of men feeling unsafe at these
stages.
 Few passenger and staff are present during off-peak times, and, consequently, it is easier for
criminals to waylay victims and commit robberies or sexual assaults. During rush hours, on the
other hand, passengers might be so crowded that they have difficulty in protecting their persons
or their property.
 In general, hot spots of crime on public transport reflect crime in the immediately surrounding
community
 Evidence-based research is needed for developing appropriate and suitable measures within the
constraints of the local social and economic conditions. Some of this research should be
conducted by the transport authorities, through qualified individuals
 A safe and secure transport system requires: Appropriate policing; Careful design of facilities and
vehicles; and, Active and attentive management.

20
 Policing is often more effective when undertaken by a dedicated transport police service than
when undertaken by the municipal police. A dedicated transport police service can more easily
share information among its members about crime on buses, about offenders who prey on buses,
and about hot spots of bus crime. It can also ensure that officers are more routinely allocated to
monitoring bus stops, terminals, and buses. In addition, such a force can more easily collect and
maintain records of crime on the system.
 Dealing with transport crimes often requires a strong partnership among national government
departments, transport authorities, municipalities, the private sector, and commuters.
Emerging issues:
 Increasing interest is being shown in the “whole journey approach”. This includes walking to and
from the bus/train stops (origin and destination points), as well as waiting for the bus or train and
while on the bus or train. This is because surveys have shown that fear is often greatest during
the walk to and from stations or stops. Research has also found a higher risk of crime near stops.
 It is increasingly recognized that more should be done specifically to address the fears of the
elderly and the particular fears of women about being victims of violence and sexual crimes.
 In the wake of increasing terrorist attacks on public transport, the recent transit literature is
carrying more articles on preventing terrorism and not merely conventional crimes. This trend
seems likely to continue.
Crime prevention:
 When public transport is a magnet for criminals, measures taken to improve the security of the
system can reduce crime more broadly in surrounding areas, not just on the system, through a
“diffusion of benefits”.
 A dedicated transport police service often has considerable advantages compared to policing by
local police forces.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PREVENTING CRIME,
DISORDER AND FEAR ON EL SALVADOR’S BUS SYSTEM
The set of activities within the framework of this study led to the identification of four key goals to improve
the perception of safety and security in the Salvadoran public transport system: a Change the current
prevailing perception of chaos and disorder to improve the perception of safety; b) Transform Salvadoran
public transportation into a law-abiding context; c) Reduce fear among public transport users; d) Develop
and implement measures to prevent specific types of crimes perpetrated against users. Below are some
measures that were identified from the review of successful international experiences to achieve each of
these four goals.

21
1. Change the current prevailing perception of chaos and disorder to improve the
perception of safety
Public transport system is widely regarded as chaotic and disorganized and one which allows criminals to
operate with impunity. Therefore, it is recommended:
 Eliminate competition within public transportation. This requires:
 Restructure the public transport system, through an extensive technical evaluation to
produce a new scheme that considers user demands and the particularities of the service
areas, identifying and establishing: 1) location of bus stops, 2) number of vehicles that should
run at specific routes, 3) distribution of routes, terminals, and interchanges.
 Revise and amend route concession policies, procedures, and regulations, to control or
eliminate competition among buses themselves competing for passengers, and enhance the
requirements to obtain route concessions, ensuring that awarded companies have the
administrative and financial capabilities to guarantee the proper operation of buses.
 Make the public transport system appear unified and formal. There is a perception that portrays El
Salvador’s public transportation as an informal and disjointed system. Thus, the following measures
are recommended:
 Enhance laws and regulations related to bus units, bus stops, routes, and terminals to
project formality and cohesiveness, specifically: (1) establish a logo, color, and design for the
public transportation system of El Salvador, and require buses, bus terminals, and bus stops
to be painted using these same logos and colors; (2) prohibit street vendors from selling goods
inside buses and other public transport environments; (3) require and supervise that buses
be kept in good repair and well-maintained; (4) reduce informal pick-ups and drop-offs.
 Enhance laws and regulations regarding operators (drivers and fare collectors): (1) require
that public transportation workers use standard uniforms, establishing a specific design and
color, and incorporate the system’s logo; (2) standardize human resource practices and
procedures for bus drivers and other public transport workers, setting specific standards
related to hiring, remuneration, work conditions, supervision, and work schedules; (3)
regulate all occupations related to the public transport system, defining responsibilities,
requirements, training, etc.
2. Transform Salvadoran public transportation into a law-abiding context
Many laws and regulations govern the bus system in El Salvador, with clearly defined penalties for failure
to comply. However, laws and regulations are not enough on their own to ensure compliance; they also
have to be enforced. In El Salvador, the main responsibility for enforcement in the context of the bus
system rests with the national police, which seems to exercise this duty sporadically, not even collecting
data on crimes specifically committed in the system. There is a clear need to:

22
 Enhance the Salvadoran State’s regulation and law enforcement capabilities within the public
transportation system. As a result, it is suggested that:
 A new Public Transportation Police Sub-directorate be created within the National Civil
Police, which should be tasked with the responsibility of planning, supervising, coordinating,
and operating all law enforcement activities related to public transportation, excluding those
that, because of their particular nature, fall under the jurisdiction of other specialized police
units. International experience finds that enforcement is more consistent and effective on
public transport if it is assigned not to the national or municipal police alongside their many
other duties, but to a separately-constituted transport police force, under the control of the
public transport authority. However, Salvadoran law does not allow for this particular model
to be implemented. Creating an exclusive command structure within the police force for
public transportation is an acceptable alternative that would insure proper resource
allocation, activity monitoring and evaluation, and operational specialization.
 A new body of public transport inspectors should be created within the VMT, and tasked
with the responsibility of continually monitoring buses, bus stops, and terminals to ensure
compliance with set standards and requirements, issue fines to bus companies and bus
drivers for administrative infringements of regulations, and collect and transmit information
that contributes to maintaining public transportation functioning under acceptable
conditions.
 Remove and prevent entry as operators to people that are prone to or engage in criminal activities
or have strong links with criminal groups. Hence, the following recommendations are set forth:
 Initiate a program to conduct background checks on all applicants. Preventing the infiltration
of crime prone and gang-related individuals should be a top priority, not only to promote a
law-abiding environment, but to assure a better quality of service to users.
 Task public transportation inspectors with the development and implementation of a
program to undertake regular checks of buses and bus drivers. The complex nature of crime
in El Salvador and the elevated level of illicit activity requires that checks be set in critical areas
and points of public transportation’s operation.
 Involve drivers in user security. Once the operators have been hired through a process of required
background checks, to encourage a law-abiding context it is crucial to transform the role that
operators play regarding the safety and security of passengers. Specifically, it is recommended that:
 Operators be required to receive training courses exclusively designed to teach drivers
relevant security procedures and conflict avoidance techniques.
 Supply drivers with emergency telephones or other electronic devices that serve the same
purpose.

23
 Enhance the level of perceived surveillance and guardianship. In order to achieve this, the following
measures are suggested:
 Appoint security guards to accompany drivers on dangerous routes and times.
 Install CCTV cameras inside buses to help drivers watch passengers and allow remote
monitoring and recording.
 Implement a system for the advanced purchase of tickets. Removing cash from buses will not only
eliminate a source of conflict and corruption inside the buses, but will also make public transport less
attractive for certain offenders.
 Redesign and regulate boarding and exiting procedures at terminals and bus stops. Proper
behaviors and procedures for entering and disembarking buses should be implemented and
massively promoted throughout system.
 Discourage unacceptable behaviors and stimulate desired behaviors. In order to debunk the
lawlessness that prevails in public transportation’s subculture, unacceptable behaviors must be
discouraged and expected, adequate behaviors need to be stimulated, eliminating all excuses. Thus,
it is recommended that:
 Posts signs throughout the bus system, indicating: (1) appropriate and expected user
behaviors; (2) penalties for breaking laws and regulations.
 Use the media and educational institutions to realize campaigns that: (1) promote
acceptable and expected user behaviors; (2) alert about the cues of crime in public transport
to allow users to take routine precautions while travelling
3. Reduce fear among public transport users
Specific measures to make women, children and the elderly feel safer in public transportation are needed.
Specifically, the following suggestions are presented:
 Install an electronic system to provide real-time information about wait times for passengers at
bus stops. Making information regarding this issue available in real-time to users would greatly
contribute to create a better context.
 Designate “female-only” buses on very crowded bus routes. Providing a safe environment for
females would significantly reduce the level of perceived fear.
 Designate and label priority seats for disabled, elderly, and children. Having a special place would
reduce anxiety and negative incidents for these vulnerable segments of the population.
 Remove and prohibit decals, signs, and other mediums in which sexually explicit or vulgar content
is displayed in buses. Adopting this measure would create a less threatening environment for
women.
 Prohibit and remove disco lights and loud music on buses. Taking them away would assure a more
pleasant experience for passengers.

24
 Implement measures that allow better natural surveillance. The international literature on
situational crime prevention emphasizes the importance of creating conditions for a better natural
surveillance, to reduce opportunities for the occurrence of crime and fear of crime. Particularly, the
following recommendations are proposed:
 Improve lighting at bus stops, bus terminals, and adjacent pathways.
 Keep bushes and trees trimmed near bus stops and terminals to increase visibility.
 Install new-style bus stops (with transparent materials and good lighting) and remove signage
to increase natural surveillance.
 Migrate to a public transport vehicle design that allows more surveillance inside and from the
outside.
4. Develop and implement measures to prevent specific types of crimes perpetrated
against users
The understanding of the structure of opportunities for any specific type of crime requires studying when
and where they occur, identifying, for example, bus stops and terminals or specific routes. It is also
important to analyze the modus operandi or crime script how the crime was committed, step by step,
who are the criminals, targets or victims, and facilitating conditions in each step of the process.
There is an important deficit of systematic information about crimes committed in the public transport
system in El Salvador. This hinders the ability of analysts, researchers, policymakers and public officials to
identify and analyze the characteristics of the act, victims, criminals, and context of crime, thus preventing
the development, implementation and evaluation of appropriate preventive measures. Specificity of data
and analysis is crucial in formulating effective measures based on situational crime prevention.
Successfully combating crime in public transport requires that this limitation be surpassed. Therefore, it
is required to:
Enhance El Salvador's capabilities to monitor, research, and evaluate crime and security within public
transportation. Therefore, it is recommended that:
 A Research and Planning Unit should be established, either within the bus system’s headquarters or
in a university, staffed by appropriately-trained individuals, who would be responsible for: (1)
conducting periodic victim surveys of passengers (at least annually) to determine the level of
victimization and most frequent types of crimes and modus operandi. Victim surveys have many
advantages over a record of crimes reported to the authorities, especially in a transport environment
and thus would be of valuable information for developing preventive strategies; (2) continuously
conducting scientific assessments of the likely value of new crime prevention measures to reduce bus-
related crimes; (3) undertaking detailed studies of particular forms of crime in order to identify
effective preventive measures; (4) formulating an annual implementation plan for reducing bus crime.
This should specify the measures to be implemented and a timetable for implementation; (5)
publishing an annual report with the results of victim surveys and a detailed list of crime reduction
actions taken during the past year and those scheduled for the forthcoming year.

25
8. CONCLUSIONS
It is abundantly clear from the available statistics that crime is a very serious problem in El Salvador’s
public transport system, but it could be substantially reduced through a sustained program of situational
crime prevention. In order to accomplish this, two sets of preventive measures will be required: (1)
general measures relating to the operations of the bus system as a whole, which will help to create a more
orderly and secure transport environment and, (2) more specific measures designed to reduce
opportunities for very specific crimes occurring on buses or at bus stops, such as homicides, robberies,
and sexual assaults on women, etc.
This study focused on the first set of preventive actions intended to make the bus system as a whole more
orderly and secure. The next step towards their implementation, however, requires a rigorous assessment
to evaluate their practicality and feasibility, in which the participation of governmental agencies directly
involved with overseeing and running the transport system, the police, staff unions, and possibly
representatives of the general public, is necessary. An essential requirement is the specific consideration
of the financial, material and human resources required to ensure the effectiveness, efficiency, and
sustainability of the proposed interventions.
The second set of measures, which need to be designed to reduce opportunities for very specific crimes,
can only be identified by careful analysis of how these crimes are committed, the perpetrators and the
victims involved, and the conditions under which the crimes occur. The first exploration of crime in public
transport described in this document, provides useful information about the offenses on which future
research and analysis need to concentrate. Detailed data of this kind is not presently available in El
Salvador and will need to be obtained by small, focused studies undertaken by trained personnel.
The recent introduction of the new Integrated Transport System in the Metropolitan Area of San Salvador
(SITRAMSS), creates the opportunity to initiate, in general throughout the country, the initiatives
proposed here to reduce the sources of disorder and fear of crime among users while using the public
transport system.
It is clear that the introduction of such a program will require a considerable effort, involving a significant
investment for El Salvador, but the rewards will be substantial. Not only would crime in the public
transport system be reduced to manageable levels, but there are good scientific reasons to expect that
these benefits might diffuse to the remainder of the country, affecting other contexts where the
commission of crimes is currently prevalent.

26
9. REFERENCES
Note: In this section, besides the references mentioned in the document, we have included part of the
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situational risk. Security Journal, 27(2), 180–193.

29
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https://www.osac.gov/Pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=15771

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