Muscle_memory (1).pdf

Muscle memory
Muscle memory is a form of procedural memory that involves consolidating a specific motor task into
memory through repetition, which has been used synonymously with motor learning. When a movement is
repeated over time, the brain creates a long-term muscle memory for that task, eventually allowing it to be
performed with little to no conscious effort. This process decreases the need for attention and creates
maximum efficiency within the motor and memory systems. Muscle memory is found in many everyday
activities that become automatic and improve with practice, such as riding bikes, driving motor vehicles,
playing ball sports, typing on keyboards, entering PINs, playing musical instruments,[1] poker,[2] martial
arts, and dancing.
History
Retention
Physiology
Motor behavior
Muscle memory encoding
Muscle memory consolidation
Strength training and adaptations
Fine motor memory
Music memory
Puzzle cube memory
Gross motor memory
Learning in childhood
Effect of Alzheimer's disease
Impairment
Consolidation deficit
Dysgraphia for the alphabet
See also
References
The origins of research for the acquisition of motor skills stem from philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle
and Galen. After the break from tradition of the pre-1900s view of introspection, psychologists emphasized
research and more scientific methods in observing behaviours.[3] Thereafter, numerous studies exploring
the role of motor learning were conducted. Such studies included the research of handwriting, and various
practice methods to maximize motor learning.[4]
Contents
History
Retention

The retention of motor skills, now referred to as muscle memory, also began to be of great interest in the
early 1900s. Most motor skills are thought to be acquired through practice; however, more observation of
the skill has led to learning as well.[5] Research suggests we do not start off with a blank slate with regard
to motor memory although we do learn most of our motor memory repertoire during our lifetime.[6]
Movements such as facial expressions, which are thought to be learned, can actually be observed in
children who are blind; thus there is some evidence for motor memory being genetically pre-wired.[6]
In the early stages of empirical research of motor memory Edward Thorndike, a leading pioneer in the
study of motor memory, was among the first to acknowledge learning can occur without conscious
awareness.[7] One of the earliest and most notable studies regarding the retention of motor skills was by
Hill, Rejall, and Thorndike, who showed savings in relearning typing skills after a 25-year period with no
practice.[4] Findings related to the retention of learned motor skills have been continuously replicated in
studies, suggesting that through subsequent practice, motor learning is stored in the brain as memory. This
is why performing skills such as riding a bike or driving a car are effortlessly and 'subconsciously'
executed, even if someone had not performed these skills in a long period of time.[4]
When first learning a motor task, movement is often slow, stiff and easily disrupted without attention. With
practice, execution of motor task becomes smoother, there is a decrease in limb stiffness, and muscle
activity, necessary to the task, is performed without conscious effort.[8]
The neuroanatomy of memory is widespread throughout the brain; however, the pathways important to
motor memory are separate from the medial temporal lobe pathways associated with declarative memory.[9]
As with declarative memory, motor memory is theorized to have two stages: a short-term memory encoding
stage, which is fragile and susceptible to damage, and a long-term memory consolidation stage, which is
more stable.[10]
The memory encoding stage is often referred to as motor learning, and requires an increase in brain activity
in motor areas as well as an increase in attention. Brain areas active during motor learning include the motor
and somatosensory cortices; however, these areas of activation decrease once the motor skill is learned. The
prefrontal and frontal cortices are also active during this stage due to the need for increased attention on the
task being learned.[8]
The main area involved in motor learning is the cerebellum. Some models of cerebellar-dependent motor
learning, in particular the Marr-Albus model, propose a single plasticity mechanism involving the cerebellar
long-term depression (LTD) of the parallel fiber synapses onto Purkinje cells. These modifications in
synapse activity would mediate motor input with motor outputs critical to inducing motor learning.[11]
However, conflicting evidence suggests that a single plasticity mechanism is not sufficient and a multiple
plasticity mechanism is needed to account for the storage of motor memories over time. Regardless of the
mechanism, studies of cerebellar-dependent motor tasks show that cerebral cortical plasticity is crucial for
motor learning, even if not necessarily for storage.[12]
Physiology
Motor behavior
Muscle memory encoding

The basal ganglia also play an important role in memory and learning, in particular in reference to stimulus-
response associations and the formation of habits. The basal ganglia-cerebellar connections are thought to
increase with time when learning a motor task.[13]
Muscle memory consolidation involves the continuous evolution of neural processes after practicing a task
has stopped. The exact mechanism of motor memory consolidation within the brain is controversial.
However, most theories assume that there is a general redistribution of information across the brain from
encoding to consolidation. Hebb's rule states that "synaptic connectivity changes as a function of repetitive
firing." In this case, that would mean that the high amount of stimulation coming from practicing a
movement would cause the repetition of firing in certain motor networks, presumably leading to an increase
in the efficiency of exciting these motor networks over time.[12]
While the exact location of muscle memory storage is not known, studies have suggested that it is the inter-
regional connections that play the most important role in advancing motor memory encoding to
consolidation, rather than decreases in overall regional activity. These studies have shown a weakened
connection from the cerebellum to the primary motor area with practice, it is presumed, because of a
decreased need for error correction from the cerebellum. However, the connection between the basal
ganglia and the primary motor area is strengthened, suggesting the basal ganglia play an important role in
the motor memory consolidation process.[12]
When participating in any sport, new motor skills and movement combinations are frequently being used
and repeated. All sports require some degree of strength, endurance training, and skilled reaching in order
to be successful in the required tasks. Muscle memory related to strength training involves elements of both
motor learning, described below, and long-lasting changes in the muscle tissue.
Evidence has shown that increases in strength occur well before muscle hypertrophy, and decreases in
strength due to detraining or ceasing to repeat the exercise over an extended period of time precede muscle
atrophy.[14] To be specific, strength training enhances motor neuron excitability and induces
synaptogenesis, both of which would help in enhancing communication between the nervous system and
the muscles themselves.[14]
However, neuromuscular efficacy is not altered within a two-week
time period following cessation of the muscle usage; instead, it is
merely the neuron's ability to excite the muscle that declines in
correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength.[15] This confirms
that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry,
rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size.
Previously untrained muscles acquire newly formed nuclei by
fusion of satellite cells preceding the hypertrophy. Subsequent
detraining leads to atrophy but no loss of myo-nuclei. The elevated
number of nuclei in muscle fibers that had experienced a hypertrophic episode would provide a mechanism
for muscle memory, explaining the long-lasting effects of training and the ease with which previously
trained individuals are more easily retrained.[16]
Muscle memory consolidation
Strength training and adaptations

On subsequent detraining, the fibers maintain an elevated number of nuclei that might provide resistance to
atrophy; on retraining, a gain in size can be obtained by a moderate increase in the protein synthesis rate of
each of these many nuclei, skipping the step of adding newly formed nuclei. This shortcut may contribute
to the relative ease of retraining compared with the first training of individuals with no previous training
history.[16]
Reorganization of motor maps within the cortex are not altered in either strength or endurance training.
However, within the motor cortex, endurance induces angiogenesis within as little as three weeks to
increase blood flow to the involved regions.[14] In addition, neurotropic factors within the motor cortex are
upregulated in response to endurance training to promote neural survival.[14]
Skilled motor tasks have been divided into two distinct phases: a fast-learning phase, in which an optimal
plan for performance is established, and a slow-learning phase, in which longer-term structural
modifications are made on specific motor modules.[17] Even a small amount of training may be enough to
induce neural processes that continue to evolve even after the training has stopped, which provides a
potential basis for consolidation of the task. In addition, studying mice while they are learning a new
complex reaching task, has found that "motor learning leads to rapid formation of dendritic spines
(spinogenesis) in the motor cortex contralateral to the reaching forelimb".[18] However, motor cortex
reorganization itself does not occur at a uniform rate across training periods. It has been suggested that the
synaptogenesis and motor map reorganization merely represent the consolidation, and not the acquisition
itself, of a specific motor task.[19] Furthermore, the degree of plasticity in various locations (namely motor
cortex versus spinal cord) is dependent on the behavioural demands and nature of the task (i.e., skilled
reaching versus strength training).[14]
whether it be maintaining proper form when paddling a canoe, sitting with a neutral posture, or bench
pressing a heavier weight. Endurance training assists the formation of these new neural representations
within the motor cortex by up regulating neurotropic factors that could enhance the survival of the newer
neural maps formed due to the skilled movement training.[14] Strength training results are seen in the spinal
cord well before any physiological muscular adaptation is established through muscle hypertrophy or
atrophy.[14] The results of endurance and strength training, and skilled reaching, therefore, combine to help
each other maximize performance output.
More recently, research has suggested that epigenetics may play a distinct role in orchestrating a muscle
memory phenomenon [20] Indeed, previously untrained human participants experienced a chronic period of
resistance exercise training (7 weeks) that evoked significant increases in skeletal muscle mass of the vastus
lateralis muscle, in the quadriceps muscle group. Following a similar period of physical in-activity (7
weeks), where strength and muscle mass returned to baseline, participants performed a secondary period of
resistance exercise.[21] Importantly, these participants adapted in an enhanced manner, whereby the amount
of skeletal muscle mass gained was greater in the second period of muscle growth than the first, suggesting
a muscle memory concept. The researchers went on to examine the human epigenome in order to
understand how DNA methylation may aid in creating this effect. During the first period of resistance
exercise, the authors identify significant adaptations in the human methylome, whereby over 9,000 CpG
sites were reported as being significantly hypomethylated, with these adaptations being sustained during the
subsequent period of physical in-activity. However, upon secondary exposure to resistance exercise, a
greater frequency of hypomethylated CpG sites was observed, where over 18,000 sites reported as being
significantly hypomethylated. The authors went on to identify how these changes altered the expression of
relevant transcripts, and subsequently correlated these changes with adaptations in skeletal muscle mass.
Collectively, the authors conclude that skeletal muscle mass and muscle memory phenomenon is, at least in
part, modulated due to changes in DNA methylation.[21] Further work is now needed to confirm and
explore these findings.

Playing the piano requires complex
actions
Fine motor skills are often discussed in terms of transitive movements, which are those done when using
tools (which could be as simple as a tooth brush or pencil).[22] Transitive movements have representations
that become programmed to the premotor cortex, creating motor programs that result in the activation of the
motor cortex and therefore the motor movements.[22] In a study testing the motor memory of patterned
finger movements (a fine motor skill) it was found that retention of certain skills is susceptible to disruption
if another task interferes with one's motor memory.[1] However, such susceptibility can be reduced with
time. For example, if a finger pattern is learned and another finger pattern is learned six hours later, the first
pattern will still be remembered. But attempting to learn two such patterns one immediately after the other
could cause the first one to be forgotten.[1] Furthermore, the heavy use of computers by recent generations
has had both positive and negative effects. One of the main positive effects is an enhancement of children's
fine motor skills.[23] Repetitive behaviors, such as typing on a computer from a young age, can enhance
such abilities. Therefore, children who learn to use computer keyboards at an early age could benefit from
the early muscle memories.
Fine motor skills are very important in playing musical instruments.
It was found that muscle memory is relied on when playing the
clarinet, specifically to help create special effects through certain
tongue movements when blowing air into the instrument.[24]
Certain human behaviours, especially actions like the finger
movements in musical performances, are very complex and require
many interconnected neural networks where information can be
transmitted across multiple brain regions.[25] It has been found that
there are often functional differences in the brains of professional
musicians, when compared to other individuals. This is thought to
reflect the musician's innate ability, which may be fostered by an
early exposure to musical training.[25] An example of this is
bimanual synchronized finger movements, which play an essential
role in piano playing. It is suggested that bimanual coordination can
come only from years of bimanual training, where such actions
become adaptations of the motor areas.[26] When comparing
professional musicians to a control group in complex bimanual
movements, professionals are found to use an extensive motor
network much less than those non-professionals.[26] This is
because professionals rely on a motor system that has increased
efficiency, and, therefore, those less trained have a network that is more strongly activated.[26] It is implied
that the untrained pianists have to invest more neuronal activity to have the same level of performance that
is achieved by professionals.[26] This, yet again, is said to be a consequence of many years of motor
training and experience that helps form a fine motor memory skill of musical performance.
It is often reported that, when a pianist hears a well-trained piece of music, synonymous fingering can be
involuntarily triggered.[25] This implies that there is a coupling between the perception of music and the
motor activity of those musically trained individuals.[25] Therefore, one's muscle memory in the context of
music can easily be triggered when one hears certain familiar pieces. Overall, long-term musical fine motor
training allows for complex actions to be performed at a lower level of movement control, monitoring,
Fine motor memory
Music memory

Erik Akkersdijk is solving a 3×3×3
Rubik's Cube in 10.50s.
selection, attention, and timing.[26] This leaves room for musicians to focus attention synchronously
elsewhere, such as on the artistic aspect of the performance, without having to consciously control one's
fine motor actions.[26]
Speed cubers use muscle memory when attempting to solve puzzle
cubes, such as the Rubik's Cube, in the fastest possible time.[27][28]
Solving these puzzles in an optimally efficient manner requires the
cube to be manipulated according to a set of complex
algorithms.[29] By building their muscle memory of each
algorithm's movements, speed cubers can implement them at very
fast speeds without conscious effort.[30] This plays a role in major
speedcubing methods such as Fridrich for the 3×3×3 Rubik's Cube
and EG for the 2×2×2 Pocket cube.
Gross motor skills are concerned with the movement of large muscles, or major body movements, such as
those involved in walking or kicking, and are associated with normal development.[31] The extent to which
one exhibits gross motor skills depends largely on their muscle tone and the strength.[31] In a study looking
at people with Down Syndrome, it was found that the pre-existing deficits, with regard to verbal-motor
performance, limits the individual's transfer of gross motor skills following visual and verbal instruction to
verbal instruction only.[32] The fact that the individuals could still exhibit two of the three original motor
skills may have been a result of positive transfer in which previous exposure allows the individual to
remember the motion, under the visual and verbal trial, and then later perform it under the verbal trial.[32]
The way in which a child learns a gross motor skill can affect how long it takes to consolidate it and be able
to reproduce the movement. In a study with preschoolers, looking at the role of self-instruction on acquiring
complex gross motor chains using ballet positions, it was found that the motor skills were better learned and
remembered with the self-instruction procedure over the no-self-instruction procedure.[33] This suggests
that the use of self-instruction will increase the speed with which a preschooler will learn and remember a
gross motor skill. It was also found that once the preschoolers learned and mastered the motor chain
movements, they ceased the use of self-instruction. This suggests that the memory for the movements
became strong enough that there was no longer a need for self-instruction and the movements could be
reproduced without it.[33]
It has been suggested that consistent practice of a gross motor skill can help a patient with Alzheimer's
disease learn and remember that skill. It was thought that the damage to the hippocampus may result in the
need for a specific type of learning requirement.[34] A study was created to test this assumption in which
the patients were trained to throw a bean bag at a target.[34] It was found that the Alzheimer's patients
performed better on the task when learning occurred under constant training as opposed to variable. Also, it
was found that gross motor memory in Alzheimer's patients was the same as that of healthy adults when
Puzzle cube memory
Gross motor memory
Learning in childhood
Effect of Alzheimer's disease

learning occurs under constant practice.[34] This suggests that damage to the hippocampal system does not
impair an Alzheimer's patient from retaining new gross motor skills, implying that motor memory for gross
motor skills is stored elsewhere in the brain. However there isn't much evidence provided on this.
It is difficult to display cases of "pure" motor memory impairment because the memory system is so
widespread throughout the brain that damage is not often isolated to one specific type of memory.
Likewise, diseases commonly associated with motor deficits, such as Huntington's and Parkinson's disease,
have a wide variety of symptoms and associated brain damage that make it impossible to pinpoint whether
or not motor memory is in fact impaired. Case studies have provided some examples of how motor memory
has been implemented in patients with brain damage.
As Edward S. Casey notes in Remembering, Second Edition: A Phenomenological Study, declarative
memory, a process that involves an initial fragile learning period. "The activity of the past, in short, resides
in its habitual enactment in the present."
A recent issue in motor memory is whether or not it consolidates in a manner similar to declarative memory,
a process that involves an initial fragile learning period that eventually becomes stable and less susceptible
to damage over time.[1] An example of stable motor memory consolidation in a patient with brain damage
is the case of Clive Wearing. Clive has severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia owing to damage in his
temporal lobes, frontal lobes, and hippocampi, which prevents him from storing any new memories and
making him aware of only the present moment. However, Clive still retains access to his procedural
memories, to be specific, the motor memories involved in playing the piano. This could be because motor
memory is demonstrated through savings over several trials of learning, whereas declarative memory is
demonstrated through recall of a single item.[1] This suggests that lesions in certain brain areas normally
associated with declarative memory would not affect motor memory for a well-learned skill.
Case study: 54-year-old man with known history of epilepsy
This patient was diagnosed with a pure form of dysgraphia of letters, meaning he had no other speech or
reading impairments.[35] His impairment was specific to letters in the alphabet. He was able to copy letters
from the alphabet, but he was not able to write these letters.[35] He had previously been rated average on
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale's vocabulary subtest for writing ability comparative to his age before
his diagnosis.[35] His writing impairment consisted of difficulty remembering motor movements associated
with the letters he was supposed to write.[35] He was able to copy the letters, and also form images that
were similar to the letters.[35] This suggests that dysgraphia for letters is a deficit related to motor
memory.[35] Somehow there is a distinct process within the brain related to writing letters, which is
dissociated from copying and drawing letter-like items.
Automaticity – Ability to do things without occupying the mind with the low-level details
required
Impairment
Consolidation deficit
Dysgraphia for the alphabet
See also

Motor learning – Organism's movements that reflect changes in the structure / function of the
nervous system
Motor coordination
Muscle
Memory consolidation – Category of memory stabilizing processes
Overlearning – Practicing newly acquired skills beyond the point of initial mastery
Procedural memory – Unconscious memory used to perform tasks
Yips – Condition of sudden skill or control loss in an athlete
1. Krakauer, J.W.; Shadmehr, R. (2006). "Consolidation of motor memory" (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2553888). Trends in Neurosciences. 29 (1): 58–64.
doi:10.1016/j.tins.2005.10.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tins.2005.10.003).
PMC 2553888 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2553888). PMID 16290273
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16290273).
2. Poker Face: How to win poker at the table and online - Judi James. (https://books.google.co.
uk/books?id=PGScALPm_xAC&pg=PT97&lpg=PT97&dq=muscle+memory+poker&source=
bl&ots=oLO_dB9MhD&sig=jaM74OcKHPofUu-BGHYrR5fISFg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKE
wjyjPvyzdnXAhWka5oKHaE3D6AQ6AEIXjAL#v=onepage&q=muscle%20memory%20pok
er&f=false)
3. Adams, A.J. (1987). "Historical Review and Appraisal of Research on the Learning,
Retention, and Transfer of Human Motor Skills". Psychological Bulletin. 101 (1): 41–74.
doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.41 (https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.101.1.41).
4. Lee, D.T., & Schmidt, A.R. (2005). Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioural Emphasis.
(4th ed). Windsor, ON: Human Kinetics
5. Celnik, P.; Classen, J.; Cohen, G.L.; Duque, J.; Mazzocchio, R.; Sawaki, L.; Stephan, K.;
Ungerleider, L. (2005). "Formation of a Motor Memory by Action Observation" (https://www.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6725701). The Journal of Neuroscience. 25 (41): 9339–
9346. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2282-05.2005 (https://doi.org/10.1523%2Fjneurosci.2282-05.20
05). PMC 6725701 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6725701).
PMID 16221842 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16221842).
6. Flanagan, R.J.; Ghahramani, Z.; Wolpert, M.D. (2001). "Perspectives and Problems in Motor
Learning". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 5 (11): 487–494. doi:10.1016/s1364-
6613(00)01773-3 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1364-6613%2800%2901773-3).
PMID 11684481 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11684481). S2CID 6351794 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:6351794).
7. Shanks, D.R.; St; John, M.F. (1994). "Characteristics of Dissociable Human Learning
Systems" (http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/142639/1/download2.pdf) (PDF). Behavioral and Brain
Sciences. 17 (3): 367–447. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00035032 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0
140525x00035032). S2CID 14849936 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14849936).
8. Shadmehr, R; Holcomb, HH (1997). "Neural correlates of motor memory consolidation".
Science. 277 (5327): 821–25. doi:10.1126/science.277.5327.821 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2
Fscience.277.5327.821). PMID 9242612 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9242612).
9. Brashers-Krug, T; Shadmehr, R.; Bizzi, E. (1996). "Consolidation in human motor memory".
Nature. 382 (6588): 252–255. Bibcode:1996Natur.382..252B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1996Natur.382..252B). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.39.3383 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
summary?doi=10.1.1.39.3383). doi:10.1038/382252a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F382252a
0). PMID 8717039 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8717039). S2CID 4316225 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4316225).
References

10. Atwell, P.; Cooke, S.; Yeo, C. (2002). "Cerebellar function in consolidation of motor memory"
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0896-6273%2802%2900719-5). Neuron. 34 (6): 1011–1020.
doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00719-5 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0896-6273%2802%2900
719-5). PMID 12086647 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12086647).
11. Boyden, E.; Katoh, A.; Raymond, J. (2004). "Cerebellum-dependent learning: the role of
multiple plasticity mechanisms". Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27: 581–609.
doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144238 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.2
7.070203.144238). PMID 15217344 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15217344).
12. Ma, L.; et al. (2010). ". (2010). Changes in regional activity are accompanied with changes in
inter-regional connectivity during 4 weeks motor learning" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC2826520). Brain Res. 1318: 64–76. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.12.073 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainres.2009.12.073). PMC 2826520 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pmc/articles/PMC2826520). PMID 20051230 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20051230).
13. Packard, M.; Knowlton, B. (2002). "Learning and memory functions of the basal ganglia".
Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 25: 563–93. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.25.112701.142937 (https://doi.
org/10.1146%2Fannurev.neuro.25.112701.142937). PMID 12052921 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/12052921).
14. Adkins, DeAnna L.; Boychuck, Jeffery (2006). "Motor training induces experience specific
patterns of plasticity across motor cortex and spinal cord" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/
3d63cc947cfcc449d69c520ee3b6099c9d4bc243). Journal of Applied Physiology. 101 (6):
1776–1782. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00515.2006 (https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjapplphysiol.0
0515.2006). PMID 16959909 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16959909). S2CID 14285824
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14285824).
15. Deschenes Michael, R.; Giles Jennifer, A. (2002). "Neural factors account for strength
decrements observed after short-term muscle unloading". American Journal of Physiology.
Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 282 (2): R578–R583.
doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00386.2001 (https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fajpregu.00386.2001).
16. Bruusgaard, J. C.; et al. (2010). "Myonuclei acquired by overload exercise precede
hypertrophy and are not lost on detraining" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2
930527). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (34): 15111–15116.
Bibcode:2010PNAS..10715111B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..10715111
B). doi:10.1073/pnas.0913935107 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0913935107).
17. Karni, Avi; Meyer, Gundela (1998). "The acquisition of skilled motor performance: Fast and
slow experience-driven changes in primary motor cortex" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC33809). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (3): 861–868.
Bibcode:1998PNAS...95..861K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PNAS...95..861K).
doi:10.1073/pnas.95.3.861 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.95.3.861). PMC 33809 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC33809). PMID 9448252 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/9448252).
18. Xu, Tonghui; Perlik, Andrew J (2009). "Rapid formation and selective stabilisation of
synapses for enduring motor memories" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC284
4762). Nature. 462 (7275): 915–20. Bibcode:2009Natur.462..915X (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/2009Natur.462..915X). doi:10.1038/nature08389 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnatur
e08389). PMC 2844762 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2844762).

19. Kleim Jerrery, L.; Hogg Theresa, M. (2004). "Cortical Synaptogenesis and Motor Map
Reorganization Occur during Late, But not Early, Phase of Motor Skill Learning" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6729261). The Journal of Neuroscience. 24 (3): 629–
633. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.320.2189 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.
320.2189). doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3440-03.2004 (https://doi.org/10.1523%2Fjneurosci.3440-
03.2004). PMC 6729261 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6729261).
20. Sharples, Adam P.; Stewart, Claire E.; Seaborne, Robert A. (1 August 2016). "Does skeletal
muscle have an 'epi'-memory? The role of epigenetics in nutritional programming, metabolic
disease, aging and exercise" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4933662).
Aging Cell. 15 (4): 603–616. doi:10.1111/acel.12486 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Facel.1248
6). ISSN 1474-9726 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1474-9726). PMC 4933662 (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4933662). PMID 27102569 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/27102569).
21. Seaborne, Robert A.; Strauss, Juliette; Cocks, Matthew; Shepherd, Sam; O’Brien, Thomas
D.; Someren, Ken A. van; Bell, Phillip G.; Murgatroyd, Christopher; Morton, James P.;
Stewart, Claire E.; Sharples, Adam P. (30 January 2018). "Human Skeletal Muscle
Possesses an Epigenetic Memory of Hypertrophy" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC5789890). Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 1898. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.1898S (https://ui.ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatSR...8.1898S). doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20287-3 (https://doi.
org/10.1038%2Fs41598-018-20287-3). ISSN 2045-2322 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/204
5-2322). PMC 5789890 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5789890).
22. Dowell, L. R.; Mahone, E. M.; Mostofsky, S. H. (2009). "Associations of postural knowledge
and basic motor skill with dyspraxia in autism: Implication for abnormalities in distributed
connectivity and motor learning" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740626).
Neuropsychology. 23 (5): 563–570. doi:10.1037/a0015640 (https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa001
5640). PMC 2740626 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2740626).
23. Straker, L.; Pollock, C.; Maslen, B. (2009). "Principles for the wise use of computers by
children". Ergonomics. 52 (11): 1386–1401. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.468.7070 (https://citeseerx.ist.
psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.468.7070). doi:10.1080/00140130903067789 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F00140130903067789). PMID 19851906 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/19851906). S2CID 11366796 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11366796).
24. Fritz, C.; Wolfe, J. (2005). "How do clarinet players adjust the resonances of their vocal tracts
for different playing effects?". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 118 (5): 3306–
3315. arXiv:physics/0505195 (https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505195).
Bibcode:2005ASAJ..118.3306F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ASAJ..118.3306F).
doi:10.1121/1.2041287 (https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.2041287). PMID 16334701 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16334701). S2CID 1814740 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:1814740).
25. Kim, D.; Shin, M.; Lee, K.; Chu, K.; Woo, S.; Kim, Y.; Song, E.; Lee, Jun; Park, S.; Roh, J.
(2004). "Musical Training-Induced Functional Reorganization of the Adult Brain: Functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study on Amateur
String Players" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6871859). Human Brain
Mapping. 23 (4): 188–199. doi:10.1002/hbm.20058 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhbm.20058).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muscle_memory&oldid=1123348406"
26. Haslinger, B.; Erhard, P.; Altenmüller, E.; Hennenlotter, A.; Schwaiger, M.; von Einsiedel, H.
G.; Rummeny, E.; Conrad, B.; Ceballos-Baumann, A. O. (2004). "Reduced Recruitment of
Motor Association Areas During Bimanual Coordination in Concert Pianists" (https://www.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6871883). Human Brain Mapping. 22 (3): 206–215.
doi:10.1002/hbm.20028 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhbm.20028). PMC 6871883 (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6871883). PMID 15195287 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/15195287).
27. "Speedcubers are solving Rubik's Cubes at ever-faster speeds" (https://www.economist.co
m/graphic-detail/2019/07/11/speedcubers-are-solving-rubiks-cubes-at-ever-faster-speeds).
The Economist. 2019-07-11. ISSN 0013-0613 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613).
Retrieved 2021-12-10.
28. Barron, James (2014-04-25). "A Cube With a Twist: At 40, It Puzzles Anew" (https://www.nyti
mes.com/2014/04/26/nyregion/rubiks-redux-a-colorful-cube-puzzles-anew.html). The New
York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved
2021-12-10.
29. Demaine, Erik D.; Demaine, Martin L.; Eisenstat, Sarah; Lubiw, Anna; Winslow, Andrew
(2011). "Algorithms for Solving Rubik's Cubes" (http://arxiv.org/abs/1106.5736). In
Demetrescu, Camil; Halldórsson, Magnús M. (eds.). Algorithms – ESA 2011. Lecture Notes
in Computer Science. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 689–700. arXiv:1106.5736 (https://ar
xiv.org/abs/1106.5736). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-23719-5_58 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978
-3-642-23719-5_58). ISBN 978-3-642-23719-5. S2CID 664306 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:664306).
30. Saunokonoko, Mark (2015-09-12). "Feliks Zemdegs: cracking the Rubik's Cube" (https://ww
w.smh.com.au/lifestyle/feliks-zemdegs-cracking-the-rubiks-cube-20150821-gj50m9.html).
The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2021-12-10.
31. "Gross motor Skills – What are Gross Motor Skills" (http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/g
i/p/grossmotorskill.htm).
32. Meegan, S.; Maraj, B. K. V.; Weeks, D.; Chua, R. (2006). "Gross Motor Skill Acquisition in
Adolescents With Downs Syndrom" (https://assets.cdn.down-syndrome.org/pubs/a/reports-2
98.pdf) (PDF). Down Syndrome Research and Practice. 9 (3): 75–80.
doi:10.3104/reports.298 (https://doi.org/10.3104%2Freports.298). PMID 16869378 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16869378).
33. Vintere, P.; Hemmes, N. S.; Brown, B. L.; Poulson, C. L. (2004). "Gross-Motor Skill
Acquisition by Preschool Dance Stoudents Under Self-Instruction Procedures" (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1284506). Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 37 (3):
305–322. doi:10.1901/jaba.2004.37-305 (https://doi.org/10.1901%2Fjaba.2004.37-305).
34. Dick, M. B.; Shankle, R. W.; Beth, R. E.; Dick-Muehlke, C.; Cotman, C. W.; Kean, M. L.
(1996). "Acquisition and long-term retention of a gross motor skill in Alzheimer's disease
patients under constant and varied practice conditions" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgeronb%
2F51B.2.P103). The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social
Sciences. 51B (2): 103–111. doi:10.1093/geronb/51B.2.P103 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fge
ronb%2F51B.2.P103). PMID 8785686 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8785686).
35. Kapur, N.; Lawton, N. F. (1983). "Dysgraphia for Letters: a Form of Motor Memory Deficit?" (h
ttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1027454). Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery
& Psychiatry. 46 (6): 573–575. doi:10.1136/jnnp.46.6.573 (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjnnp.4
6.6.573). PMC 1027454 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1027454).

This page was last edited on 23 November 2022, at 07:33 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Muscle_memory (1).pdf

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Muscle_memory (1).pdf

Similar to Muscle_memory (1).pdf (20)

More from FRANZ DANIEL FERNÁNDEZ VACA..

More from FRANZ DANIEL FERNÁNDEZ VACA.. (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Muscle_memory (1).pdf