EDUC: 6761/Assignment: Globalization — What Does It Mean to You? Globalization is changing the world forever, along with technology, intercultural communication, and international trade. While some of these changes are already upon us, some are yet to be seen. Changes are sure to come but are as yet unknown-predicted but unpredictable. It would be natural to wonder which globalization trends are challenges and which are opportunities for your career, as well as how will it affect your role as a leader in higher education. This is further complicated by the fact that varied facets of higher education will be impacted in unique ways and would be viewed differently by different campus leaders, as imagined in the Discussion scenario. In order to learn from the experiences of countries responding to globalization, you will research, assess, and predict changes due to globalization in one country of your choice over the next 6 weeks. Whatever country you choose will become a focus for Assignments in Weeks 1-6, which you will then share with classmates in Week 8 to examine trends in globalization worldwide. You will research different aspects of your country each week, focusing on issues related to the weekly topic. Describe how the recent history of your chosen country might impact the demand and supply of higher education in that country. What aspects of globalization are evident in this country, such as Internet usage, teaching of English, or global trade? Why would citizens seek higher education in this country? What are the economic, social, and political limitations in supplying higher education to the populace in this country? How are these limitations expected to change in the near future? (Assignment length: 2-3 pages) Darwin’s Finches and Natural Selection by Cheryl Heinz, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Benedictine University, and Eric Ribbens, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Western Illinois University 1 The Galapagos Islands • Located approximately 1000km from the coast of Ecuador, South America. • This is just a little closer than the distance between Chicago and Philadelphia. – Mostly ground between the two U.S. cities. – Mostly deep water between the Galapagos Islands and the coast of South America. 2 3 Implications • Terrestrial species on these islands won’t have many relatives nearby. • Neighboring islands will have close relatives – but new terrestrial species won’t arrive on these islands from the South American mainland very often. – most of the island species have had plenty of time to differentiate from their nearest living relatives. • Another way of saying this is that there is very little gene flow between the islands and the mainland. 4 CQ1: Limited gene flow means: A: Birds rarely move between the mainland and the islands. B: Birds on the island have the same genes as birds on the mainland. C: Birds on the mainland don’t like birds from the islands. D: Birds on the mainl ...

1. EDUC: 6761/Assignment: Globalization — What Does It Mean
to You?
Globalization is changing the world forever, along with
technology, intercultural communication, and international
trade. While some of these changes are already upon us, some
are yet to be seen. Changes are sure to come but are as yet
unknown-predicted but unpredictable. It would be natural to
wonder which globalization trends are challenges and which are
opportunities for your career, as well as how will it affect your
role as a leader in higher education. This is further complicated
by the fact that varied facets of higher education will be
impacted in unique ways and would be viewed differently by
different campus leaders, as imagined in the Discussion
scenario.
In order to learn from the experiences of countries responding
to globalization, you will research, assess, and predict changes
due to globalization in one country of your choice over the next
6 weeks. Whatever country you choose will become a focus for
Assignments in Weeks 1-6, which you will then share with
classmates in Week 8 to examine trends in globalization
worldwide. You will research different aspects of your country
each week, focusing on issues related to the weekly topic.
Describe how the recent history of your chosen country might
impact the demand and supply of higher education in that
country.
What aspects of globalization are evident in this country, such
as Internet usage, teaching of English, or global trade?
Why would citizens seek higher education in this country?
What are the economic, social, and political limitations in
supplying higher education to the populace in this country?
How are these limitations expected to change in the near future?
(Assignment length: 2-3 pages)

2. Darwin’s Finches and
Natural Selection
by
Cheryl Heinz, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Benedictine
University, and Eric Ribbens, Dept. of Biological Sciences,
Western Illinois University
1
The Galapagos Islands
• Located approximately
1000km from the coast of
Ecuador, South America.
• This is just a little closer
than the distance
between Chicago and
Philadelphia.
– Mostly ground between the
two U.S. cities.
– Mostly deep water between
the Galapagos Islands and
the coast of South America.
2

3. 3
Implications
• Terrestrial species on these islands won’t have many
relatives nearby.
• Neighboring islands will have close relatives
– but new terrestrial species won’t arrive on these islands from
the South American mainland very often.
– most of the island species have had plenty of time to
differentiate from their nearest living relatives.
• Another way of saying this is that there is very little
gene flow between the islands and the mainland.
4
CQ1: Limited gene flow means:
A: Birds rarely move between the
mainland and the islands.
B: Birds on the island have the same
genes as birds on the mainland.
C: Birds on the mainland don’t like birds

4. from the islands.
D: Birds on the mainland won’t evolve, but
birds on the islands might.
5
Charles Darwin
• Darwin explored these islands from April through
October 1835.
– Entire voyage of The Beagle: Dec 1831 - Oct 1836
• When and where he started thinking about what
was to become his theory of evolution by natural
selection.
• He did not publish his thoughts until the
publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859.
6
Charles Darwin’s Ideas
• Biological evolution is change in
species over time.
– This was not a new idea at the
time
– But there were no good
mechanisms to explain how these

5. changes occurred
• Natural selection is just such a
mechanism, and this is what
Darwin contributed.
7
Galapagos Endemics
• The Galapagos today is an amazing place.
• Animals live there that are found nowhere
else on earth.
– This makes them endemic
– Perhaps the most famous of the endemic birds are
the finches, of which there are 13 different species
• The islands are a natural laboratory, and one
in which evolution can be observed.
8
Endemics
Among the kinds of animals
found here and nowhere else:
– 1 penguin species
– 1 giant tortoise species
– 1 marine iguana species
– 7 species of lava lizard
– 14 species of sea cucumber

6. – 1 species of sea lion
– 1 species of hawk
– several species each of
mockingbirds, doves, owls,
flycatchers, and yellow
warblers
9
CQ2: Endemic means:
A: The end is imminent.
B: The species isn’t found anywhere else.
C: The species has very specific habitat
requirements.
D: The species needs to be protected.
E: The species is extinct.
10
The Finches
• The 13 finch species include:
– 6 species of ground finches
– 3 species of tree finches
– 1 woodpecker finch
– 1 vegetarian finch
– 1 mangrove finch
– 1 Coco Island finch

7. • A warbler finch that looks more like a warbler
than a finch (one of the tree finches).
• The woodpecker finch actually uses cactus
spines to dig grubs out of branches!
11
Peter and Rosemary Grant
• Scientists Peter and Rosemary Grant have
studied many of these species for the past
thirty years.
– Spend months at a time on the islands
– Often know every finch on an island
• Let’s look at some of their data.
12
Graph showing the distribution of beak
depths for medium ground finches in Year 1
13
CQ3: What is the average depth of
the finches’ beaks in Year 1?
A: about 7mm
B: about 8mm

8. C: about 9.5mm
D: about 10mm
E: about 11mm
14
CQ4: How much was the biggest
difference in beak depth?
A: 2 mm
B: 4 mm
C: 6 mm
D: 8 mm
E: 10 mm
15
A Change in the Weather
• Year 2
• Like most years, some rain fell the first week
of January.
– The rest of January, there was one small
shower.
– The total rainfall for the entire year: 24mm.
• In a normal year, 130mm of rain would fall.
• In Year 1, 137mm of rain fell.
16

9. A Change in the Weather
• The ground finches feed on seeds
– Year 1 June: 1m2 of lava on the island
has over 10 grams of seeds.
– Year 2 June: 6 grams of seeds per m2.
– Year 2 December: 3 grams of seeds per m2.
• In the drought, the plants conserved their
resources and did not produce new seeds.
• Similarly, the finches did not mate and did
not produce eggs in Year 2
17
Seeds
• A variety of seeds are produced on the island.
– Finches prefer the softest seeds, which are the
easiest to open.
• The seeds above are seeds of a plant called
Caltrop, in the genus Tribulus.
– These are among the hardest to eat.
– It takes a medium ground finch with a beak at least
11mm long to open one.
– Ground finches with beaks that are 10.5mm long or

10. less haven’t even been seen trying to eat them.
18
Prediction?
• What do you think will happen to the
size of the finch population between
Years 1 and 3? (Remember, Year 2 is a
drought year.)
• Sketch a rough graph of your prediction
19
CQ5: What do you think a graph of population
size would look like for Year 1 to Year 3?
A:
Time
TimeTime
Time
B:
C: D:
20

11. Another Year of Change
• On one day in January of Year 3, more than
50mm of rain fell on the island .
– The plants finally flowered and produced new seeds.
• The Grants and their colleagues returned to the
Galapagos.
– They found the finch population had been decimated.
– No new finches hatched in Year 2.
– Only one finch born in Year 1 survived to Year 3.
21
Year 3 Data
22
CQ6: What was the average beak depth
in 1978? (Remember that the average
beak depth in 1976 was 9.5 mm.)
A: Just under 7mm
B: About 8mm
C: About 9mm
D: Just under 10mm
E: Just under 11mm
23

12. Evolution is:
A change in the frequency of an allele, such as an
allele for beak depth, is the basic definition of
evolution.
24
CQ7: Did the finch population evolve
from 1976 to 1978?
A: Yes
B: No
C: Maybe
D: I don’t know
25
Evolution by natural selection
• The Grants first went to the Galapagos
to take a quick snapshot of finch
diversity.
• Within only a few years, they saw
natural selection.
– In the course of one season, the beaks
got 0.54mm deeper and 0.39mm longer.
– The sex ratio changed, too.

13. 26
Evolution by natural selection
• The beak size and shape was changing,
right before the Grants’ eyes!
• This is definitely evolution as we defined
it earlier.
27
Surprises?
Two things surprised the Grants:
1. Evolution could occur quickly enough to
observe within a few field seasons.
• Darwin believed that we did not have a long
enough lifespan to observe evolution.
• A single weather event can cause evolution, if
there are traits that affect survival and if there is
variation in those traits.
28
Surprises?
2. Evolution can occur at very small scales.

14. The Grants’ measurements were very
careful.
• The birds weren’t used to humans, and so were
easy to catch and measure
• They couldn’t see a difference in even 1mm
between two finches, but their measurements
could
• And due to those measurements, they could find
that 0.5mm was enough to make a difference
between survival and death in a drought year
29
CQ8: Which do you find more
surprising?
A: Evolution occurs at a rate that we
humans can observe.
B: As little as half of a millimeter can
make the difference between life and
death.
C: Both surprise me.
D: Neither was particularly surprising.
30

15. Heritability
• It’s important to note that beak size and shape is
heritable in these finches.
– A bird with a large, deep beak will have offspring with
large and deep beaks.
• Natural selection can occur without heritability,
but evolution by natural selection cannot!
– (think about that for a minute…)
31
Evolution by Natural Selection
Steps:
1. Individuals vary in some traits.
2. Some of the differences in traits are
passed along to offspring.
– This requires a genetic basis to the trait
– The trait is thus heritable
(more…)
32
Evolution by Natural Selection
3. Different individuals produce different
numbers of surviving offspring.

16. – Produce different numbers, or
– Different numbers survive.
4. The particular value of a trait is
connected to the number of offspring
produced.
– Traits that allow for more offspring to be
produced are said to be “naturally selected.”
33
CQ9: If beak depth increased during the
drought, primarily due to selective mortality,
can we really say that this natural selection
was driven by environment favoring the
survival of birds with deeper beaks?
A: No. Beak depth changed due to birds dying,
not to birds surviving.
B: Yes. Birds with deeper beaks survived at a
higher rate than birds with shallower beaks.
C: I’m really confused.
34
Want to find out more of the
story? Check out …
The Beak of the Finch: A story of

17. evolution in our time, by Jonathan
Weiner (New York: Knopf, 1994).
35
Important Events
• 1738 - Linnaeus published his system of classification of
species.
• 1795 - Hutton proposed the idea that the Earth was shaped
by gradual forces
• 1796 - Cuvier published his theory that fossils were from
species that had become extinct
• 1798 - Malthus' essay on the Principle of Population
published.
• 1809 - Lamarck’s theory of evolution published - Darwin
born
• 1830 - Lyell proposed his geological theory of
uniformitarianism.
• 1831 - Darwin set out on the voyage of the Beagle
• 1858 - Wallace wrote to Darwin setting out his theory of
natural selection.
o Darwin's and Wallace's ideas were presented to the
Linnaean Society of London.
• 1859 - Darwin published On the Origin of Species
• 1865 - Mendel’s experiments on heredity published

18. • 1953 – Watson and Crick (and Franklin!) discover the
structure of DNA
• 1990 – 2003 – Human genome project
Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=K3QdmgEv7KE#t=105.943895
• Darwin was a naturalist and scientist from England in the
1800s. This was the time when it was being noticed that
the world was very old and was constantly changing.
Change over time is called evolution.
• Darwin sailed on a ship called the Beagle. He and his crew
were on a five-year journey to map South America.
Darwin also planned on collecting plant and animal
species.
• Darwin’s theory of evolution explains the change of species
over many (millions!) years.
Ideas that shaped Darwin’s thinking
• Lamarck (late 1700s to early 1800s) proposed that species
changed to make themselves better in their environment.
Example: a bird that walks in water will grow longer legs
to accommodate searching for food. This would mean that
the bird’s legs would gradually grow longer. This concept
is called acquired characteristics.
o An individual doesn’t evolve, but a species
(population) does.
• Lamarck also considered that the new traits would be passed

19. to future generations, which is the concept inheritance of
acquired traits.
•
https://steemitimages.com/p/3MxaK27PJLaXTye38LFsNXRdy
NJyo2d31RaJSStdSLa6HAe?
format=match&mode=fit&width=640
• This means that future generations of birds would have
longer legs than their predecessors. He was incorrect in his
assumption, as evolution (change over time) does not occur
to make a species perfect. While incorrect, Lamarck’s
work was helpful to Darwin - the connection between a
species and its environment.
o Does a species evolve to become perfect?
o We do evolve, not to become perfect, but to survive in
our current situation.
o What is perfect?
• Malthus (late 1700s to 1800s) looked at populations and
noticed that people were born faster than they were dying.
Darwin saw that this applied to all organisms. The idea
here is that if populations grow out of control (and never
die) the world will be overpopulated. Which individuals
survive? Which die?
• Mendel (mid to late 1800s): Mendel tested and explained
laws that inform the transfer of genetic information from
parent to offspring.
• Weisman (mid to late 1800s): The theory of germ cells (egg
and sperm) and somatic cells (all other body cells) came
from Weisman. This contributed to modern evolutionary

20. synthesis as gametes (germ cells or egg and sperm cells)
are the only source for natural selection.
• De Vries (late 1800s – early 1900s): He duplicated Mendel’s
work while studying plant growth; he learned that different
characters have different hereditary carriers. The term
genes came from Darwin’s pangenesis.
• Lyell was a friend of Darwin. He emphasized natural law,
which was that processes of the past were much the same
as today. Earlier geologists explained events as acts of
God. Lyell and Darwin explained processes as events
caused by nature.
• These ideas and the work of others influenced thoughts on
evolution. Darwin’s On the Origin of Species was
published in 1859. Darwin’s work was a combination of
his ideas, as well as the work of others (especially Malthus
and Lamarck).
In his travels to different continents, he noticed patterns:
Species vary globally (closely related but different
environments)
o Darwin noticed that similar habitats in different parts of the
world have similar animal species. For example, Darwin
found flightless, ground-dwelling birds called rheas living
in the grasslands of South America. Rheas look and act a
lot like ostriches. Yet rheas live only in South America,
and ostriches live only in Africa. When Darwin visited
Australia’s grasslands, he found another large flightless
bird, the emu.
• Natural selection would lead to the development of similar
adaptations, even if the species are not closely related.

21. • Think: the growing habitat in Sask. is similar to Australia,
which means plants are similar, even though on opposite ends
of the world.
Species vary locally (similar environments but differences
between species)
o Darwin noticed that different, yet related, animal species
often occupied different habitats within a local area.
o He noted that the Galápagos Islands are close to the east
coast of South America (considered ‘local’), yet they have
different ecological conditions.
o The birds on the mainland are closely related to the birds
on the Galapagos, however due to different selection
pressures, the mainland birds are different from the island
birds.
o Additionally, there are differences between the species that
live in similar environments (ground finches,
o Remember...natural selection, so different adaptations
would take place depending on the environment.
o Darwin proposed that birds on islands descended from
birds in South America, although there were great
differences because the environments were different.
o In addition, Darwin noticed several types of small brown
birds on the islands with beaks of different shapes. He
didn’t consider these smaller birds to be unusual or
important—at first…
• Species vary over time

22. o Darwin also collected fossils, which are the preserved
remains or traces of ancient organisms.
o Darwin noticed that some fossils of extinct animals were
similar to living species.
o https://cdn.britannica.com/03/55003-050-FA859C9F/horses-
dawn-horse-size-all-one-toes.jpg
Putting the Pieces Together
On the voyage home, Darwin thought about the patterns he had
seen. Darwin sent plant and animal specimens to experts for
identification.
The Galápagos mockingbirds turned out to belong to three
separate species found nowhere else.
The little brown birds were actually all species of finches, also
found nowhere else, though they resembled a South American
finch species.
The same was true of Galápagos tortoises, marine iguanas, and
many plants that Darwin had collected on the islands. The
evidence suggested that species are not fixed and that they
could
change by some natural process.
Based on Darwin’s theory, organisms that are well adapted to
their environment are able to survive and have offspring. In
turn, the offspring likely carry the traits that will ensure their
survival. We can trace this line back to common descent.
Over time, a species would evolve, which Darwin called descent
with modification, which meant that gradual change was
occurring. The length of time – called deep time – allowed
natural selection, since deep time is a concept of over 4 bill ion
years
Artificial Selection

23. • The concept of artificial selection is something that Darwin
noticed among breeders and farmers. It was noticed that
some trees produced more or bigger fruit and some cows
gave more milk – nature provided the variation. It was also
noticed that these traits were passed to the offspring. Even
without knowledge of how traits were passed on, over time,
selective breeding or artificial selection allowed humans to
get more out of their plants and animals.
Natural Selection
• The struggle for existence is the concept organisms compete
for food, water, living space, and other necessities. If one
doesn’t get enough of these necessities, the organism will
not survive to reproduce.
• Selection pressures lead to changes in the population as
species with traits for fitness have advantages that support
their ability to survive and reproduce.
• Darwin also noticed that there is variation in inheritable
traits, and some inheritable traits make survival easier.
Individual variation is the genotypic and phenotypic
variation in species. While we all have genes for hair
colour, due to individual variation different hair colours
exist and are passed from one generation to the other.
o Genotype – the alleles of a particular trait
▪ You cannot ‘see’ genotype, you only see evidence
of it.
▪ B = bent pinky, b = straight pinky
Mom – Bb Dad – bb

24. Kids have bb (phenotype shows straight pinkies)
o Phenotype – the expression of an allele in a species
▪ Physical representation of the trait (disclaimer: it is
not something that you can always see….
▪ Finches = beaks, something that we can ‘see’
▪ The evidence of the genotype
• A heritable trait that helps an organism survive in its
environment is an adaptation. Adaptations can be physical
(sharp claws to kill prey) or behavioural (ability to evade
predators).
o Some finches had long toes and some had short toes
o Round ears or pointy ears in a 13-lined chipmunk?
▪ Round or pointy ears is a heritable trait (it is
inherited)
▪ Round or pointy ears have nothing to do with
whether or not they survive, SO, these traits are
NOT an adaptation!
o It’s the camouflage that ensures its survival
o https://www.wildlifeillinois.org/wp-
content/uploads/2019/03/Thirteen-Lined-Ground-
SquirrelEDITED.jpg
• Survival of the fittest – since adaptation can affect the ability
of a species to survive, fitness describes how well an
organism can survive and reproduce in its environment.
This means that an animal that has more adaptive traits is
less likely to die and more likely able to produce offspring,
and thus able to pass on those traits.

25. o If you are the fittest, or if you are fit, it means you have
the adaptations to survive.
o An adaptation - the population or species adapts to
their surroundings (to survive)
o A mutation – can be caused by a virus
▪ Mutations can occur randomly
▪ A mutation might have no effect on anything
(neutral) OR
• A mutation can also lead to an adaptation.
▪ Some people have a mutated gene (heritable) that
makes them resistant to HIV. Somehow…..a
random mutation occurred that made this happen
and this mutation is passed to offspring.
• The animals with low fitness are less able to survive, so tend
to not produce offspring, and they die. This causes future
generations to have more adaptive traits.
Normal is a subjective term.
How do we decide what is normal?
People accept something as a standard
5 digits on our hands, 5 digits on our toes…
As a society, we have decided that this is normal,
therefore, anything that is not as above, is considered
abnormal.
Voldemort does NOT have a normal nose. Voldemort has
an abnormal nose.
BUT, what if…….everyone’s nose looked like Voldemort’s
nose?
Then he would have a normal nose.

26. Normalcy is fluid….what is normal can change!! What is
normal to one might not be normal to another.
DNA is the master copy, lives in the nucleus of the cells, it
is THE instruction manual; it CANNOT leave the nucleus.
DNA tells our body to build proteins. The tools to build
proteins (ribosomes et al) are in the cytoplasm
mRNA is photocopy of the pages needed to build a
specific
Vaccine – mRNA is made for us, it is injected into our
body, ribosomes read the mRNA and realize it is foreign
and our body will mount an immune response, part of
which involves memory cells. When the real virus comes
along the body (snipers!) are ready
Natural selection is the concept that organisms with the best
traits are the ones that tend to survive. Natural selection is
much
like artificial selection except nature is selecting the best traits
to
ensure survival:
1) More offspring are born with the trait.
2) There is heritable variation in the population.
a. Nothing is perfect – a different natural event could
make an adaptation useless.
3) Some individuals have the traits that makes them more
likely to survive and reproduce.
Over time, populations evolved as they adapted to their
environment. If the environment changes, the species
(population) may adapt again.
Evidence to support Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859)
was difficult to find when his book was published, however,

27. since then, advances in technology and increased research has
brought evidence forth.
Review Questions:
• Discuss how variations occur in a population.
• Discuss the action of natural selection on individuals,
populations, and species
• Explain how Darwin’s observations led to his inferences
about evolution.
How Natural Selection Works
Recall that fitness is one’s ability to survive and reproduce.
The
traits that favour fitness are those that favour natural selection.
Individuals with high fitness have a greater chance of survival
and reproduction than do those with low fitness, thus the
offspring (likely) carry that fitness too. This means that the
alleles (variations of genes) for those traits will be more
common in a population.
Single-gene
• Some traits are controlled by a single gene and others are
controlled by more than one genes
• Single-gene traits are controlled by one gene and may have
just two of three phenotypes (appearances).
• Ex: in a particular snail, one gene controls the stripes on the
shell (Or, there are two alleles (variations) in snails for shell
shape
• https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/grains/identification-and-control-

28. pest-
slugs-and-snails-broadacre-crops-western-australia?nopaging=1
• https://1mkturin.files.wordpress.com/2008/09/snails001.jpg
• With single-gene traits, natural selection can lead to changes
in
allele frequency (how often it appears in a population). Over
time, if one trait survives better than another, that allele
(particular gene) will become more common in the
population.
Polygenic Traits
• Polygenic traits are controlled by more than one gene and
have many genotypes and phenotypes.
• Polygenic traits produce a range of phenotypes (skin colour,
eye colour, or height, for example), and the range is
typically shown in a bell curve. The shape of the curve
changes depending on where the higher fitness is.
• The number of phenotypes for a trait depends on the number
of genes that control it (more variations = more genes)
• Height is a polygenic trait, and if you graphed the height of a
population, you would see a bell-curve, which is typical for
polygenic traits.
•
https://slideplayer.com/slide/5266066/17/images/14/Polyg
enic+Inheritance.jpg

29. • Skin colour is also polygenic:
• https://sites.google.com/a/canacad.ac.jp/hl2-biology-
ferguson/_/rsrc/1470268831126/08-genetics/10-3-
polygenic-inheritance/489071.jpg
• If the fitness trait is at one end of the curve, directional
selection will take place (ex: birds with bigger beaks – since
the birds with the bigger beaks will survive, over time, the
average size of the beaks will increase, which will shift the
curve.)
• If natural selection favours the average trait, then the curve
will
gradually peak in the middle. This is stabilizing selection. An
example of this is the size of babies – smaller babies have
more difficulties in surviving and larger babies have more
troubled deliveries.
• In disruptive selection, the extremes are more likely to survive
and reproduce, which shifts the graph in an odd manner.
Example – beak size: if seeds are small or large then there
will be a decrease in the number of birds with ‘average’ beak
size.
Other Evidence of Evolution
Convergent evolution: is seen in different species that have
similar traits or characteristics that have developed (evolved)
due to selection pressures. There is no common ancestor with
respect to the trait, however. As seen in the picture below, the
arctic wolf and the ptarmigan are similar in colour and
fluffiness, both of which are traits for survival. These two are
not closely related, on an evolutionary tree, yet have
recognizable similarities. This is evidence of natural selection.

30. Image credit: Evidence for evolution. (n.d.). Kahn Academy.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-
selection/common-ancestry-and-continuing-
evolution/a/evidence-for-evolution
Analogous structures indicate convergent evolution:
• Not closely related on the evolutionary tree; different
structure
but similar function
• https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images/wp-
content/uploads/sites/1842/2017/05/26155634/figure-20-02-
02.jpeg
Divergent evolution is seen with species that come from a
common ancestor but continue to evolve independently (due to
selection pressures). Practical examples of this are seen with
homologous structures, such that the similarity in structure
speaks to a common ancestor, but clearly the function is not at
all similar. Divergent evolution is evidence of a common
ancestor.
Homologous structures indicate divergent evolution:
• close on the evolutionary tree; similar structure but different
function
• https://pixfeeds.com/images/32/609061/1280-homologous-
forelimb-structure.png
Adaptive radiation is an example of divergent evolution in that
there is one ancestral species. Darwin’s finches illustrate this
as
there are many similarities among the different finch species,
which indicates a common ancestor, but each finch species has

31. adapted to survive and reproduce in its habitat.
Image credit: Adaptive radiation. (n.d.). BioNinja.
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-
and-biodi/52-natural-selection/adaptive-radiation.html
Embryology: during fetal development, it was noted that not
even a trained scientist could tell the species of the fetus at its
early stages. The fact that there is great similarity in fetal
development is further evidence of common ancestry.
Note: Sauropsids are egg-laying vertebrates
Image credit: Examples of homologous structures that reveal
our shared ancestry.
(n.d.) BiologyWise. https://biologywise.com/examples-of-
homologous-
structures
Vestigial structures are those that have no important function,
although the presence of them indicates a connection to
common
descent.
•
https://sites.google.com/site/brandtevolution/_/rsrc/1418361509
106/home/mutation/Vestigial%20Structures.jpg?
height=598&width=1005
• https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-
f3b64a949804cc368befad068f390b92 .webp
Natural Selection: crash course

32. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTftyFboC_M
Factors the Affect Populations
Gene Flow
Gene flow refers to the ‘movement’ of genes in a population
due
to reproductive processes.
Sexual Reproduction
Since sexual reproduction combines the genetics of two parents,
there are millions of possible genetic combinations. Crossing-
over makes the possible combinations even greater. So sexual
reproduction does change the outcome (think: appearance) but it
does not change the frequency of genes in a population.
Think of a deck of cards…you can shuffle the cards and be dealt
a different hand each time, but there are still 52 cards in the
deck…
Genetic Drift
Definition: variation in the relative frequency of different
genotypes in a small population, owing to the chance
disappearance of particular genes as individuals die or do not
reproduce.
In small populations, chance events can cause evolution, not
natural selection. Genetic drift is a random change in allele
frequency.
There are two types of genetic drift:
Genetic Bottlenecks
• If, for example, a disaster kills most of a population and the
surviving organisms have a set of alleles that was different
from the entire population. When this population grows,
the unique trait will become the principle trait. This effect

33. can greatly reduce genetic diversity.
The Founder Effect
• This occurs when a few individuals move into a new habitat.
If the small group has a set of alleles that is different from
the original population, a new allele is introduced.
• If a small group moves out of a population, specific alleles
will become prevalent in the newer, smaller population.
Summary
Mutation causes a phenotypic change. The
mutation creates a different allele, which
will then be passed to future generations
Founder effect – a new member, with different
alleles moves into a population, resulting in the
new allele(s) being introduced into the population.
Genetic drift – a chance event takes some
alleles out of the population.
Natural selection – if one phenotype is selected
over another, the allele frequency will change
Image credits: Understanding evolution. (n.d.). University of
California Museum of Paleontology's
http://evolution.berkeley.edu
Speciation - the formation of a new species
Crash Course video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=2oKlKmrbLoU
Examples of speciation

34. • There are finches present on the Galapagos Islands. When
founders arrive they will introduce new alleles to the
population.
• Since finches tend not to fly over water (how they got to the
island…by chance…), they will be geographically
separated from where they first came. On the island,
natural selection would lead to a new population of finches
that was different from the first.
• As time goes on, directional selection will reflect the
prevailing alleles (beak size, for example).
• Behaviourally – if finches from the island population
returned to their original home, their behaviours would be
so different from the finches that were still there
(originally…), the two different species would not
interbreed. This would lead to different species of finches.
Competition and Evolution
• Sexual competition – mates are selected by determining
which has the best characteristics
• Resource partitioning – similar species are competing for the
same resources (such as food). The better competitor wins
- this requires having the adaptive trait - those with the
‘best beak’ would survive and reproduce. Resource
partitioning includes other factors (shelter, for example).
When species breed, this connects their gene pools, but if the
species split, genetic changes in one do not affect the other.

35. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oKlKmrbLoU&t=17s
Isolating Mechanisms
Isolating mechanisms are those that cause species to separate
from each other. If species are separated and kept apart, genetic
differences develop. Even if the two species meet again, they
won’t reproduce. The result is that you have two different
species. If this continues to happen, you can end up with many
different species of the same animal, perhaps 13different finch
species!
Reproductive isolation occurs when two populations can no
longer mate. There are different ways species can become
reproductively isolated from each other:
• Geographic isolation – the species is physically separated
from the other. This is allopatric speciation. If the
members of the population evolve in the absence of
geographic isolation, this is sympatric speciation.
Image credit: University of California Museum
of Paleontology's Understanding Evolution
(http://evolution.berkeley.edu).
• Sympatric speciation – the individuals are not geographically
isolated (they are in the same location) so there is
something else that causes isolation.
o Behavioural isolation – if the behaviour of the species
causes them not to mix, then breeding won’t happen.
For example, if one species changes its mating song,
the others won’t respond to it.
o Temporal isolation – if reproductive schedules differ,
the species won’t interbreed.

36. Rate of Evolution
• Evolution of all species does not happen at the same rate. If
there is no change in the population, it will be in equilibrium
((think: the deck of cards is just shuffling…no cards are
leaving or being added). Two explanations for evolutionary
rate (evolutionary change in a population) are gradualism and
punctuated equilibrium.
• Gradualism
o This is slow and steady evolution that occurred over many
years. Fossil records supported this.
• Punctuated equilibrium
o Some species have shown no evolution at all, which
means the species is in equilibrium. Punctuated
equilibrium is a rapid change of that equilibrium (which
can still take thousands of years!)
• Rapid change after equilibrium can affect small populations by
genetic changes that happen among fewer individuals. This
might also happen when a species moves to a new environment
(Darwin’s finches!). Mass extinctions can also lead to rapid
change among the remaining species.
o
http://lh2015bio11.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/7/9/13790835/1445
760_
orig.gif
History of Life
• Fossil records are valuable for giving us information about the
history of life on earth.

37. • Most fossils are the preserved remains of living organisms.
The
hard parts of the body are preserved; the soft parts (muscle
tissue, skin...) typically rot or are eaten. Fossils can be as large
as a whole animal or as small as a bone or a tooth. Trace fossils
are those that give signs of activity, such as droppings,
footprints, burrows.
Without fossils, we would not have information about species
that
have become extinct.
Fossils can show:
• How an organism lived
• What an organism ate
• How an animal moved (bone structure, footprints)
• The nature of the habitat – leaves, pollen, for example – can
tell
us about the area (swamp? Forest?)
• Ecosystems – when plants and animals are fossilized together.
Life on a Changing Planet
• These can form mountain ranges and move continents. Plate
tectonics is the theory that the surface of the earth sits on plates
and these plates have moved (slowly). They continue to move,
which causes natural disasters, such as earthquakes and
volcanoes.
• We know that Africa and South America are separated by the
Atlantic Ocean, but fossils of the same reptile, Mesosaurus,
found on both continents, are reason to believe that these
continents were once connected.

38. • Earth’s climate has changed over time, and many of these are
caused by small changes in temperature. Small
temperature changes can make big differences.
• Comets and asteroids - large objects from space have
crashed into earth several times, which may have caused
the sun to be blocked. This would cause cooling, which
could then have caused organisms to become extinct.
• Living organisms provide lots of information about the age
of the earth. Plants take in carbon, which, over time, can
affect climate (cause cooling).
• Since changing environments has caused species to adapt, we
see new species and extinction. Extinction occurs when all
members of a species die without reproducing. Speciation is
the evolvement of new species.
• Genetic variation increases survival in a changing
environment,
• Background extinction occurs slow and steady and occurs over
long periods of time. Mass extinction occurs in a short period
and can cause entire ecosystems to disappear. Mass
extinctions are usually due to natural disasters.
• Rapid change after equilibrium can affect small populations by
genetic changes that happen among fewer individuals. This
might also happen when a species moves to a new environment
(Darwin’s finches!). Mass extinctions can also lead to rapid
change among the remaining species.
Gene flow can occur when an
individual travels from one

39. geographic location to another and
joins a different population of the
species. In the example shown
here, the brown allele is introduced
into the green population.
2021-05-13, 10:51 AM
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Dog Breeding and
Artificial Selection
Richards, J. (n.d.) In SlidePlayer.
Retrieved from
https://slideplayer.com/slide/9823672/#
.X0xHNJWtw9g.google
Evolution of the dogs – Artificial Selection
Ever wonder how your dog evolved? There are more than 350
different breeds of dog,
each one--from the Chihuahua to the Great Dane--descended
from the grey wolf.
The domestication of dogs by man dates back at least twelve
thousand years.
Domestication of the wolf may have begun with orphaned wolf
cubs brought into
villages and raised by children. Ancient man may have also
started the domestication
process by befriending wolves which helped them hunt and
drive herds.

40. There were advantages at that time to having semi-tame wolves.
The acute hearing of
the wolf would alarm humans of imminent danger at night, for
example. However, as
civilization evolved, the jobs of dogs became more varied and
specific; as a result,
different breeds were created to handle different jobs. Selective
breeding has allowed
human manipulation to create the traits that you see in dogs
today, such as the
pushed-in face of the pug, or the speed of the greyhound to
catch its prey.
Regardless of how far your dog has evolved from its ancestor,
there is still a great
deal of wolf present in the domestic dog. Dogs are still
genetically wolves, and they
share seventy-eight chromosomes. The two species are still able
to cross-breed,
creating the wolf hybrid, which (unlike the mate of a horse and
donkey, a mule) is not
sterile.
Besides the physical similarities, there are many behaviour
similarities between the
wolf and the dog. Wolves and dogs live in pack societies. They
have group rituals such
as greetings, feeding, playing, mating, and hunting. Both
communicate with other
pack members through facial expressions and body movements;
vocalizations such as
growls, howls, and whines are used. Leading each pack is a
dominant male or female.
This dog or wolf is known as the alpha. The alpha leads by
example, and other pack

41. members show their respect by submission. You may have
witnessed this in your own
house if you have more than one dog. A dog may cower when
faced with another dog,
or its hair may stand up (the technical term for this
phenomenon: piloerection).
In creating the domestic dog, humans have retained some wolf
characteristics. Dogs
retain much of the territorialism of wolves and the suspicion of
strangers, making
dogs effective guardians of our selves and property. The dog
has also retained the
ability to follow a creature’s scent through the forest, and
breeding has in some cases
actually improved that--the bloodhound, for example. Most dogs
are also excellent
hunters, which may be a characteristic of the wolf that has
stayed genetically stable in
the dog.
In contrast, a wolf is unlikely to accept new pack members as
well as a dog will accept
them. Wolves also will generally act shyly around humans. A
wolf never bonds to
humans very well, even when raised by people from birth, and
is not as trainable. It is
true that wolves or wolf hybrids may form emotional bonds with
their human
companions, but they will also maintain their own autonomy
and may never heed a
single command given by the human owner. This is why most
knowledgeable
authorities recommend not buying a wolf or wolf hybrid pup.
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42. Greyhound
Height: 71-76 cm
Working Greyhounds have strength,
endurance and great speed. As pets they are
affectionate, gentle and docile. They are
happiest when they live in a home that can
provide plenty of love and companionship.
In Great Britain the Greyhound has been
associated with the English monarchy since
Anglo-Saxon times. The royal forests, which
were vast and well stocked, were the hunting
grounds for these hounds and their royal
masters.
For centuries a hunting breed, the Afghan of
today is seen as an aristocrat portraying
dignity and independence.
It is loyal and affectionate to its family but
with strangers it is discriminating. In spite
of its strong personality, it is not a fighter
and usually gets on well with other dogs.
Regular and thorough grooming is essential
- at least three times a week for all its adult
life. Vigorous daily exercise is also a must.
Afghans are strong willed and independent
minded, and training them requires
determination and perseverance.

43. Afghan
Hound
Height: 68-
73 cm
Parson Jack Russell Terrier
Height: 28-38 cm
The Jack Russell is a tough little dog, that
is full of character, loyal and affectionate
with its family but not always friendly
towards strangers. They are excellent
guard dogs. The Jack Russell is a hardy
dog that was bred to work the fox. They
have excellent noses which make them
ideal hunters of all types of vermin.
Dog cards – print out and laminate
Pekingese
Height: 20-28 cm
The Pekingese is an independent breed
which displays loyalty, dignity and self
confidence at all times. Not usually
aggressive or disobedient, although it will
obey orders in its own time.

44. The are adaptable, not minding whether
they live in the town or the country.
Pug
Height: 20-25 cm
A robust breed that is full of character.
Adaptable and intelligent, they are friends
for both old and young alike as they are
tolerant and good tempered. The Pug is
kind, gentle and trustworthy especially
with children. Because of this, the Dutch
called them "nursery dogs" and would
leave them in the nursery to watch over
the children.
Mastiff
Height: 76 cm
Large, powerful dogs which possess the
qualities of courage and grandeur. An
excellent guard dog, yet gentle and
affectionate to its family. Mastiffs require
exercise and space in order to keep them
physically and mentally happy.

45. Eskimo Dog
Height: 58-68 cm
The Eskimo Dog is intelligent,independent
and extremely tough. Generally good
natured and friendly, nevertheless, it is a
breed which should only be owned by
experienced dog handlers. The breed's
feeding habits are different from most other
breeds. When on the trail if food is available
they are fed every day, while at the home
they are probably only fed once or twice a
week.
Loading…
A popular breed which is strong and has plenty
of stamina. It enjoys human company and is
especially good with children. A non-aggressive
and reliable guard dog. An energetic breed, they
tend to retain their youth and thoroughly enjoy
an active life for a lot longer than some breeds.
Boxers are susceptible to a number of ailments,
particularly skin cancers and rheumatism. They
also slobber a lot. These dogs were all-
rounders. With fine muscular physiques and
strong broad jaws, they were originally used for
bear and bull-baiting. They were courageous
hunting dogs that were capable of dealing with
big game such as wild ox and wild boar. Also
they were used on the farms as cattle dogs.

46. Rough Collie
Height: 56-61 cm
The Collie is a one man family dog and will
show great affection and loyalty to all
members of its family. It is intelligent and
often appears to have a sixth sense. A good
guard dog that is wary of strangers until
excepted by its master. The rough collie is a
sheepdogs which has been used to herd,
drive and gather in the flocks for centuries.
They often worked in very difficult
conditions especially in the mountainous
regions in the far north of the British Isles.
Portuguese Water Dog
Height: 50-57 cm
A breed with character and substance.
Intelligent, energetic, robust and self-
willed. Nevertheless, it has a pleasing
disposition and is obedient to its owner.
Its long association with water means the
dogs of today still display the natural
swimming abilities of their ancestors..
The Portuguese Water Dog is principally
a sporting breed. It is robust and is
endowed with amazing stamina.

47. Maltese
Height: no more than 25 cm
A sweet tempered and intelligent breed
which is usually good with children and
make excellent family pets. The breed
although diminutive, is robust and
energetic and not averse to hunting.
Boxer
Height: 56-
63 cm
Labrador Retriever
Height: 56 - 57 cm
As companions Labradors are kindly,
patient,intelligent and always keen to please.
They make perfect family dogs being
especially good with children. They are not a
town dog; long country walks keep them
mentally and physically fit.
Soft mouths and a natural ability in water and
in wooded and open country have made them
a gamekeeper's favourite. They are very
successful at trailing and retrieving wounded
game.

48. Bloodhound
Height: 63-69 cm
An affectionate, dignified and noble breed. It
is neither quarrelsome with human
companions nor with other dogs. It is usually
dependable and gentle with children.
Individuals live to between 10 and 12 years on
average. These hounds follow and find their
prey by tracking and not by using their sight.
Samoyed
Height: 51-56 cm
The samoyed is a strong, active and graceful
dog which is capable of great endurance. These
dogs were originally used as reindeer herders,
guards, and pets, and occasionally as sled dogs.
Today they are most often found as
companions and occasionally as a sled dog.
They are also intelligent, alert and full of
action.
Very friendly - displays affection to all
mankind and as a result does not make a good
Pharaoh Hound
Height: 50-56 cm
The Pharaoh Hound's short, glossy coat

49. makes it a joy in the home. They have no
doggy odour, even when wet. He's
intelligent, friendly, affectionate and playful,
alert and active. This is a very fast and agile
dog with a marked keenness for hunting both
by scent and sight.
The Pharaoh Hound is particularly fond of
children and never loses his joy in romping
and playing. He particularly craves human
attention. Their willingness to please allows
them to be easily trained. He is an excellent
family pet and companion. This dog was
selectively bred to hunt rabbit.
Dog Breeding
Ever wonder how your dog evolved? There are more than 350
different breeds of dog, each
one--from the Chihuahua to the Great Dane--descended from the
grey wolf.
Over the thousands of years, we have shaped wolves through
breeding into dogs with floppy
ears, sleek coats, and short noses--exactly the opposite of their
distant ancestor. We have
created dogs to suit our needs. This process of breeding dogs
for different useful
characteristics is called selective breeding.
Using the provided pictures and descriptions of different dog
breeds, your task is to
come up with the best breeding combinations to fulfil the
requirements below. Consider
the following questions are you make the best match:

50. •What useful characteristics does your dog have?
•Why the dog was bred in the past e.g. hunting, companionship?
•What size is the dog?
Determine the breeds you would cross to get the best of the best
to meet the needs, as
shown below.
CHOOSE ANY THREE BELOW TO ANSWER:
1. Dog needed for racing. Must be very fast but medium sized
(50cm tall). An enthusiastic
worker and also a good hunter.
2. Very intelligent dog that has an excellent sense of smell
needed. Must be a large dog
(65cm tall) and live a long life (more than 12 years).
3. Large (60cm tall), strong, muscular dog wanted for large
game hunting. Must be able to
work in a team and be away from home for long periods of time.
4. Kind, patient, good-looking, long-haired dog wanted.
Preferably light coloured fur and
large (65-70cm tall). Must be easy to train, obedient and able
to get on with other people
including children and strangers.
5. Large dog (65-70cm tall), must like water and be a good
swimmer and hunter. Must
have good stamina and be an excellent guard-dog.
6. Small (35-40cm tall) very friendly dog required as a

51. companion to children. Long white
2021-05-13, 10:50 AM
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